Session 2!!What is Modernity?!!• Not Ordinary!

• outside of the box!• independent!

• Modo — Latin - “just now”!• contemporary (closest to the present)!

• Intellectual movements!• 17-18th centuries → French Revolution!• Secularism!• Globalization!

• trade!• communication!

• Information!• spread of (speed)!• printed!

• easily accessible!• Advanced Technology !

• Science!• Progress!

• past ⇒ new (“better”?)!• Class!

• Rise of the Middle Class (bourgeoisie)!• Art!

• cutting edge!• Cubism!• no past in the present!• abstract!• innovative!• original!

• Not traditional!• Mass production!• Individuality (Independence)!• Freedom!

• of press!• of individuals!

• Reaction to Enlightenment!• nature of existence!• catalyst of modernity!

• Survival vs. Entertainment!• Consumerism + Capitalism!• War!

• style / methods!• technology!• including many people!

• Humanism!• empathy!• moral compass!• feeling!

Modern:!!1. Temporal (time)!

• chronological!• historiographical (the study of history)

enter modern era!• your interpretation of an event!

2. Geographical / Spatial!• World is getting smaller (more

connected)!• only in certain places!

3. Intellectual!• philosophy!• rise of the south!• rights!• use of reasons (rational)!

4. Secularism!• rejection of religion!• scientific world of view!

5. Technological!• introduce new things!• product of new mind, new use of

reasons!6. Economic!

• Capitalism / Consumerism!• Communism / Socialism!• Rise of the middle class (in the past just

peasants & elites)!7. Political!

• Democracy!• Republic!• Voting Rights!• Citizens!• Nation-State!• Nationalism

Session 3!!Reason, Civilization & Modernity: Kant vs. Freud!!Immanuel Kant!• Lived during the Age of Enlightenment — Cause of the Modern Period!• Wrote What is Enlightenment? as a response!• Lived in Prussia (Germany) — Koningsburg (Capital)!• Frederick the Great!

• King during Kant’s time!• teacher!!

For Kant, what is signaling / developing a fundamentally new / modern world?!• Use of Reason = Enlightenment!• Freedom!

• from guardians (people who do the thinking for you) — authority figures — ex. government, Church!

• Not bounded by tradition / religion!• Man to think for himself!• Man should use reason!• Man can and should use reason!!What is required for someone to use reason?!• Freedom / Social Liberty!• Freedom to express yourself!• Obligations are still important (ex. To pay taxes)!!Private vs. Public!• If no one functions accordingly, society will collapse!• The “private” institution — you must fulfill your obligations whether you agree with them or not!

• Professions!• you can complain about it!• in the private realm, your freedom is limited!

• The “public” institution — the ability to express your own personal thoughts!• Challenging the authority!

• For Kant, there is freedom but not absolute freedom as that would harm the society!• you must fulfill your “private” obligations but you’re allowed to express your opinions in the

“public” realm!• example of the clergyman!!

What does he consider “a crime against human nature”?!• The greatest crime is for a past generation to limit a future generation from being enlightened!

• not being able to move forward and to not make progress!• Religion!

• to make people take an oath to stay close-minded!• future generations are obligated to follow a tradition created by Religion / Oaths!• religion limits your ability to think for yourself!!

Examples for rebelling against institutions — restraints on absolute freedom!• People who don’t pay taxes!• Bad rulers!

• Guardians — people who tell you what to do!• no freedom to think for yourself!• religious individuals (ex. Clergy)!• rulers!• doctors!• anyone who intellectually teaches the next generation!!

Kant wants people to “emerge from immaturity and reach enlightenment.” Is this to be a revolutionary process?!• In the process of being enlightened: “We live in an age of enlightenment”!• Gradual process (requires step-by-step)!★ Not revolution, rather EVOLUTION (over the period of time)!• For people to become enlightened it doesn’t take a day!• Suspicious of people’s capability to change their way of thinking!• ex. come to college for 4 years (not 4 months)!!Kant is supporting challenging the authority? Is this true case for everything?!• Citizens cannot refuse to pay taxes (fulfill your obligations)!• BUT question authority in public senses!!Despite his suspicion / hostility towards guardians, he still thinks there are two guardians that are needed in a society.!• An Enlightened Rule: a Prince!

• someone who allows the people to have freedom (good government)!• will force an environment where freedom can flourish!

• in other republics, freedom may be taken away!• Frederick the Great!

• “Argue as much as you like, but obey!”!• argue all you want but fulfill your “private” obligations!

• gave freedom of religion!• talking and debating is in the “public” realm!

• The Scholars / Teachers!• Kant views himself as a scholar!!

Tolerance!• “But to give them freedom while renouncing the haughty name of tolerance”!• Tolerance implies a preferable religion but Frederick allows people to choose their own

religion without any pressure!• Kant uses tolerance in a different way than modern day usage!• Frederick — All religions can practice here; they have an eternal right of religion!

• Doesn’t mean I like their religion but they have the right to practice !• Not up to one person to choose a religion for a region!• Not being “tolerant”!

• being tolerant is a bad leader!!Is everyone capable of being enlightened?!• People are CAPABLE but not ALL people are enlightened!• Some people are born with enlightenment (like himself) to show them to be more enlightened!!• Stable society, without chaos → Freedom!!

Sigmund Freud!• Austro-Hungarian Empire — under the House of Habsburg!• Received good education!• Established Psychology!• Died in 1939!• Major impact on Psychology, Sociology!!★ “Weltanschauung” — “world view”!!For Freud, what is the most important aspect of this new modern world?!• The modern period is characterized by Science (his Weltanschauung)!!What is the foundation of science?!• use of reason / intellect!• prevents human motions to be more irrational!• can achieve Weltanschauung!!Why is Reason so important for Freud?!• It allows you to evolve and change!• Not stuck to the past!• Prevents people from being irrational / emotional (Religion)!

