SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/41 Environmental Pollution Unit - 5 Dr. P. Ravindra Babu, Associate...

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/41 Environmental Pollution Unit - 5 Dr. P. Ravindra Babu, Associate Professor, Dept. of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/42 Definition-Pollution It is defined as an excessive addition of certain materials to the physical environment (air, water, and land ) making it less fit or unfit for life. Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of our air, land, and water that may or will harmfully affect human life or that of desirable species, our industrial processes, living conditions, and cultural assets (Odum, 1971).

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/43 Definition: Air pollution Air pollution may be defined as the presence of impurities in excess quantity (concentrations) and duration in the atmosphere to cause adverse effects on plants, animals,human beings and materials

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/44 Major Nitrogen (N 2 ), Oxygen (0 2 ) Minor Argon (Ar) Carbondioxide (Co 2 ) Trace Neon(Ne), Helium, Methane, Krypton, Hydrogen, Xenon etc. Density of air is 1.54 gm/cc; Air pollution levels can be expressed either as PPM or g/m 3 Composition of Air:

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/45 Sources of Air Pollution NATURAL SOURCES: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sand storms, Hydrogen sulphide, and methane from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, etc., ANTHROPOGENIC: Burning of fossil fuels, agricultural activities, industrial growth, automobile exhausts, domestic wastes, warfares etc.

Air Pollution by Human Activities Thermal power stations Industrial chimney wastes Automobiles 6SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

Types of Air Pollutants Air pollutants are generally grouped into the following two types: 1) Particulate pollutants 2) Gaseous pollutants SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/48

9 Particulate pollutants The term particulate refers to all atmospheric substances which are not gases. They can be suspended droplets or solid particles or mixture of the two. Particulates can be composed of materials ranging in size smaller than 1 micron. Eg. Dust, smoke, fog, Mist, are the

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/410 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS On the basis of origin, air pollutants can be divided into Primary air pollutants and secondary air pollutants. PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS: There are directly emitted to the atmosphere, and are found there in the form in which they are emitted.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/411 CARBON COMPOUNDS: Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide SULPHUR COMPOUNDS: Carbonyl Sulphide (COS), Carbon disulphide (CS 2 ) Dimethyl sulphide [CH 3 S), Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S). Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), and sulphate (S0 2 -4 ) HYDROCARBONS: Benzene, Methane (Marsh gas)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/412 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO X ): NO,NO 2,N 2 0 METALS: Zinc, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury. TOXIC SUBSTANCES: Arsenic, Asbestos, Carbon tetra chloride, Berylium, Chromium, Copper, Nickel, Polycyclic aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAH 3 )

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/413 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic acids, Organic sulphur compounds etc. Finer Particles (Less than 100 in diameter.) Coarse Particles (Greater than 100 in diameter). Radioactive compounds: Radium- 222, Uranium-232, strontium 90, Plutonium -239.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/414 There are produced in air by interaction among two or more primary pollutants or by reaction with normal atmospheric constituents (Chemical or Photochemical reactions) Ozone formaldehyde PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate). Photochemical smog (coal induced, H202 organic peroxides) Formation of Acid mist (H 2 SO4 )due to reaction of sulphur dioxide and dissolved oxygen, when water droplets are present in the atmosphere. SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/415 SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/416 SourcesPollutants Power Plants Thermal Power Plants Smoke, CO, CO2, SO x, dust. Nuclear Power Plants Argon Sr 90, CS-137, C-14 etc Hydro Power Plants Methane from water logged area Diesel generators HC, CO, NOx Noise. Industries Non-Ferrous Metallurgical..Sulphuroxides, smoke, Cox,fluorides, (Rotating, smelting, refiring)..H2S,Organic Vapors. Non-Metallic Minerals .Mineral and Organic Particulates. (Ceramic Manufacture, glass)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/417 Transportation: HCS, and Co, lead, olefin Automobiles (bike, cars, trucks, paraffin etc. trains, aircrafts.) Pulp and paper (Kraft Process)Particulate Matter, H 2 S, mercaptans, methyl mercaptans, dimethyl sulphide SO 2 Agriculture Spraying Pesticides, Organic phosphates chlorinated hydrocarbon fungicides organic lead.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/418 Effects of Air Pollutants ACID RAIN: Acid rain is a serious environmental problem that affects large parts of the world. Acid rain is particularly damaging to lakes, streams, forests and the plants and animals that live in these ecosystems. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/419

