Social Stratification & Language in the Modern Caribbean Part II.

Social Stratification & Social Stratification & Language in the Modern Language in the Modern

Caribbean Caribbean

Part IIPart II

Aims Aims

To explore the linguistic reality hidden To explore the linguistic reality hidden behind the labels behind the labels “Spanish-/English-/French-/Dutch “Spanish-/English-/French-/Dutch Speaking.”Speaking.”

To examine alternative labels which better To examine alternative labels which better capture the linguist reality of territories.capture the linguist reality of territories.

To identify the social factors which might To identify the social factors which might motivate a particular linguistic situation.motivate a particular linguistic situation.

Territory Labels Territory Labels

English SpeakingEnglish Speaking French SpeakingFrench Speaking Spanish SpeakingSpanish Speaking Dutch SpeakingDutch Speaking

What do these labels mean?What do these labels mean?

Territory Labels cont’dTerritory Labels cont’d

The labels suggest that the official The labels suggest that the official language of the territory is language of the territory is English/Spanish/French/Dutch.English/Spanish/French/Dutch.

The language of the ultimate The language of the ultimate colonizing power.colonizing power.

The Distribution of Languages in The Distribution of Languages in the Caribbeanthe Caribbean

CountryCountry Official Official LanguageLanguage

Mass Mass VernaculaVernacular/Creoler/Creole

Other Other LanguageLanguagess

CubaCuba SpanishSpanish SpanishSpanish --

DominicaDominican n RepublicRepublic

SpanishSpanish SpanishSpanish --

Puerto Puerto RicoRico

SpanishSpanish SpanishSpanish EnglishEnglish

The Distribution cont’dThe Distribution cont’d

CountryCountry Off. LangOff. Lang Mass Mass Vern.Vern.

Other Other lang.lang.

BarbadosBarbados EnglishEnglish ECEC

JamaicaJamaica EnglishEnglish ECEC

AntiguaAntigua EnglishEnglish ECEC

St. KittsSt. Kitts EnglishEnglish ECEC

St. St. VincentVincent

EnglishEnglish ECEC

MonsterraMonsterratt

EnglishEnglish ECEC

B&USVirgiB&USVirgin Islandsn Islands

EnglishEnglish ECEC


CountryCountry Official Official Lang.(s)Lang.(s)



HaitiHaiti French French Creole, Creole, FrenchFrench

French French CreoleCreole

--

GuadelouGuadeloupepe

FrenchFrench French French CreoleCreole

--

MartiniquMartiniquee

FrenchFrench French French CreoleCreole

--





St. LuciaSt. Lucia EnglishEnglish FC, ECFC, EC --

GrenadaGrenada EnglishEnglish ECEC FC FC

DominicaDominica EnglishEnglish FC, ECFC, EC --



Mass Mass VernaculaVernacularr


ArubaAruba DutchDutch PapiamenPapiamentutu

E & SE & S

BonaireBonaire DutchDutch PapiamenPapiamentutu

EnglishEnglish

CuracaoCuracao DutchDutch PapiamenPapiamentutu

E & SE & S

St. St. MaartenMaarten

DutchDutch ECEC E, P & SE, P & S

SebaSeba DutchDutch ECEC E, P & SE, P & S

St. St. EustatiusEustatius

DutchDutch ECEC E, P & SE, P & S


CountryCountry Official Official LanugageLanugage

Mass Mass VernaculaVernacularr


GuyanaGuyana EnglishEnglish ECEC AmerindiaAmerindian n languageslanguages

SurinameSuriname DutchDutch SrananSranan SaramaccSaramaccan, an, Ndjuka, Ndjuka, Javanese, Javanese, Sarnami,ESarnami,Englishnglish

TrinidadTrinidad EnglishEnglish ECEC FC, FC, Spanish Spanish BhojpuriBhojpuri

The Labels Which Better Reflect The Labels Which Better Reflect The Linguistic Realities The Linguistic Realities

ContinuumContinuum DiglossiaDiglossia Bilingualism/MultilingualismBilingualism/Multilingualism

Labels cont’dLabels cont’d

Labels may refer to the speech Labels may refer to the speech community community

or the individual.or the individual.

Always keep in mind the De facto Always keep in mind the De facto

(factual/real) and the De Jure (factual/real) and the De Jure

(legal/law) situation.(legal/law) situation.

The Creole ContinuumThe Creole Continuum

What is the Creole Continuum What is the Creole Continuum

a continuous spectrum of speech a continuous spectrum of speech varieties ranging from the Creole to the varieties ranging from the Creole to the standard language.standard language.