• no middle ground — you can’t believe in Religion and Science at the same time!• Science is the only answer!!

What threatens the use of Reason?!1. Art!

• Creates an illusionary world (not reality)!• Not real-based → no meaning!• Entertaining!• Doesn’t depict the world as it is!

2. Philosophy!• Behaves itself as if it were science and claims to be so!• BUT it is lacking empirical (is not based on real evidence)!• It is a pseudoscience!• Tries to make claims / arguments about life and existence!

3. Religion!• Limits thought — danger to individual and society!• Predates Science!

• outdated — teaching nursery stuff!• Science is changing whilst Religion remains the same!• Interferes the use of our own senses (with the truth)!• Plants false pretenses!• Too emotional — people tend to become irrational!• Makes people so comfortable (someone to lean on)!• Has answer for EVERYTHING!

• a “consistent” and “coherent” system!• BUT science sometimes can’t answer things!!

• Dictatorships ⇒ good!!• We do need morality; BUT should not be connected to Religion ⇒ Rise of Secularism!

!Kant vs. Freud!!Similarities!• Encourage people to discover things on their own!• Have a problem with religion: hostile towards religion!• Both think that the most important aspect to modernity is using REASON!• Both want you to be free, but not COMPLETELY!

• Kant: needs a good ruler and scholars!• Freud: needs Scientists!

• Progress!!Differences!• Hostility to religion:!

• Kant — somewhat accepts religion!• religion should play a limited role!

• Freud — does not accept religion at all!• completely get rid of religion!• too emotional and disrupts the society!

• Freud does not approve of Philosophy but Kant is a philosopher!• ⇒ Freud would be suspicious of what Kant would say!

• Freud is consistent unlike Kant!!!

Session 4!!Modernity’s Pre-Modern Crisis? The Clash of Civilizations: Huntington!!Samuel P. Huntington!• Harvard Professor for over 50 years!• Political Scientist!• Worked as a consultant at the US government!• Promoted the prosecution of the Vietnam War!• Cold Warrior — US is the BEST country!• Problem at the end of 1980s!

• intellectual and professional crisis!• Cold War is ending!• 1990 Huntington found an article “The Roots of Muslim Rage” — something is characterizing

modernity!• 1992 Presented this theory of the Clash of Civilizations!• 1993 Published the Clash of Civilizations!• 9/11 incident confirmed Huntington’s hypothesis for people!

• f!!What are the defining features / characteristics of the modern period according to Huntington?!• West is the Best!

• Europe is what creates and defines the modern world!• West = Modern!• Western Ideologies!

• democracy!• capitalism (economic prosperity)!• secularization (religion)!• fall of the iron curtain!

• iron curtain divided the Europe into two: Democratic states vs. Communist states!• Democracy wins over totalitarian governments!

• sovereignty!• Political movements are what helped define the modern period!• pg. 22: Peace of Westphalia !

• ends the 30 & 80 years war between Spain and Dutch Republic!• Dutch Republic ⇒ new form of nation!• creates the modern state system!

• 1789 - French Revolution → 1900s WWI & WWII!• new ideas; new concepts!!

What are the civilizations? (8 in total)!• Western!

• geographical!• devoid of culture and religion!

• Confucian!• religion!

• Japanese!• cultural!

• Hindu!• religion!

• Islamic!

• religion!• Slavic-Orthodox!

• cultural!• Latin American!

• cultural!• Possibly African!

• cultural!!What characterizes civilizations according to Huntington? (especially Western)!• Cultural entity!• biggest identification of people!• Civilizations are differentiated from each other by history, language, culture, tradition and most

important region!• Unique & Can’t change WHAT you are!!What happened in the modern period prior to the clash? Why weren’t we talking about them a lot?!• Ideology defined societies!• The dominance of the Western Civilization subdued other civilizations from rising ⇒ the other

civilizations are now growing power and dominating the world too!!Why is the importance of civilization emerging?!• The Cold War ended!• Ideology is far less important than it was before!• Globalization!

• more extensive!• people have an awareness of other civilizations!• dual role!

• the West is no longer dominant like it was before!• learn the history → don’t make the same mistake!

• Decrease of Secularism → Increase in Religion!• !!

Why does Huntington think the West is the best civilization?!• Democracy!• Capitalism!• Individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law,

democracy, free markets, the separation of church and state!• these are present in Western Civilization and have little resonance in Islamic, Confucian,

Japanese, Hindu, Latin America and Orthodox!!Why is the clash happening?!• Rise of the Non-western Civilizations!• The re-rise of religion !

• Islamic & Christianity !• Globalization!• West getting weaker !!Who does he think the biggest clash against the West will be with?!• Islam and Confucian civilizations

Session 5!!A Window into Pre-Modern Identity: Darnton!!Why are fairytales important or useful for us, the modern readers (esp. historians)?!• Fairytales teaches morality!

• it has a symbolic meaning !• Window into premodern period!

• you see how different premodern period life was compared to modern life!• reminds us that the way we live isn’t the way people used to live!

• Historical sources are based on records who are written by literate people (narrow perspective of the elites)!• Fairytales → from the peasants and about their daily lives!

• passes on through oral speech (not written)!• receive an idea about the local people!• commonalities that we can learn from them!• history of the majority!

• elite view is a very limited view!• Stories have antecedents from the world!

• same story, different version!!How are fairytales important or useful for the peasants?!• Coping mechanism!• Escapism!

• from the miserable life!• more interesting life!• self-relieved!

• Defense mechanism !• Illiterate !

• the only history possible of peasants!• Teaches morality!

• encourages people to do more good!• help people out but be cautious!

• Warnings !• Roadmap / Survival!

• tricks to deal with the dangers of life!• Tradition!

• stories passed down from one generation to another!• performative act lost in reading a story!