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/420 contains high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids contaminate drinking water and vegetation, damage aquatic life, erode buildings Alters the chemical equilibrium of some soils.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/421 On An average man breathes 22,000 times a day and takes in 16Kg of air each day. Eye, Nose, throat, respiratory tract irritation Co(g) is a poisonous gas (hemoglobin + CO Carboxyhaemoglobin) Illness and death Hydrogen fluoride causes florosis, and mottling of teeth. Dust - silicosis (associated with silica dust) Asbestosis (associated with asbestos dust) Lead (from vehicles) Its high concentration can damage, liver, Kidney and can cause abnormality in fertility and pregnancy. Radio active Isotopes causes anemia (iron deficiency) leukemia (RBC deficiency), cancer, genetic defects Effect on Humans:

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/423 Effect on Vegetation : Necrosis : Killing of tissues. Pigmented lesions: dark brown, black, purple, red spots on leaves Epinasty: Rapid growth of upper side of the leaves Chlorosis: Loss of green plant pigment chlorophyll (Yellow leaves) Abscission: Dropping of leaves.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/424 NecrosisEpinasty Chlorosis Abscission

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/425 Corrosion of metals, eroding of building surfaces, fading of dyed materials, rubber cracking. Effect on Materials

Types of air pollutants: 1. Carbon compounds (e.g., CO 2, CO) 2. Sulphur compounds (e.g., SO 2, H 2 S and H 2 SO 4 ) 3. Nitrogen oxides (e.g., NO, NO 2 and HNO 3 ) 4. Ozone (O 3 ) 5. Flurocarbons 6. Hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, benzypyrene, etc.) 7. Metals (e.g., lead, nickel, arsenic, beryllium, tin, vanadium, titanium, cadmium, etc.) 8. Photochemical products (e.g., olefins, aldehydes, photochemical smog, PAN, etc.) 9. Particulate matter (e.g., fly ash, dust, grit and SPM) 10. Toxicants 26SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

27SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

28 NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS* Pollutant Time Weighted Average Concentration in Ambient Air Industrial Area Residential, Rural and other Sensitive Area Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Annual 24 hours 80 g/m 3 120 g/m 3 60 g/m 3 80 g/m 3 15 g/m 3 30 g/m 3 Oxides of Nitrogen (NO 2 ) Annual 24 hours 80 g/m 3 120 g/m 3 60 g/m 3 80 g/m 3 15 g/m 3 30 g/m 3 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Annual 24 hours 360 g/m 3 500 g/m 3 140 g/m 3 200 g/m 3 70 g/m 3 100 g/m 3 Respirable ** Particulate Matter (RPM) Annual 24 hours 120 g/m 3 150 g/m 3 60 g/m 3 100 g/m 3 50 g/m 3 75 g/m 3 Lead (pb) Annual 24 hours 1.0 g/m 3 1.5 g/m 3 0.75 g/m 3 1.00 g/m 3 0.50 g/m 3 0.75 g/m 3 Carbon Monoxide(CO) 8 hours 1 hour 5.0 g/m 3 10.0 g/m 3 2.0 g/m 3 4.0 g/m 3 1.0 g/m 3 2.0 g/m 3 * Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India notification,1994 ** Particle size less than 10 m

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/429 Control of Air Pollutants Atmospheric self-clearing Processes: The atmosphere, like a stream or river, has natural built in self clearing processes. Dispersion: Wind decreases the concentration of Pollutants at any place. Gravitational Settling: Particles larger than 20m in size settle down. Flocculation : Larges particles act as receptor for smaller ones to form a unit, the process is repeated until a small floc is formed, that is enough to settle under gravity.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/430 Devices used to Control Air Pollutants: (i) Setttling Chamber : - To collect solid particles (ii) Cyclone precipitator: Centrifugal forces tend to drive the suspended particles to the wall of the cyclone body. (iii) Filters: Cloth fabric, or fibrous medium, like mats of wool, cellulose may be used as separators. (iv) electrostatic precipitators: They utilize electric energy to assist in removal of particulate matter.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/431 Settling Chamber