Main levels of the continuumMain levels of the continuum Acrolect (standard variety)Acrolect (standard variety) Mesolect (intermediate varieties)Mesolect (intermediate varieties) Basilect (Creole)Basilect (Creole)

The Creole Continuum cont’dThe Creole Continuum cont’d

The Creole Continuum is usually used The Creole Continuum is usually used to describe the linguistic situation in to describe the linguistic situation in Jamaica and Guyana.Jamaica and Guyana.

(Read DeCamp’s quote in Rickford 1987:18 )(Read DeCamp’s quote in Rickford 1987:18 )


““Many Jamaicans and Guyanese persist Many Jamaicans and Guyanese persist in the myth that there are but two in the myth that there are but two varieties: the patois and the standard. varieties: the patois and the standard.

The standard is not British English (as The standard is not British English (as is the claim) rather there is an evolving is the claim) rather there is an evolving standard (Jamaican, Guyanese) English standard (Jamaican, Guyanese) English which is mutually intelligible with but which is mutually intelligible with but different from the British Standard.different from the British Standard.


Each speaker (Jamaican& Guyanese) Each speaker (Jamaican& Guyanese) commands a span of this spectrum. commands a span of this spectrum. The breath of the span depends on: -The breath of the span depends on: - ““The breath of his/her social contacts” The breath of his/her social contacts”

(DeCamp 1971:350) which among other (DeCamp 1971:350) which among other things is informed by his/her education things is informed by his/her education and the need to portray his presence in and the need to portray his presence in or familiarity with a particular social or familiarity with a particular social group (acts of identity).group (acts of identity).


Guyanese e.g.Guyanese e.g.

“ “I told him”I told him” Ai told himAi told him (Acrolectal)(Acrolectal) A tel imA tel im A tel iiA tel ii Mi tel amMi tel am (Basilectal)(Basilectal)

(Jamaican example from H/Work)(Jamaican example from H/Work)


Jamaican e.g.Jamaican e.g. I was walking to schoolI was walking to school

Ai woz waakin tu skuulAi woz waakin tu skuulA woz a waak tu skuulA woz a waak tu skuulmi woz a waak go skuulmi woz a waak go skuulmi did a waak go skuulmi did a waak go skuulmi wehn a waak go skuulmi wehn a waak go skuulmi wehn de waak go skuulmi wehn de waak go skuulmi behn a waak go skuulmi behn a waak go skuulmi behn de waak go skuulmi behn de waak go skuul

The continuum cont’dThe continuum cont’d

Things to considerThings to consider What is so special about the Caribbean What is so special about the Caribbean

continuum situation?continuum situation? Is the continuum a social or linguistic Is the continuum a social or linguistic

description?description? How may underlying systems are were How may underlying systems are were

really dealing with one, two, three?really dealing with one, two, three? Are we just speaking of diglossia anyway?Are we just speaking of diglossia anyway? Can the acrolect, mesolect and basilect Can the acrolect, mesolect and basilect

be clearly isolated?be clearly isolated?

DiglossiaDiglossia

The concept was developed by The concept was developed by Ferguson (1959) and extended in its Ferguson (1959) and extended in its scope by Fishman (1971).scope by Fishman (1971).

A diglossic situation is one in which A diglossic situation is one in which “there exists two separate language “there exists two separate language varieties, each with its own specific varieties, each with its own specific functions within the society” functions within the society” (Devonish, 1986:9)(Devonish, 1986:9)

Diglossia cont’dDiglossia cont’d

““A diglossic situation exists in a A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional codes which show clear functional separation; that is one is employed in separation; that is one is employed in one set of circumstances and the one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set” other in an entirely different set” (Wardhaugh 1986:87)(Wardhaugh 1986:87)


In diglossic situations the ‘High’ In diglossic situations the ‘High’ language variety is the one used in language variety is the one used in writing, in education, in government writing, in education, in government administrative and legal institutions, administrative and legal institutions, and generally in public and formal and generally in public and formal situations.situations.

““These domains are dominated by and These domains are dominated by and under the control of the ruling class under the control of the ruling class and their values” (Devonish 1986:9)and their values” (Devonish 1986:9)


““Diglossia is a relatively stable language Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier written literature, either of an earlier periodperiod


Or in another speech community, Or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary community for ordinary conversation” (Ferguson 1959:336)conversation” (Ferguson 1959:336)


The ‘Low’ variety is the one used by The ‘Low’ variety is the one used by the mass of the population in the the mass of the population in the course of their everyday private and course of their everyday private and informal interaction, within the informal interaction, within the family, and in the various forms of family, and in the various forms of popular culture.popular culture.