• Elements of Realism!• depicting their lives as real as possible!• life is cruel (page 38)!!

What do fairytales tell us about this pre-modern society?!• Repeating themes (priorities)!

• lack of food!• particularly meat!• obsession with meat because its expensive and unavailable to be bought!• very low protein diet!

• animals (resources)!• only eat on special occasions!

• travel use!• Lack of money!• land!

• resource!• survival!

• luxury items!• spices!

• life is short (teaches morals)!• people didn’t live long!• people had kids when they were teenagers!

• children = resource!• children weren’t sheltered!• witnesses in their parent’s sexual activity!• most children died before the age of 5 (infant mortality was high)!• life was bad!

• Fairytales were not for children (adult stories)!• Heroes are the peasants!

• make yourself look like a superhero!• majority are peasants!

• Religion!• Religious elements / themes!

• angels and religious figures!• Religious identity!

• religion forms identity!!How do people identify themselves and others in this pre-modern society?!• Clear dichotomy!

• peasants = heroes!• people see themselves as different from others!• family!

• US vs. the world!• How did they view the bourgeoisie?!

• pompous!• completely different from us!• value cats more than their people!• the mistress / wife are bad!• keep all the best food to themselves!• religious people = hang around the royals = bad too!• Jews!• The elites are always portrayed as the villains (codes for the elite)!

• giants!• witches!• ogres!• don’t share anything with the elites!

• no change in status!• I’m a peasant, my children will be peasants!• status never change!• death is neutral!!

Do people want to change societies? (p. 58 & 59)!• Yes!

• Landlord = Ogres ⇒ peasants are going to die!• not a radical throw of the social order!• peasants talked bad about the elites but actually wanted to join their society !• didn’t overthrow the revolution!

• couldn’t even imagine another life!• people assume that life will always be the same!• never look forward, but look backward to reminisce old times!• no assumptions that things will get better; no step forward to change or actions taken!• Pg. 58 - Jacobin!!How does a person define happiness? And is a modern person’s happiness the same as a pre-modern person’s happiness?!• “Frenchness”!

• peasants probably would not say a king is “french”!• is there even a concept of “frenchness”?!• being french = modern thing!• no sense of nationalism!!

Peasants think with “things”!!!

Session 6!!A New Society: Rousseau!!What does he mean by “man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains?”!• Every man (not woman) is born free but something about society oppresses you!• Lords think that they’re masters but in reality, they’re slaves!

• live in fear because they fear becoming overthrown!• ⇒ lords oppress peasants to prevent from being overthrown!!

What does he mean by “natural liberty” versus “civil liberty?”!• Natural liberty!

• Freedom you have in nature!• “The Law of the Jungle”!

• the stronger people beat up the weaker!• natural liberty!• nothing restrains you!• the survival of the fittest!

• society doesn’t make you a big person!• Juxtaposing natural liberty against civil liberty!!“The right of the strongest is a right apparently assumed in irony” (511)!• right = might!• ironic because right is a premise on nothing!• people obey because they fear!• no voluntarily association with the ruler!!According to the Rousseau, which comes first? The State (the king) or the Nation?!• Nation!

• you have a society for a king to rule over it!• it is impossible to have the state without a nation (you need people [nation])!

• Governments don’t always represent what the people think!• Rousseau wants to create a society where the government represents its people!

• Legitimization is the creation of the state!!On page 510-511, Rousseau uses many family analogies – why does he use the family as an analogy to the social contract?!• Family is the smallest unit, and society is the same but larger in size!• Roles in family = Roles in Society!• The ruler should love the state like a father loves his child!• Ruler = Father; State = child !• Father loving child (Ruler loving State) = A voluntary association!

• the child (state) chooses to associate with parents when they’re older even though you get nothing in return!

• Society should do the same (want wellbeing from society)!!What is Rousseau’s formula for the social contract?!• people must give up their natural liberties in order to gain civil liberties!• in nature, some of us unequal!

• once you abandon that idea, everyone is equal!• Civil liberties assure your property!

• government assures that those things cannot be taken away from you!• Sovereignty!!Who is the state?!• The government is the representation of the society!• representing every citizen because the citizens are most sovereign!!Who has power and right?!• the sovereign people are the source of law, not the government!• changes function of government → they just administer the law instead of making the law!!!!!

Session 8!!Marx’s Alternate Perspective: Marx!!How does the Communist Manifesto see History? What is the engine of History?!• a conflict of class!

• fight between upper class and lower class!!What were these classes in the pre-modern period?!• feudal lords and serfs!• freeman and slave!• patrician and plebeian!• guild master and journeyman!!What has happened to all these classes in the modern period?!• they have been destroyed / eliminated!• they have been boiled down to two categories: Bourgeoisie and Proletarians!• Almost all these classes in their entirety have been destroyed and reduced to two classes, the

Bourgeoisie and the Proletarian!!How does Marx define the Bourgeoisie?!• bring the revolution (new ideas)!• radically change how the world goes on!• thrive on constant change!• they own the means of production!

• control all the labor industries and exploit the proletarians, who are the work force!• how things are made, how classes are divided!

• they are Capitalists!• not engaged in physical labor, but direct it!!How does the Communist Manifesto define the Proletarian?!• pg. 18!• overwhelming majority!• comparison to commodity: they are no longer useful ⇒ hard to exist!• The Physical Labor!

• Blue-collared Workers — manual laborers (easily replaced)!• They sell their labor to the Bourgeoisie, not items!

• Immaterial !• Hierarchy formed!• The owner of the factory owns the items that the Proletarians make !

• The Bourgeosie makes all decisions!• Proletarians paid by cash!

• Paid minimum wage “just to keep you alive”!• Cash has a set value!• Item produced costs more than labor !

• Profits taken by the Bourgeoisie !• Proleterians must buy goods therefore the money is given right back to the Bourgeoisie

+ profit !• Currency is only valuable for the value humans give it!• An item will always remain an item !!