Cyclone Precipitator

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/433 Electrostatic precipitators:

CHEMICAL FACTORIES CAUSES MORE DAMAGE THAN ATOMIC WEAPONS A LESSON FROM THE PAST BHOPAL GAS DISASTER

THE BHOPAL DISASTER Around 1 a.m. on Monday, the 3rd of December, 1984, In the city of Bhopal, Central India, a poisonous vapour burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide plant. This vapour was a highly toxic cloud of methyl isocyanate. Total affected population 5,20,000 (200,000 below 15 years, 3,000 were pregnant women). In 1991, 3,928 deaths had been certified. Independent organizations recorded 8,000 dead in the first days. Other estimations vary between 10,000 and 30,000. Another 100,000 to 200,000 people are estimated to have permanent injuries of different degrees. 7,000 animals were injured, of which about one thousand were killed. 35 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

THE AFFECTED AREA 36SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

A tank containing methyl isocyanate (MIC) leaked. MIC is an extremely reactive chemical and is used in production of the insecticide carbaryl. The scientific reason for the accident was that water entered the tank where about 40 cubic meters of MIC was stored. When water and MIC mixed, an exothermic chemical reaction started, producing a lot of heat. As a result, the safety valve of the tank burst because of the increase in pressure. It is presumed that between 20 and 30 tonnes of MIC was released during the hour that the leak took place. The gas leaked from a 30 m high chimney and this height was not enough to reduce the effects of the discharge. THE POSSIBLE CAUSES 37SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

The high moisture content (aerosol) in the discharge when evaporating, gave rise to a heavy gas which rapidly sank to the ground. A weak wind which frequently changed direction, which in turn helped the gas to cover more area in a shorter period of time (about one hour). The weak wind and the weak vertical turbulence caused a slow dilution of gas and thus allowed the poisonous gas to spread over considerable distances. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER 38SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

One of the main reasons for the tragedy was found to be a result of a combination of human factors and an incorrectly designed safety system. A portion of the safety equipment at the plant had been non-operational for four months and the rest failed. THE POSSIBLE REASONS 39SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

LAPSES ON THE PART OF THE GOVERNMENT The Madhya Pradesh State government had not mandated any safety standards. Union Carbide failed to implement its own safety rules. The Bhopal plant experienced six accidents between 1981 and 1984, at least three of which involved MIC or phosgene. 40SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

PROCESS CHEMISTRY The reaction involved two reactants, methyl isocyanate (MIC) and alpha naphthol. The process begins with a mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to form phosgene. Phosgene is then combined with monomethylamine to form MIC. MIC is further mixed with naphthol to produce the end product carbaryl. 41SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

Effects on Human Health Respiratory Disorders Irritation to the lungs, causing coughing and/or shortness of breathing. Higher exposure caused build up of fluids (pulmonary edema). Caused Asthama. Cancer Hazard Caused mutation (genetic changes). It caused cancer. Reproductive Hazard Association between exposure to Methyl Isocyanate and miscarriages. It may damage the growing fetus. May also affect fertility in men and women. Traces of many toxins were found in the Breast Milk of mothers and were in turn transmitted to the recipient babies. 42SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

Union Carbide Corporation 43SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4

The Big Smoke - December 5 th, 1952 LONDON SMOG

Location London, England Most of the smog damage occurred in East London

Early on 5 th of December 1952 the London sky was clear, the weather was considerably colder than usual, as it had been for some weeks. As a result the people of London were burning large amounts of coal and smoke bellowed from the chimneys. The winds were light and the air near the ground was moist, conditions ideal for formation of radiation fog. During the day of 5 th December the fog was not particularly dense, it possessed a dry smoky character, however when nightfall came the fog thickened and visibility dropped to a few metres. In central London the visibility remained below 500 meters continuously for 114 hours and below 50 meters continuously for 48 hours. At Heathrow airport visibility remained below 10 for almost 48 hours from the morning of 6 December. What Happened exactly???