It typically involves two distinct It typically involves two distinct language but may also involve language but may also involve dialects of the same language. dialects of the same language.

Defining Characteristics of Defining Characteristics of DiglossiaDiglossia

Both varieties are kept apart Both varieties are kept apart functionally.functionally.

The H variety is the prestige variety; L The H variety is the prestige variety; L lacks prestige.lacks prestige.

H is highly codified.H is highly codified. All children learn the L variety.All children learn the L variety. H variety is usually learnt in school.H variety is usually learnt in school. L variety tends to borrow learned words L variety tends to borrow learned words

from the H variety especially to express from the H variety especially to express new ideas.new ideas.

Examples of Diglossic Situations Examples of Diglossic Situations outside the Caribbeanoutside the Caribbean

Arabia - Classic Arabic (H) and the Arabia - Classic Arabic (H) and the various colloquial varieties (L)various colloquial varieties (L)

Swiss Germany -Standard German (H Swiss Germany -Standard German (H )and Swiss German (L))and Swiss German (L)

Greece - Kataharevousa (H) Demotic Greece - Kataharevousa (H) Demotic (L)(L)


Haiti was once seen as the prime example Haiti was once seen as the prime example of Diglossia in the Caribbean.of Diglossia in the Caribbean.

Standard French (H) and French Creole (L)Standard French (H) and French Creole (L) FC has been given Official status. The FC has been given Official status. The

Speech community by law is bilingual.Speech community by law is bilingual. Most of the population is monolingual in Most of the population is monolingual in

French Creole (In light of this, consider French Creole (In light of this, consider that for diglossia to persist the individual that for diglossia to persist the individual has to command both codes) Are speakers has to command both codes) Are speakers in Haiti really diglossic?in Haiti really diglossic?

MonolingualismMonolingualism

Refers to the ability to use a single Refers to the ability to use a single language.language.

The speech community and the The speech community and the majority of individuals can be majority of individuals can be monolingual. Example Cuba (official monolingual. Example Cuba (official language is Spanish and the Mass language is Spanish and the Mass Vernacular is Spanish) Vernacular is Spanish)

Keep in mind that in this situation Keep in mind that in this situation individuals may be bi/multilingual.individuals may be bi/multilingual.

Bilingualism and MultilingualismBilingualism and Multilingualism Refers to the ability to speak more than one languages (Bi-Refers to the ability to speak more than one languages (Bi-

two and Multi-multiple/several).two and Multi-multiple/several).

When is a person truly bilingual? (Extremes—knows a few When is a person truly bilingual? (Extremes—knows a few wordswords cannot be differentiated from a native speaker) cannot be differentiated from a native speaker)

A bilingual speaker will switch between codes and is not A bilingual speaker will switch between codes and is not necessarilynecessarilyrestricted by speech context.restricted by speech context.

Example of bilingual speech community outside the Example of bilingual speech community outside the Caribbean is Canada (French and English). Caribbean is Canada (French and English). For e.g. of Caribbean bilingual situation consider For e.g. of Caribbean bilingual situation consider individual/defacto situation (examine Puerto Rico which has individual/defacto situation (examine Puerto Rico which has English as an additional language in the speech community English as an additional language in the speech community but it (English) is not official)but it (English) is not official)

Multilingual – Suriname, Trinidad, CuracaoMultilingual – Suriname, Trinidad, Curacao

Multilingualism outside of the Multilingualism outside of the Caribbean Caribbean

The Tukano (live in the Northwest The Tukano (live in the Northwest Amazon, on the border between Amazon, on the border between Colombia and Brazil).Colombia and Brazil). Multilingualism is the norm in this Multilingualism is the norm in this

community because men must marry community because men must marry outside their language group. They outside their language group. They choose women from various tribes. choose women from various tribes. After marriage the women move into the After marriage the women move into the men’s households. Consequently in any men’s households. Consequently in any village several languages are used.village several languages are used.

ConclusionConclusion

The key is being able to argue the The key is being able to argue the extent to which the labels extent to which the labels adequately capture the linguistic adequately capture the linguistic situation in the territories.situation in the territories.

ALL THE BEST!!!ALL THE BEST!!!

Social Stratification & Language in the Modern Caribbean Part II.

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