Are the Proletarians, peasants?!• Proletarians are the urban working class!

• Factories!• Go where they can be paid for their labor; they are very mobile !

• Peasants have some control of their goods (ex. Wheat, milk) they can sell it !• Proletarians have none!• Peasants rely on their land and are stationary !

• Urban areas rely on goods from rural areas!• They also have factories!!

What is capital?!• The value of the goods you have !• Capital is more powerful than people!

• What makes the world go around!• “Thus this means whoever controls capital, has immense “social power””!• Immense, social, political, and economical power !• Bourgeoisie has most !!What is the reason or cause for the global reach of the Bourgeoisie? And what is the result?!• Overproduction !• Constantly looking for new markets !• Constantly looking for new and cheaper labor !• Constantly looking for cheaper raw material/resources!• Imperialism !• Result – every country jumps into capitalism !

• nature of business becomes the same throughout world!• Every part of the world immersed into capitalism !• Global power of the Bourgeoisie!• Homogenizing of world culture!

• Starbucks can be found anywhere etc. !• Cosmopolitanism !• Enables the bourgeoisie to sell anywhere!• Big firms like Walmart kicks out local industries and craft!!

In the CM/capitalist world, are national identities or allegiances important?!• NO!

• Because of the homogenous world, the Bourgeoisie can sell anywhere !• Capitalist has no loyalty !• The Bourgeoisie are a global class !

• Share mutual interests !• Globalized !

• Loyalties to business rather than country!• Proletarians!

• No!• Mobile class!• Move anywhere they can make the most money – including abroad !• Should join with my fellow proletarians around the world!• Sees the proletarian class interest as global, not local !!

What connects characteristics of modernity with activities of bourgeoisie?!• Technology!

• Make more things !• Replacing human labor with robots and machinery !• Makes industry faster, more effective, and produce more goods!

• SCIENCE!• Better medicine!• More inventions!

• Technology rapidly changes the world are a result of the Bourgeoisie !• This strengthens the Bourgeoisie !

• Globalization of the modern period !• Control of nature!

• Dominance of nature so!• We can exploit it!• More raw materials !!

How do the Bourgeoisie unintentionally create the conditions for revolution according to Marx?!• Make labor conditions and pay horrible for workers !• Larger disparity of wealth causes resentment by proletariats !• P.15-16 !• Constant destruction of the old social class!• Bourgeoisie making the proletariat group larger and larger (more resentful people)!

• Ex. Craftsmen !• Bourgeoisie small class, Proletariat large class!• “working men of all countries, unite!” !

• don’t undermine each other!• join forces!• once joined, the Bourgeoisie can’t do anything to you !

• P. 16 Bourgeoisie “revolutionizing the instruments of production,” radical revolution all the time!• Constant radical ruptures also cause economic crises!

• “epidemic of overproduction”!• All of these things caused by the Bourgeoisie!

• don’t want to create them but it is the nature of a capitalist society !!Doesn’t the existence of elections/electoral politics/labor reforms/welfare help the Proletarian? Isn’t the capitalist system creating more for the Proletarians? !• All social services/benefits are appeasement!• Aren’t Proletarians empowered because they have the ability to votes?!

• Systemic problem!• Individuals who run for office are usually Bourgeoisies who in turn work for other

Bourgeoisies !• P. 31!

• Bourgeoisie still controlling the system !• “In reality, that the Proletariat should remain that the proletariat should remain within the

bounds of existing society, but should cast away all its hateful ideas concerining the bourgeoisie” !

• Just enough to keep the Proletariat’s happy!• Appeasement!• Voting/electoral doesn’t change the material consistence of society!• Just because you have more things in your house, that is just consumerism (goods

produced by and sold by the Bourgeoisie)!• Politicians want low taxes, low tariffs etc. !

• Are to the benefit to the bourgeoisie !• Pretend like they’re benefiting the Proletariat !!

Does Marx want to go back to the old days when everyone was peasants?!• No, he rejects the feudal age!• Peasants “the idiocy of rural life”!• Capitalist System!• Transition to socialist system!

• Socialist system; free college, free medical care etc. !• Government takes care of everything!

• Transition to communist period!• Non-state system!• No private property !• Run by workers (proletariats)!!!

• Nationality is not important — capitalist world reinforces this!• Freeland backs this argument!• False conscience — by Bourgeoisie!

• Bourgeoisie — not important — more important is individual’s class interests!• Communist = Overall idealistic = Nobody steps down from power = but Communism is about

having stateless society = with proletariats in charge!!

Session 9 !!Emergence of the Modern Identity: Hobsbawm & von Herder & Arndt!!E.J. Hobsbawm!• The most important social and labor historian in England!• Not a big fan of nationalism (but studied it because nationalism is an important part of history)!

• because he lived in many countries — cosmopolitan citizen!• bilingual!

• Source of a lot of problems!• Came from a Marxist tradition, but through over time he left away from it, there is still some left!• Relate to Benedict Anderson Reading!!What does Hobsbawn mean when he says that you can really only recognize a nation as “a posteriori?” (after the fact)!• Nation vs. State!

• State (country) - the territory and the government (political elites) that overrules it!• Nation - a group of people with defined characteristics (not country); nation = state = people

(is only an assumption)!• The State makes the nation (p. 44 - 45)!

• defines which characteristics belong in the nation!• the elites define nation based on their dialect!

• Nations come after state (opposite of Rousseau) — chicken vs. egg question !• Hobsbawm — egg comes first!

• because you need state to do anything (create territorial protection; create schools; etc)!• Rousseau — chicken comes first!