Causes The smoke from the factories Vehicles Pollution Noxious fumes

SO 2 Chemistry in the atmosphere In the gas phase (clear sky, no clouds): SO 2 + OH HSO 3 HSO 3 + O 2 HOO + SO 3 SO 3 + H 2 O H 2 SO 4 In mist: H 2 SO 4(g) + H 2 O H 2 SO 4(aq) SO 2(g) + H 2 O (l) H 2 SO 3(aq)

The fog was triggered by the formation of a static layer of cooler air close to the ground as the night time temperature dropped. This is known as temperature inversion. Normally, air closer to the ground is warmer than the air above it, and therefore rises. Inversions are frequent on winter nights after the ground has cooled down so much that it begins to chill the air closest to it often causing mist to form as water vapour precipitates on dust particles. Normally the morning sun swiftly breaks through the mist and heats the ground, which warms the air above it, breaking the inversion. But in December 1952 the accumulation of smoke close to the ground was so great that the sun never broke through, and the air stayed cool and static.

The term smog simply describes fog that has soot in it. Winter smog in which smoke, sulphur dioxide from the citys chimneys, accumulated in the foggy air had been a feature of London life since at least the 17th century. However the industrial revolution of the 19 th century in Britains major cities gave a dramatic increase in air pollution. On 5th December 1952 hanging in the air were thousands of tonnes of black soot, sticky particles of tar and gaseous sulphur dioxide, which had mostly come from coal burnt in domestic hearths. Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow-black colour. The water from the fog condensed around the soot and tar particles. The sulphur dioxide reacted inside these foggy, sooty droplets to form a solute sulphuric acid creating in effect a very intense form of acid rain.

During the four days between the 4 and 8 December 1952 smoke measurements taken at the National Gallery in London suggest that the PM 10 concentration reached 14mg/m 3 which was 56 times the level normally experienced at the time and the levels of sulphur dioxide in the air increased by 7 fold peaking at around 700ppb. Smoke and Sulphur dioxide pollution was monitored at various sites in London at the time of the December Smog. The daily average measurements for 10 of these sites are given.

Cleaning up the act! The Great London Smog galvanised the government to clean up the nations air and as a consequence the first clean air acts were introduced. 1956 Clean Air Act. This Act was directed at domestic sources of smoke pollution authorising local councils to set up smokeless zones and make grants to householders to convert their homes from traditional coal fires to heaters fuelled by gas, oil, smokeless coal or electricity.

The 1968 Clean Air Act; Tall Chimneys This act brought in the basic principal for the use of tall chimneys for industries burning coal, liquid or gaseous fuels. Unfortunately the smog of 1991 has demonstrated that efforts will need to continue to counter air pollution and protect the environment for future generations.

Health Effects Pneumonia Bronchitis Tuberculosis Heart Failure Asthma Respiratory and Cardiac Distress

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/456 Water Pollution Definition : The presence of foreign substances or impurities (Organic, inorganic, radiological or biological) in water making it unsuitable or unfit for use and cause health hazard..

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/457 Major pollutants and their sources BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES: Bacteria, Virus, and Parasites INORGANIC IMPURITIES: Dirt and Sediment or Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids -Nitrates, Sodium, Sulfates, Barium, Copper, and Fluoride. Toxic Metals or Heavy Metals Asbestos Radioactivity

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/458 ORGANIC IMPURITIES: Tastes and Odors Pesticides and Herbicides Toxic Organic Chemicals Chlorine -- Trihalomethanes (THM's)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/459 Causes of Water Pollution Two major causes: Point sources and Nonpoint (diffused )sources. Point sources: Those sources which can be identified at a single location. Industrial Effluents, Sewerage systems, Power Plants, under ground mines, offshore oil wells.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/460 Non point sources: Non point sources: They are the sources of generalized discharge of waste water whose location cannot be easily identified. Eg: Run off into surface water, subsurface flow, soil erosion, acid rain deposition from the atmosphere. Leachate from municipal, industrial landfill sites and agricultural lands.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/463 Substance Desirable limit Permissible limit (Requirement) Mg/l (mg/l) Ca75200 Mg30100 SO 4 200400 NO345100 Chlorides 2501000 Fluoride1.01.5 CaCO3300600 International Standards of minerals in Water

