Social and Ethnic DialectsSocial and Ethnic Dialects

Wolfram & Schilling-EstesWolfram & Schilling-Estes

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Emergence of “Social Emergence of “Social Dialectology”Dialectology”

• Attitudes toward regional differencesAttitudes toward regional differences

• Attitudes toward linguistic variation Attitudes toward linguistic variation associated with social status associated with social status (“sociolects”) and ethnic identity (“sociolects”) and ethnic identity (“ethnolects”)(“ethnolects”)

6.1 Defining Class (social 6.1 Defining Class (social status)status)• Social class distinctions based upon status and power Guy (1988): Social class distinctions based upon status and power Guy (1988):

– status = amount of respect or deference accorded to a personstatus = amount of respect or deference accorded to a person– power = the social and material resources a person can commandpower = the social and material resources a person can command

• Linguistic Atlas Approach: Types I, II and III (based on level of Linguistic Atlas Approach: Types I, II and III (based on level of education and breadth of social contacts)education and breadth of social contacts)

• Socioeconomic Status (SES)Socioeconomic Status (SES)– Traditional approachTraditional approach

• Set of objectified socioeconomic characteristicsSet of objectified socioeconomic characteristics• Typically: occupation, level of education, income, type of residential Typically: occupation, level of education, income, type of residential

dwellingdwelling– CritiquesCritiques

• Oriented to particular groups of speakersOriented to particular groups of speakers• Whose judgment? (insider versus outsider)Whose judgment? (insider versus outsider)• Agreement with regard to norms? (consensus model versus conflict model)Agreement with regard to norms? (consensus model versus conflict model)

– American attitudes toward classAmerican attitudes toward class

6.2 Beyond Social Class6.2 Beyond Social Class

• How to combine both objective and How to combine both objective and subjective measures appropriately?subjective measures appropriately?

• Complicating factors: region, age, gender….Complicating factors: region, age, gender….– The notion of the “linguistic marketplace” (a The notion of the “linguistic marketplace” (a

person’s economic activity, broadly defined, is person’s economic activity, broadly defined, is associated with language variation) and a associated with language variation) and a person’s “linguistic market index” (e.g. teacher, person’s “linguistic market index” (e.g. teacher, sales rep)sales rep)

– Local considerations versus macro-level social Local considerations versus macro-level social categorizationscategorizations

– Social network, Community of PracticeSocial network, Community of Practice– Matters of identity and personal presentationMatters of identity and personal presentation

6.3 The Patterning of Social 6.3 The Patterning of Social Differences in LanguageDifferences in Language• Group exclusive/Group preferentialGroup exclusive/Group preferential

• Inherent variability ([Inherent variability ([ɪɪn]/[n]/[ɪŋ]ɪŋ]• Social constraints on variability: Different Social constraints on variability: Different

linguistic variables may align with given linguistic variables may align with given social status groupings in a variety of ways social status groupings in a variety of ways (e.g., African-American community in Detroit, MI): (text, pp. (e.g., African-American community in Detroit, MI): (text, pp. 175-177)175-177)

– Sharp stratification Sharp stratification

for third person sing. –s/-es absence (typical for for third person sing. –s/-es absence (typical for grammatical variables)grammatical variables)

– Gradient or fine stratification Gradient or fine stratification

for postvocalic R absencefor postvocalic R absence

6.4 Linguistic Constraints on 6.4 Linguistic Constraints on VariabilityVariability• Sometimes referred to as “independent” Sometimes referred to as “independent”

(but see chart on p. 181 that shows social (but see chart on p. 181 that shows social influence)influence)

• Example: consonant cluster reductionExample: consonant cluster reduction– The characteristics of the following wordThe characteristics of the following word

• west coast vs. west endwest coast vs. west end

• cold cuts vs. cold eggcold cuts vs. cold egg

– The characteristics of the clusterThe characteristics of the cluster• single morpheme: guestsingle morpheme: guest

• suffix: guessedsuffix: guessed

Constraints on VariabilityConstraints on Variability

• Both social and linguisticBoth social and linguistic

• Both qualitative and quantitativeBoth qualitative and quantitative

• Interpretation of Table 6.2, p.181, Interpretation of Table 6.2, p.181, concerning relative influence:concerning relative influence:– SE and AWC show greater difference in % SE and AWC show greater difference in %

of reduction in relation to following of reduction in relation to following consonantconsonant