• If you are successful in making a State, then people agree yes you are a nation!• After you are successful in making your state, people then recognize you as a nation →

you’ve proved your nationalism!• ex) Wales were not successful in creating a state therefore we don’t refer to them as a

nation!• Posteriori — Only After a Fact that people recognize you as a nation after you’ve established

a State!!So if it is “a posteriori,” how does he explain the phrase “nation-watching would be simple if it could be like bird-watching”(p.5)?!• Bird-watching!

• bird - based on physical characteristics (has formula)!• human - no formula; due to globalism; but still nation exists….!

• Nations have subjective criteria unlike bird watching!• one definition does not apply across the board!• no objective criteria!• difficult to study nations!!

What is proto-nationalism and how was it useful for later states and nationalists? (p.46) Was proto-nationalism enough to make nationalists?!• Proto-national!

• “Proto” meaning “pre” nationalism !• An early form !• Some kind of collective sense, shared feeling, such as:!

• Profession !

• Religion !• Language!• Ethnic group!

• Exclusion!• Racism !

• P.70-71 Being mistreated by other groups !• Location!• Common Ancestry !• Folklore (p.59)!

• Easy to establish!• Use proto-national characteristics to define people !• Hobsbawm says it is not enough !• Some groups have proto-nationalism but don’t have the incentive to create their own

nation!• Hobsbawn argues it helps to have pro-natonalism; but on its own!!

Johann Gottfried von Herder!What common vocabulary or themes does von Herder repeat when justifying the existence of national character or nation?!• Nature!

• family as part of nature!• humans get national character from where they live!• river!• people!• land!• “As the mineral water derives its component parts, its operative power, and its flavor from the

soil through which it flows, so the ancient character of peoples arose from the family features, the climate, the way of life and education, the early actions and employments, that were peculiar to them.”!• land and nature crafts the nationalism!

• natural = not artificial; legitimacy!• Time!

• ancientness!• “Tacitus” - Roman Historian!• historiographical!• legitimacy!

• not acting the right way!• mixing is not good!!What are his thoughts on “mixing”?!• Not good!• Stay where you belong, stop moving around!• Mixing isn’t natural!!What is the meaning of the sixth paragraph “The savage who loves himself, his wife, and his child with quiet joy…”?!• Cosmopolitan is bad!• Even the worst kind of person (a savage) who loves his people, isn’t selling himself out –

knows himself and his people !• More true to himself and his identity !• Denigrating yourself by mixing !

• Ex. If you’re American you shouldn’t eat Chinese food !• That’s bad because it shows you’re not really an American !

• National Rhetoric !• Nations have been here for a long long time!• Time has cultivated them !• You shouldn’t mix them !• Unnatural to mix !• The “original” nationality!!

Ernst Moritz Arndt!The German Fatherland!!For Arndt are german people tied to a particular land? Yes or no?!• No!• “His fatherland’s not bounded so!”!• Wants to make a country called Germany!

• Germany was made up of small towns and civilizations!• Not bounded by any one particular land, but wherever German is spoken, that should be a

part of Germany!!!

Session 10!!Europe as Modernity’s Catalyst? The Case of Imperialism: Bagehot, Baring, Arndt!!Imperialism Overview!!Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)!• Discovered America even though they wanted to get to East Asia!

• Pursued commodities like spices, coffee, sugar, silk, porcelain!• Pre-Columbus – People had to travel by land through the Middle East to access these goods!

• Sets off a new phase in world history!• Expansion of European power!• Europeans realized there was a new landmass !!Vasco de Gama (1460-1524)!• Same decade as Columbus, de Gama set out to do what Columbus did but decided to take a

different route and was successful!• First European to have a direct sailing route to India !• Presence of Europeans from 1490s onwards in Asia !!Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)!• 2 years after Columbus had set sail!• Pope moderates between the Portuguese crown and the Spanish crown!• World divided into two spheres !

• Imaginary line in Atlantic!• Everything west of line to Spain, everything east to Portuguese!

• Meaning Africa and Asia belonged to the Portuguese !!Age of Discovery (15th – 17th century)!• Perspective based!• Europeans extracting goods from different countries back to Europe !• Influx of cash, gold, silver back to Europe !

• Reinvesting into infrastructure !• Governments and other means built armies – stronger!• Industrial techniques and developments grew bigger expansion of businesses and

industries !• Ex. UK extracted cotton from India – used to manufacture textiles !• Finished goods reshipped out around the world and sold back to people!

• The Americas was a replacement for Asia!• Started to grow goods in America !• Plantation style !

• South of US - Cotton and tobacco!• Haiti – sugar !• Colombia – coffee!

• Growing the things they couldn’t get or control from Asia in America!• Slaves growing the goods!• Goods brought back to Europe, processed, and sold around the world !!

“Mercantile system” !• Economic Nationalism!• The idea is that you export more than you import!

• Countries and kingdoms of Europe want to export more goods and sell them around the world than they import!

• Want to manufacture more and more goods and outcompete other countries!• Don’t want other countries to develop manufacturing !

• The obligation of Governments in Europe to protect and promote these business interests !• Protection and Laws if you produced goods !• Business and Government relation !

• Trade and imperial expansion !!Spain!• Americas, Philippines!

• All over Americas and Caribbean !• Siglo de Oro (1492-1659)!

• “The Golden Century”!• Spain was certainly the most powerful and wealthiest of the European powers!• Benefiting from raw extraction back to Spain!

• Use these goods for their own purposes or sell/distribute them!• Gold and Silver !

• Made Spain super rich !• Could outspend any European empire!

• Spanish Armada (1588)!• First crack in Spanish Imperialism !• England challenged Spain’s naval supremacy !• “The Spanish Fleet” England victorious !!

Portugal!• Coastal locations around Asia colonized by the Portuguese !

• Brazil, Oman, Hormuz!• Ceylon (Sri Lankan), Spice islands (Indonesia)!• Persian Gulf!• Malabar Coast, Macao, Japan !

• Crusade Mentalities!• Bringing Christianity to Asia!