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/464 Effects of Water Pollution Physical Effects color, temp,pH Oxidation Effects BOD, COD Toxic Chemical Effects- Fluoride Chemical Nutrient Effects - Eutrophication Micro Organism Effects - Radio Nuclide Effects

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/465 BOD Level (in ppm) Water Quality 1 - 2Very Good 3 - 5Moderate 6 - 9Fairly Polluted 10+Very Polluted

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/466 Eutrophication

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/467 Control of Water Pollution Input Control: Pollutants should be prevented from being generated in the first place. Output Control: To control the pollutant and /or its effect after it has been produced. Developing of proper sewage and industrial effluent systems can reduce incoming point source of pollution

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/468 Domestic and industrial waste waters should be disposed of after treatment to the required level. Aforestation.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/469 Waste water treatment methods Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) Sewage Treatment plants (STP) Common and combined treatment Plants (CETP)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/470 Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) It is designed to treat Industrial waste water to a standard acceptable To remove high amounts of contaminants like organics, debris, toxic and non toxic materials, polymers etc.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/471 Effluent treatment plant is based on the aerobic respiration method; It consists of three stages namely: primary treatment, secondary bio-treatment, and tertiary treatment. The effluent water is passed through various processes such as chemical dosing, aeration, and settling. The final treatment filtration cum absorption takes place by filters. Finally, the processed water goes for advance treatment and we get usable water which can be used further for irrigation and other purposes

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/472 Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) Primary Treatment Primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks." The tanks are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are skimmed off

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/473 Secondary treatment It is designed to degrade the biological content of the sewage which are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/474 Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed-film or suspended-growth systems. Fixed-film or attached growth systems include trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. Suspended-growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that treat the same amount of water

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/475 Tertiary treatment -Filtration Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/476 Soil Pollution Definition : Contamination of the soil by considerable quantities of chemical or other substances, resulting in the reduction of its fertility (or productivity) with respect to the Qualitative and Quantitative yield of the crops.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/477 Sources of soil pollution Industrial Wastes: Pulp and paper mills, Chemical Industries, Oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textile mills, steel industry, coal, mining,cement, distilleries. Industrial waste mainly consists of organic compounds along with inorganic complexes and non biodegradable materials.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/478 Radioactive pollutants:- Explosion of nuclear devices, Radium, Thorium, Uranium, Carbon (C-14). Some plants such as lichen and mushroom can accumulate Cs-137 and other radio nuclides which concentrate in grazing animals.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/479 Agricultural Practices: A wide range of agrochemicals are currently used by farmers to sustain food production Fertilizers: Nitrogen Urea, Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium, Sulphate, Ammonium nitrate. Phosphorus Potassium phosphate, Ammonium phosphate. Potassium Potassium nitrate, Sulphate of Potash. Pesticides: Chlorinated hydrocarbon Pesticide endosulfan, Metoxychlor. Organochlorine Pesticide DDT