– SEAWC and SAAWC show greater difference SEAWC and SAAWC show greater difference in % of reduction in relation to cluster typein % of reduction in relation to cluster type

6.5 The Social Evaluation of 6.5 The Social Evaluation of Linguistic FeaturesLinguistic Features

• Linguistic description versus social Linguistic description versus social valuationvaluation

• Socially prestigious variants: Socially prestigious variants: associated with high-status groupsassociated with high-status groups– rarerare

• Socially stigmatized variants: Socially stigmatized variants: associated with low-status groupsassociated with low-status groups– abundantabundant

The importance of the axis of The importance of the axis of stigmatizationstigmatization

• ““Standard English is more adequately characterized by the Standard English is more adequately characterized by the absence of negatively- valued, stigmatized items than by absence of negatively- valued, stigmatized items than by the presence of positively valued, prestige items.” —refer the presence of positively valued, prestige items.” —refer back to categories of dialect, p. 16back to categories of dialect, p. 16

• ““It is important to understand that stigmatized and It is important to understand that stigmatized and prestigious variants to not exist on a single axis in which prestigious variants to not exist on a single axis in which the alternative to a socially stigmatized variant is a socially the alternative to a socially stigmatized variant is a socially prestigious one, or vice versa. The absence of multiple prestigious one, or vice versa. The absence of multiple negation, for example, is not particularly prestigious; it is negation, for example, is not particularly prestigious; it is simply not stigmatized.” (p. 183)simply not stigmatized.” (p. 183)

• The popular notion that speakers who use stigmatized The popular notion that speakers who use stigmatized variants always use these variants and those who use variants always use these variants and those who use prestige variants always use these forms is simply not true.prestige variants always use these forms is simply not true.

Types of PrestigeTypes of Prestige

• Overt (related to language Overt (related to language standardization)standardization)

• Covert (related to solidarity)Covert (related to solidarity)• Why do vernaculars persist?Why do vernaculars persist?• Differing judgments about social Differing judgments about social

significance of language forms (r-significance of language forms (r-lessness, pronunciations of “aunt”)lessness, pronunciations of “aunt”)

• Changes over timeChanges over time

The role of grammar versus The role of grammar versus phonologyphonology

• Grammatical variables: major Grammatical variables: major symbolic role in differentiating symbolic role in differentiating standard from vernacular dialectsstandard from vernacular dialects

• Phonological variables: more apt to Phonological variables: more apt to show regionally restricted social show regionally restricted social significancesignificance

Roles of socially diagnostic Roles of socially diagnostic features:features:

• As “social stereotypes” (overt comments on As “social stereotypes” (overt comments on use)use)

• As “social markers” (show social As “social markers” (show social stratification but not same level of conscious stratification but not same level of conscious awareness; shifts across styles; NCS)awareness; shifts across styles; NCS)

• As “social indicators” (correlate with social As “social indicators” (correlate with social stratification but not used in stylistic stratification but not used in stylistic variation—examples for American English??) variation—examples for American English??)

6.6 Social Class and Language 6.6 Social Class and Language ChangeChange

• Myth: upper classes originate Myth: upper classes originate change and others imitatechange and others imitate

• Reality: lower-middle typically Reality: lower-middle typically originate changeoriginate change

• Reality: social classes between the Reality: social classes between the extremes bear responsibility for extremes bear responsibility for change; most connected to local change; most connected to local community, but also sensitive to community, but also sensitive to influences from outsideinfluences from outside

Change in relation to Change in relation to consciousnessconsciousness

• ““changes from below” (the level of changes from below” (the level of consciousness)consciousness)

• ““changes from above” (the level of changes from above” (the level of consciousness): example of consciousness): example of consciously imitating an external consciously imitating an external prestige norm---prestige norm---

r-lessness from British prestige r-lessness from British prestige normnorm

Resistance to ChangeResistance to Change

• “…“…the social differentiation of language in the social differentiation of language in American society is typified by the American society is typified by the resistance to proposed changes initiated resistance to proposed changes initiated by the lower classes by a steadfast upper by the lower classes by a steadfast upper class rather than the initiation of change class rather than the initiation of change by the upper classes and subsequent by the upper classes and subsequent emulation of these changes by the lower emulation of these changes by the lower classes” (p. 190)classes” (p. 190)