• Dominant European power in the Indian Ocean for a hundred years!!Netherlands !• Competitor for the Portuguese !• Wanted to get involved with Asia !• Dutch East India Co (1602)!

• Monarchy giving a corporation special rights and powers!• Create plantations and ship them back to Netherlands !• East Asia!• Java, Spice Islands!

• Present-day Indonesia!• Growing coffee!

• Dutch West India Co (1621)!• West Caribbean!• Focus on colonization in the Caribbean’s !• The Dutch had colonies in North America as well (New York)!

• Angle-Dutch Wars!• Wars with British to gain trade routes in Asia !

!France!• Seizing Spanish Colonies!• Company of New France (1628)!

• Later renamed the Company of West Indies!• Company of East Indies (1664)!

• Wanted to get to India as well!• Treaty of Paris (1763)!

• The Seven Years War !• Particularly in Asia !• “French-Indian War”!

• England wins; George Washington helps!• Opens up French land !• Ended by the Treaty of Paris !

• In 1763, the French are kicked out of India !• The British become the exclusive power to control India !• Treaty of Paris ending the Seven Years War!• England’s most important lucrative colony!

• King Louis the 16th !• Rebellion in 13 colonies (American Revolution; George Washington)!• French gave support to the US !

• Wanted to hurt the British !• If England gets hurt over the American Revolution, then the British will lose control over

the 13 countries!• France can then regain India !• Britain was defeated in the American Revolution, but they did not lose control of the

Atlantic and India !• Fail for France; financial drain for helping the Americans!• 1789 French Revolution – overthrew monarchy !

• Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)!• Tried to realize the old dreams of France!• 1796 French tried to colonize Ireland but failed!• Dream was to get back to India!

• Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia !• Napoleon’s springboard to India was Egypt !

• Try to conquer Indian market and territory !• French conquer Algeria and Morocco !

• Indochina; Vietnam !• Some colonies left in Asia but tried to rebuild what once had – but was not successful !!

England!• East India Co. (1600)!

• Has latitude to form new colonies, made deals with kingdoms and emperors!• Sought out to trade but also colonize !

• Madras & Calcutta!• India !• Dominant power in India !

• Mughal Empire !• Rule through indirect rule!

• Find puppets/figure heads that were locals and British controlled them !• British controlled weak Mughal Empire!

• “Great Mutiny” (1857-1858)!• Mid 1850s!

• Uprising in India !• East India Company is replaced – British monarchy steps in and is the direct ruler of India!• British government decide to do away with the Mughal Empire!

• Queen Victoria, Empress of India (!• India was, and remained the most important colony for the Europeans !• Crowned Jewel!

• “Great Game”!• British Empire vs. Russian Empire !

• British didn’t want the Russians to get close to India !• Goal was to secure and protect India and to control trade in and out of India “the silk road”!

• Anglo-Afghan War!• British saw Afghanistan as a buffered zone to India !• Tried to conquer parts of it !• Used the mountainous regions of Afghanistan to protect India !

• Anglo-African War II!• Anglo-African War III!• Royal African Co.!• Cape Colony (Cape Town) (1814)!

• British conquered from Dutch!• “Scramble for Africa”!

• The European powers want to grab up the last scraps of Africa before other countries could get a hold of it !

• French conquered West Africa in order to get closer to the River Nile !• British took Sudan in order to beat the French !

• Egypt, Suez Canal (1882)!• British conquered Egypt !• Suez Canal allowed people to sail right through Africa in order to get to India!• Travel distance cut down by 77%!• Europeans can extract things faster from Asia !• Catalyst for even Imperial penetration and conquest in Asia!

• Opium War I () and Opium War II!• British growing Opium in their India colony!• Wanted to sell Opium in China – big market in China!

• Chinese Monarchy tries to block this !• China doesn’t want the British to sell Opium to their people !

• British wins both wars; China has to pay the cost of the war!• Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)!

• Large empire civil war in China!• Chinese feel weak for not being able to block European power !• Help from Europeans – Qing Dynasty wins !• Attempt to overthrow the monarchy!

• Boxer Rebellion!• Dominance of Qing Dynasty as a “puppet” dynasty!• Presence of foreigners was the symptom for the fact that their own government was not

powerful enough to protect them from European power – failure of the local government!• End result: 8 countries come in (England, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, Italy, and the

US) to intervene and help the Chinese monarchy keep power – rule from behind the scenes !• Important moment for US!

• Finally break through=h to Chinese market!

!Russia!• Peter the Great !

• Russia lacks warm water ports !• In winter months, it is impossible to sail ships out because the water freezes !• Expands Southward and Eastward in order to attain warm water ports – the Black Sea and

the Mediterranean !• Conquering into:!

• Caucasus!• Around the Black Sea!

• Ottoman Empire!• Outer Manchuria!

• Pan-Slavism, Orthodox Christianity!• Russian -- Slavic people !• Gain alliances by promoting a unity of Slavic nation !• Pan-slavic Brotherhood!• Does the same thing with promoting Orthodox Christianity!!

United States!• Convention of Kamagawa (1854)!

• Japan closed itself to European penetration!• Allowed a little amount of trade with only the Dutch !• Consistent for 200 years!• Ends in 1854 – US wanted to flex its naval power into Japan – Japan agrees and signs the

convention of Kamagawa !• Japan is open to the US and the Europeans!

• Spanish-American War (1898)!• Explosion in Cuba !• US goes to war against Spain!• Teddy Roosevelt !• US wins war and conquers!

• Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam!• Philippines !• Cuba and Philippines remain US territory until their independence (1945)!• Puerto Rico still a colony in the United States !

• Controversy: will they remain the same? Or vote to become a state? Or an independent country?!

• Monroe Doctrine (1823)!• No other European power can interfere with South American affairs!• Dominated the rest of the Americas !

• Adam Smith!• Wrote the Wealth of Nations!• Argument: Imperialism is economically inefficient !