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/480 Biological agents: Pathogenic Microorganism present in the soil decrease soil fertility, Physical texture of soil. Bacteria Mycobacterium, Salmonella typhosa, Leptospira. Viruses Adenoviruses, Enteroviruses.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/481 Effect of soil pollution Soil acidification is the accumulation of acid in the soil. It is a natural process which, in natural ecosystems, operates over many thousands of years. However, under agricultural management, acidification can accelerate with the rate of change being detectable over decades.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/482 Increasing the organic matter content of the soil can acidify soil. Soil organic matter contains acidic groups. Acidity is measured by determining the pH of a soil.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/483 Usually the rate of acidification is expressed as the amount of lime needed to neutralise the acid load generated each year (kg lime/ha/yr). Most farming systems acidify the soil at a rate of 100-200 kg lime/ha/yr although crops are generally more acidifying than pastures.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/484 When soil pH falls below 5.0, some nutrients may become less available (e.g. phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, copper) while other elements can reach toxic levels (e.g. aluminium, manganese). Microbial processes that facilitate nutrient recycling can be reduced and the ability of plants to use subsoil moisture limited as a result of stunted root growth. As soil, becomes more acidic, the activity of soil fauna such as earthworms is also reduced.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/485 Salinization: Soil salinization is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of soils and vegetation. high levels of salt in the soils landscape features that allow salts to become mobile (movement of water table) climatic trends that favor accumulation The ions responsible for salination are: Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ and Cl -

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/486 Marine Pollution The sea, which covers around 70 per cent of the earth's surface, is home to millions of fish, mammals, microorganisms, and plants. It is a vital source of food for both animals and people. Thousands of birds rely on the sea for their daily food supplies. Fishermen throughout the world catch over 90 million tonnes of fish every year.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/487 Definition: Degradation of the marine environment as a result of contamination of some sort by chemicals, biological agents, sediment and radiation.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/488 Point source: Any pollution from a confined and discrete conveyance, such as pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, well. It is clearly discernable in terms of origin (municipal sewage outfall, oil tanker spills, offshore oil well blowouts) Sources of marine pollution

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/489 Non-point-source pollution: It is ill-defined or diffused sources, runoff (harbors) agriculture, forestry, urban runoff, marine debris, air pollution.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/490 It is believed that everything that is carried away by rivers ultimately ends up in seas. This leads to pollution by sewage, garbage, agricultural waste, fungicides, pesticides, and heavy metals; by discharge of oils and petroleum products, and by dumping of radioactive waste into sea. Dumping of plastic packing material into the sea.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/491 The following are the lengths of time it takes several forms of litter to biodegrade: Materials Time to degrade Materials Tin cans 50 years Wool 1 year Painted wood 13 years Plastic six pack rings 400+ years Newspaper 6 weeks Plastic bottles 450 years Paper towels 2-4 weeks Aluminium cans 200 years Disposable diapers 450 years Cotton 1-5 months Polystyrene foam Indefinite!

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/492 Effects of Marine pollution Two basic ways by which chemical contaminants can affect living marine resources: 1. By directly affecting the exposed organisms own health and survival. 2. By contaminating those fisheries resources that other species, including humans, may consume.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/493 Control of Marine Pollution The oil can be collected off the water surface by specialized oil skimming barges, surface pumps, floating absorbents such as straw and saw dust, and manual mopping. Chemical Control: Sinking agents such as chalk, dispersants, emulsion breakers, and preventors (demoussifiers), poly isobutylene based recovery aids that convert oil into more easily handled visco elastic substance. Bioremediation : It is a process by which the degradation of organic chemical contaminants occurs as a result of biochemical activity of micro organisms.

NOISE POLLUTION

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/495 Any loud sound which is unpleasant and unwanted is commonly referred to as noise. It depends upon its loudness, duration, rhythm and the mood of the person. Noise is a physical form of pollution and is not directly harmful to the life supporting systems, namely air,water and soil. It annoys and hurts people both psychologically and physiologically.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/496 Units of Measurements Two properties of sound are important, namely the pitch or frequency and Intensity or pressure or energy (loudness). Pitch or frequency refers to the rate of vibrations of the sound and is measured in Hertz (H z ). The unit for measurement of intensity is Decible. One Decibel is the smallest change of sound intensity which an average healthy human ear can perceive.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/497 Stationary sources: Industrial sources : Textile, printing press, Metal works, engineering works etc. Use of loudspeakers on various occasions like festivals, elections, worships in temples, Mosque etc. During advertisements: Household gagadgets: Vaccum cleaners, TV, radio, stereo, grinder,etc. Agricultural Machines: Tractors, Harverters, tillers

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/498 Sources of Noise Mobile Sources: Road traffic Air traffic Railways Navigation Motor Cycle 94(dB) (2-Cylinder 4 stroke) Scooter (1Cylinder 2 stroke) 80 db