• Example: regularization of the grammarExample: regularization of the grammar

6.7 Ethnicity6.7 Ethnicity

• Origins that precede or are external to the state Origins that precede or are external to the state (Native American, immigrant groups)(Native American, immigrant groups)

• Group membership that is involuntaryGroup membership that is involuntary• Ancestral tradition rooted in a shared sense of Ancestral tradition rooted in a shared sense of

peoplehoodpeoplehood• Distinctive value orientations and behavioral Distinctive value orientations and behavioral

patternspatterns• Influence of the group on the lives of its membersInfluence of the group on the lives of its members• Group membership influenced by how members Group membership influenced by how members

define themselves and how they are defined by define themselves and how they are defined by others—importance of the subjective dimensionothers—importance of the subjective dimension

““Ethnicity” as expressed through Ethnicity” as expressed through language in relation to other social language in relation to other social factors:factors:

• African American Vernacular English can African American Vernacular English can be part of the expression of African be part of the expression of African American ethnicity—American ethnicity—

• But it is also related to social statusBut it is also related to social status

• And is also associated with Southern And is also associated with Southern regional Englishregional English

• And can be used by non-African Americans And can be used by non-African Americans in certain situations (e.g. Hip Hop in certain situations (e.g. Hip Hop contexts)contexts)

Sometimes “ethnicity” is Sometimes “ethnicity” is conveyed mainly by a conveyed mainly by a distinctive variety of English:distinctive variety of English:• Wolfram’s work in North Carolina has Wolfram’s work in North Carolina has

shown that a Native American group shown that a Native American group that has lost its ancestral language that has lost its ancestral language distinguishes itself from surrounding distinguishes itself from surrounding groups through a distinctive variety groups through a distinctive variety of Englishof English

• The situation in WalesThe situation in Wales

Relationships between Relationships between ethnicity and language ethnicity and language variation:variation:• Transfer of grammatical patterns, Transfer of grammatical patterns,

phonological patterns, lexicon from phonological patterns, lexicon from an ancestral languagean ancestral language

• The effects of more generalized The effects of more generalized strategies related to the learning of strategies related to the learning of English as a second languageEnglish as a second language

• Maintenance of patterns of language Maintenance of patterns of language use that are distinctiveuse that are distinctive

6.8 Latino English6.8 Latino English

• ““Latino English” or “Hispanic English” Latino English” or “Hispanic English” (see link for terms earlier on (see link for terms earlier on syllabus)syllabus)– HistoricalHistorical– CurrentCurrent– New Mexico as officially bilingualNew Mexico as officially bilingual

6.8.1 Chicano English6.8.1 Chicano English

• Southwestern border statesSouthwestern border states

• Myths (p. 197)Myths (p. 197)

• Linguistic features:Linguistic features:– Phonological Phonological – Rhythm and intonation (prosody)Rhythm and intonation (prosody)– GrammaticalGrammatical– LexicalLexical

6.8.2 The Range of Latino 6.8.2 The Range of Latino EnglishEnglish

• Different geographical locationsDifferent geographical locations

• Influences from contacts with other Influences from contacts with other dialects of Englishdialects of English

• Urban and rural contextsUrban and rural contexts

6.9 Cajun English6.9 Cajun English

• From Acadians in contact with other From Acadians in contact with other French speakers in Louisiana, Native French speakers in Louisiana, Native Americans, slaves from Africa and the Americans, slaves from Africa and the Caribbean, Spanish-speaking IsleCaribbean, Spanish-speaking Islennos from os from the Canary Islands, and other European the Canary Islands, and other European immigrant groups = a French Creoleimmigrant groups = a French Creole

• English as symbol of Cajun identity (as English as symbol of Cajun identity (as heritage language as receded)heritage language as receded)

• Cajun RenaissanceCajun Renaissance

6.10 Lumbee English6.10 Lumbee English

““The distinctive mix of dialect features The distinctive mix of dialect features in Lumbee Vernacular English shows in Lumbee Vernacular English shows how a cultural group can maintain a how a cultural group can maintain a distinct ethnic identity by configuring distinct ethnic identity by configuring past and present dialect features in a past and present dialect features in a way which symbolically indicates---way which symbolically indicates---and helps constitute---their cultural and helps constitute---their cultural uniqueness even though the uniqueness even though the ancestral language has been lost.”ancestral language has been lost.”