• Can only trade with your mother country !• Should be able to trade with anyone for the best price!

• Abbe Raynal (France)!• Argued from a religious and moral perspective!

• If everyone is equal in the eyes of God and we’re talking about the equality of all men, how can we conquer other countries and tell them what to do?!

• Institute d’Egypte!

• To gather together scholars, intellectuals, archaelogists, historians, geographists etc. and group information about Egypt!

• French discovered it !• The rock that helped define hieroglyphics !

• Description de l’Egypte !• Social Darwinsim & Eugenics !

• Strong species dominate weak species – same as societies!• Natural for certain human species to dominate other human species !• Theory used for animals being applied to humanity!

• Superiority evolved species of human vs. Lowly evolved species of human!• Hierarchy of Races!

• Help justify Imperialism “it’s natural to do this”!• Eugenics!

• Weeding out weak human species !• “White Man’s Burden”!

• Idea which is later made into a poem!• Rudyard Kipling!

• Monkeys coded as African-Americans and Indian!• The west has managed to develop to a level unseen in history. It has all these qualities that

allow it to evolve to be great!• Europe needs to make the rest of the world scientific and rational – a historic obligation, a

responsibility on white people to do this !• White people’s job!

• Charles Maurice de Talleyrand!• Mother countries need colonies – an outlet for goods !

• Extract resources and bring back to the motherland !• Every empire has colonies – so we’re reenacting the past!• If you don’t conquer this place, some other country will conquer it and you’ll be weak !• France begins to set up people/institutions that will help Imperialism !

• Someone to speak the language, know the history and geography !!European Imperialism vs. Pre-Modern Imperialism!• Pre-Modern reasons for Imperialism!

• Strength!• God/Religion !

• Modern Imperialism!• Religion has been watered down !• People don’t use religious explanations like they did in the past !• Not legit to say you’re stronger so we’re going to colonize !• The MOST important modern way of thinking about the world is through Science !

• Scientific terms to justify imperialism!!Bagehot vs. Baring(Cromer)!!Which ones of those essays is an example of White Mans Burden and an example of Social Darwinism?!• Bagehot is an example of Social Darwinism !

• Reasons why Imperialism happens!• Strongest species dominate over weaker species!• Evolution; natural!• Historical Force!

• “natural selection”!•  In the second paragraph he makes the comment "...tend to make us think that 'Progress' is

the normal fact in human society...But history refutes this...Oriental nations are just the same now.  Since history began they have always been what they are.  Savages again, do not improve...Only a few nations, and those of European origin, advance..."!• This passage is also another great example of social Darwinism and its related "scientific"

claims, about which I gave you the briefest introduction.  What you can see here is the idea that progress and change are unique and exclusive characteristics of the West.  Orientals, and the Orient in general, are frozen in time (a popular word in this regard is "timeless").  In other words, they have not evolved.!

• Given that the term "Orientals" was used to include many more people/in a wider manner than we today assume it was used--as you saw in the excerpts from Cromer's book--Bagehot then is talking about a very large percentage of humanity.  We will be addressing this issue in much more detail with Edward Said's book, "Orientalism."!

• Cromer is an example of White Mans Burden!• Egyptians were inferior and needed to be ruled !• “a great nation cannot throw off the responsibilities which its past history” – obligation of

white men !• Egyptians are NOT capable of ruling themselves!

• No one else could rule the Egyptians but the British !• An obligation for the British to do it !• British has the best experience because they have the most oriental experience

(conquering India)!• Not 100% White Mans Burden !

• Egyptians “not an evolved species of human”!!!!!

Session 11!!The West versus the Rest?: Lockman!!Zachary Lockman — The History and Politics of Orientalism!!Describe the transformation of Europeans conceptions of government’s and society’s in the orient from the pre-modern to early modern period.!• Europeans had connections with the orient; Europeans saw Middle East to be more

developed ( had POSITIVE views)!• meritocracy (not aristocracy)!• Pg. 43 - Machiavelli admires the Orient Society - an example of a good ruling system!

• What changed to negative?!• pg. 45 - “‘Turks’ were increasingly depicted as boorish, ignorant, dishonorable, immoral,

ineffectual, corrupt and irrational”!• pg. 47 - Rise of new ideas (new political system) → no more despotism but despotism in

Orient!• adopt ancient Greek ideologies!

• Europeans influenced by Ancient Greek studies therefore transform their opinions about Orients!

• Geography & Climate!• People who live in certain places get affected by different weather/climates !

• Colder climates (like Europe) people are naturally active, virile and brave and could therefore preserve and extend their liberty!

• Hot Climates – people naturally effeminate and servile Power in Asia always despotic!• Romanticism!

• natural, looking for life found only in nature!• pg. 69 - the celebration of rural life!• ancient wisdom — oriental!• Orients good for giving us magical/mystical things BUT NOT for reason, science,

government, politics, etc.!!What conceptual device/idea was used to argue for the unity and/or similarities between the various European nations and nation states?!• Civilization!

• people are united by civilization!• How then was “civilization” understood, especially by European?!

• pg. 56!• All civilization have “essential continuity and coherence across vast stretches of time and

space”!• “Emerging new conceptions of what Europe and the West meant were profoundly

influenced by the fact that Western european states were simultaneously…”!• European civilization “unmixed”!• All European civilizations unique but have more in common than other civilizations !• pg. 58: Characteristics of the West: p.58 these characteristics are ONLY found in and

unique to Western civilization (exclusive to Europeans): [seen in HUNTINGTON]!• Freedom !• Law!• Science!• Invention!• Intellectual curiosity!

• pg. 75 - Hegel!• people are grouped into different types (race)!

• Talks about how civilization emerged in Ancient Greece !• Civilization Race; Muslim race different from Caucasian race!• Each civilization has its own unique character – some spirits have disappeared, some still

remain – but each civ has its own flavor (p.75)!• The most evolved civilization is the Western one gone beyond all spirits of

civilization!• Generic way of defining civilizations!!

