Chapter 21

Social InteractionChapter 211Group BehaviorHow people behave as part of a group often differs from how they behave as individuals2Social FacilitationRefers to the concept that people often perform better when other people are watchingPresence of others may improve performance due to evaluation apprehension, or the concern about the opinion of others. Evaluation apprehension may motivate people to try harder in order to impress others. 3Social LoafingRefers to members of a group tending to slack off when working together for a common goal.Social loafing may occur due to diffusion of responsibility, or the tendency for members of a group to feel less responsible for accomplishing a task when the effort is shared among the group. 4Risky ShiftThe tendency for people to take greater risks as part of a group than they would as individuals. People may feel more powerful or less vulnerable as part of a group.

5Group Decision MakingMany important decisions are made by groups rather than individuals.Psychologist shave identified a number of social decision schemes, or rules that govern group decision making. 6Majority-Wins SchemeGroup comes to agreement on a decision that was initially supported by a majority of group members. Most often applies to situations in which there are no right or wrong answers.7Truth-Wins SchemeMembers of a group come to realize that one option is clearly better than the others. 8Two-Thirds Majority SchemeGroups concur with a decision after two thirds of their members come to an agreement about the correct choice.9First-Shift SchemeApplies to groups that are deadlocked 50-50. If one person changes his or her mind, the others may follow and shift their vote. 10PolarizationMembers of a group often share similar attitudesThe shared attitudes that group members hold are likely to grow stronger, or more extreme, through time. Polarization can be positive or negative (prejudice example). 11Group LeadershipLeaders often differ in how they operate.Leaders may fit into authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-faire categories. 12Authoritarian LeadersAbsolute control over group.Give orders, expect orders to be carried out without questioning. 13Democratic LeadersEncourage groups member to express and discuss ideas and to make their own decisions.Consensus buildersWill often follow the vote of the majority14Laissez-Faire LeadersEncourage group to express and explore own ideas.Leader takes a less active role in the process, gives minimal feedback.Allows group to dictate decisions, even if they seem to be poor. 15Section 2: ConformityConform: modify ones attitudes and behavior to make them consistent with those of other people.16Importance of GroupsGroups could be, for example, friends, those in a school extracurricular activity or members of a family. Groups can fulfill our needs for belonging, affection and attention.Groups also offer support when we are facing tough times in our lives or difficult situations.Groups may also help us in accomplishing a task by dividing up the workload.17Social NormsRefers to the standards that people share regarding behavior in a given situation. Tell you what is appropriate to wear to school, church, a wedding, or around the house on a Sunday afternoon. Social norms can be explicit or implicit. Explicit norms are spoken or written rules. Example: speed limit. Implicit norms are unspoken, unwritten rules. Example: What to wear in a given situation. 18Aschs Studies of ConformityPsychologist Solomon Asch wanted to know to what extent people will conform to social norms. When study participants were faced with a question with an obvious answer but accompanied by other participants who gave the wrong answer, 75% of participants went against their own judgment at least once and conformed to the rest of the group.

19Why Do People Conform?Factors may include: Cultural Influences: some cultures, particularly those of many Asian countries, the group is valued over the individual. Need for Acceptance: people desire to be liked or accepted by others. Other Factors: when there is a unanimous viewpoint held in a group, it is often tough for others to go against everyone, however when there is not unanimity, it may not be as difficult. Example: Asch experiment. 203. ObedienceNecessary to protect safety and communityHas led to people following terrible orders: Nazis/Jews, Serbs/Muslims, Turks/Armenians

21Milgrams Studies of ObedienceYale psychologists, studies from 60s and 70sInfluenced by HolocaustWanted to determine bounds of obedience to authority, how we react to commands, etc.

ProcedureAds for participants in newspaperOnly men solicited, 40, age 20-50Supposed to be a study on learning, effects of punishment on memoryTold volunteers split into teachers and learners, really only teachersLearner had to memorize word pairsIf correct answer given, nothing, if wrong answer, shocks administered, increasing in voltage with each mistakeTeachers given sample shock, 45 volts, not harmful, but unpleasantTold they could quit at any time, but when hesitant, pushed continue by researcher in room

ResultsAt 300 volts, learners pounded on wall, screamed in pain, 35 of 40 teachers continued9 teachers quit between 300 and 450 voltsApproximately 2/3 gave shocks up to 450 voltsTeachers showed great stress (sweating, stuttered, nervous laughter, told researcher they wanted to stop, etc.)Experiment repeated with women, college studentsIn each case, at least half went all the way to 450 voltsWhy do People Obey? Socialization taught from childhood to obey authority figuresFoot - in- the- Door Effect tendency to give in to major demands once given in to minor ones Ex. Small shocks lead to large shocksEx. Soldiers trained to follow small orders, more likely to follow life and death orders in combatConfusion About Attitudes chaotic environment (screaming, pounding on wall) makes it more likely for people to be confused about their own beliefs than in a serene settingBuffers when buffered, people more likely to follow hurtful, immoral orders, than when personally confronted with recipient Ex. Current military conflict often happens at distance, may be easier to kill from distance than up close, hand to hand combat4. AggressionWords or actions meant to hurt othersWhy are we aggressive?Views: biological, psychoanalytical, cognitive, socioculturalBiological ViewMuch of social behavior is geneticAggression help people survive, reproduceAggressive humans historically more likely to survive, pass on genes

Psychoanalytic ViewFreud viewed aggression as natural response to frustrations of daily lifeThought people feared hurting others, thus repressed themEncouraged venting aggressive impulses, or catharsisEx. Watching aggressive sportsStudies have found it unclear whether catharsis decreases or increases aggressive tendenciesCognitive ViewAggression not influenced by: biological tendencies, repressed urgesAggression is influenced by: values, perception, choicesImplies choice trumps biology, subconscious forcesLearning ViewPeople learn to repeat behaviors that are reinforcedViolent acts may create positive results for perpetrator (control over others, respect of peers, etc.)Sociocultural ViewArgue some cultures encourage independence and competitivenessMay promote aggressionChildren in communal cultures such as Thailand/Jamaica less aggressive than children in US