How is this self-imagining of the West as a unique monolithic entity spanning time complicated from within?!• Religion!

• Catholicism vs. Protestantism vs. Judaism!• Hierarchies in European societies!

• Germans are better than Italians!• “Best of the Best”!• Elites are better than the peasants!

• To make Europeans feel more united and higher, you find lesser people who are not as developed (such as the Middle East, Asia) ⇒ IMPERIALISM!

• pg. 85!• Marx quote!• Bourgeoisie are turning the other people (barbarians) to be like themselves —

CIVILIZATION!• Imperialism is bad, but absolutely necessary!

• agent of history!• Europe = modern = capitalist ⇒ back-ward societies = make them more modern!!

How did knowledge production that is researching, producing, writing, and teaching, about the Orient impact Imperialism? And how did Imperial impact it?!• Made Orient seem like an exotic place → people want to colonize!• In order to justify the Imperial conquest, one must have scientific evidence!

• Knowledge helps conquests because you can say you were doing it for Science!• Orients are lower than Westerners, easier to colonize!• Uncivilized!

• The “specialist” becomes the superior in the Orient ⇒ become high official in the Orient!• Putting knowledge in service to power!!!!

Session 12!!Orientalism & Identity: Said!!Edward Said!• Professor at Columbia University!• Famous for two things:!

• Media role !• Serious scholarly role!

• Christian !• Arab!!What does he mean when he says “positive history, positive geography, positive knowledge?” (p.55) !• Positive doesn’t mean good, Said means “adding”!• People in the West have made amazing contributions to new knowledge!• Europeans should be congratulated for discovering things no one know before!• Said is interested in:!

• 1) Values that are assigned to positive knowledge (added knowledge ex. This location is hot !• 2) The use to which that knowledge is put to ex. Hot weather makes people lazy/uncivilized !• 3) Interested in the interpreted framework in which it is placed ex. This means that Indians

are lazy and uncivilized and Westerners are more civilized!!According to Said, when did Orientalism as a field begin and what is it considered to include or cover?!• 1312 (p.49-50) – start of Orientalism!

• The church’s decision!• Religion Conversion!• A religious institution that created it !

• Covers everything that is not Western !• P. 52 - Every Asiatic society including African civilizations !

• Numismatic, anthropological, carchaeological, sociological, economic, historical, literary, and cultural studies in every known Asiatic and North African civilization!

• The field gets larger over time !• Encompasses more and more!• Professors, Scientists, Travellers, Journalists, Politicians, Novelists all study Orientalism (p.

99)!• Many many fields included in orientalism!• Many different types of people are Orientalists!• After the 70s as Orientalist studies broke up, they started becoming department of Asian

studies etc. became more specific !!Why is the ancient or “the classical” Orient so important to Europeans?!• The Bible !

• Core text for the common man as a source of information about the Orient !• The Classics!

• Study Greek literature and books!• About the Ancient Orient !• Greece is part of the Ancient Orient!• Homer, Cesar, Alexander the Great !• The heroes they looked up for were writing, conquering, or in the Orient in the Ancient world !

• Fallen civilizations – the ancient orient was great, the modern orient is bad (p.99)!• Chronology being created !

• Documenting the history !• Have to start at the Ancient Orient!!

Why was Napoleon so important to modern Orientalism?!• Napoleon conquered Egypt !• After Napolean, the very language of Orientalism changed radically !

• Before he left, Napoleon became inspired by Alexander the Great!• When he went to Egypt, he brought a big body of scholars with him to facilitate his conquest !• Used knowledge on Egypt for imperial interests !

• Rely on these experts to produce the knowledge !• P. 80, 93 !• Napoleon understands previous knowledge of Orient, so he interprets things just as he

reads, already prepared to think like this!!Why is Egypt so important for this Orientalism project/for the way the Europeans understand the Orient?!• Egypt is the connector of civilizations !• Egypt is in the middle between the East and West!• Egypt influences the role of changes!• Egypt is mentioned in the bible !• Egypt and Greece connection !

• Ancient Egypt – great!• Modern Egypt – bad!

• The Europeans built the Sues Canal there to facilitate more trade between Europe and Asia !• Egypt a link to Asia, Europe, and Africa!• Can penetrate trade more easily through Egypt !

• Egypt influences European civilization!• P.84 something special about Egypt!

• “no considerable power was ever amassed by any nation, whether!• Suez Canal built by the French!

• Europeans think that they built this dominating place (p.89-92)!• Trade faster, conquer faster!• Cuts the travel time !• Suez Canal = globalization !

• The idea of “our world”!• “our world” is a euphemism for European history!

• world controlled and seen by Europeans!!Why was India, China, Korea etc. never seen as a threat like the Middle East or Islam represented?!• Other religions Shintoism, Buddhism, etc. have no relation to Christianity!• Islam; however, does !• Is Islam is seen as an inversion or perversion of Christianity!

• The evil twin of Christianity!• Similarities with Christianity – but the bad version!

• Islam is right next door unlike other religions !• The Christian holy land !

• Origins of Western Civ. Are the holy lands!• Islams located in the holy lands!

• Other religions located further away!• The Europeans conquered them but not the Islam!

• Islam spreads from the border of Europe all the way to China unlike the other smaller religions!• Threatening !

• In ways that other religions were not !!!• BINARY oppositions!

• The self needs the other to define itself!• We know we are western because we are NOT orients !• Positive – West!

• Negative – Orient!• A sense of constructing binaries in order to define oneself!

• At the same time that Orients are being defined, the Europeans define themselves too (as the exact opposite)!

• Orientalism not just a study!• But the way the West came to understand and define itself!• Created term “West” !• Opposition to what was being defined as an Orient