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/499 Effects of Noise pollution It effects on hearing ability. Human ears have sensory cells in inner ear for hearing. If these cells are subjected to repeated sounds of high intensity they can be permanently damaged leading to impairment of hearing.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4100 Middle ear Inner ear Outer ear Auditory canal Eustachian tube Pinna

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4102 Physiological effects: Headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain. Lowering of concentration and effect on memory. Psycological effects: Depression Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed sleep straining of senses. Emotional disturbance

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4103 Noise Pollution levels and its Harmful effects: DbEffects Upto 23 No disturbance 30 60 stress, tension 60 90Psychological effects 70 120 Damages health, high blood pressure. Otological (ear effects)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4104 Noise pollution control The source path receiver concept

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4105 At the source Lubrication of machines generally reduces the noise produced. Tightening the loose nuts. Reducing the eccentricity generally reduces vibration and noise.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4106 In the path Keeping the noisy machine covered in an enclosure so that the sound does not escape and reach the receiver. Construction of noise barriers on roadsides for the benefit of the nearby residential communities. Sound-proof the building: Use heavy curtains on the windows, acoustical tile on the ceiling and walls, rugs on the floors. Seal all air leaks to reduce the noise coming in from outside.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4107 Receiver provide earplugs

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4108 General measures to reduce noise pollution Don't use horns except in an emergency. Keep auto and truck engines, air conditioners, and appliances in good condition. Purchase the least noisy air conditioner or vacuum cleaner Create a demand for quieter appliances Respect your neighbor's right to quiet Tell your friends about the hazards of noise

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4109 General measures to reduce noise pollution Get Organized Become Knowledgeable Be Persistent: You Can Reduce The Noise! Keep conversation and rest areas in the home away from sources of noise. Turn down the volume of stereos, especially those with headphones.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4110 THERMAL POLLUTION Definition Addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Excessive raising or lowering of water temperature above or below normal seasonal ranges in the streams, lakes or oceans as a result of the discharge of hot or cold effluents into such water.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4111 The temperature of the water affects many physical, biological and chemical charecteristics of a river or lake. Cool water can hold more oxygen than warm water.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4112 Sources: Thermal pollution may be caused by : 1.Natural causes like forest fires & Volcanos 2.Nuclear, Hydroelectric & Coal fired power plants 3.Domestic sewage

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4113 Nuclear Power plants Nuclear Power plants use water as a cooling agent. After the water is used, its it put back into a water supply at 9 - 20C Emissions form nuclear reactor increases the temperature of water bodies

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4114 Coal fired power Plants Coal is utilized as a fuel condenser coils are cooled with water from nearby lake or river The heated effluents decrease the DO of water Damages the marine organisms

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4115 Industrial Effluents Discharged water from steam - electric power industry using turbo generators will have a temperature ranging from 6- 9 C than the receiving water In modern station, producing 100MW, nearly one million gallons are discharged in an hour with increase in temperature of the cooling water passing by 8- 10 C

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4116 Domestic sewage Sewage is commonly discharged into lakes, canals or streams Municipal sewage normally has a higher temperature than the receiving water Increase in temperature of the receiving water decreases the DO of water. The foul smelling gases increased in water resulting in death of marine organisms

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4117 Effects: The increase in temperature can cause following effects: 1.Change in water properties 2.Disturbed ecosystem 3.Reduced dissolved oxygen 4.Increased bacterial growth 5.Rate of Photosynthesis 6.Thermal shock 7.Increase in toxicity.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4118 Control of thermal pollution: cooling towersTemperature of water can be reduced by taking water to wet or dry cooling towers. Cooling ponds Spray ponds Artificial lakes

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4119 Effects of thermal pollution Thermal shock:Thermal shock: The sudden change in temperature due to hot waste water can be of harm to fish and other aquatic animals that have been used to a particular level of water temperature; this invariably can cause fish to migrate to a more suitable environment. Thermal enrichment:Thermal enrichment: This is when heated water from power plants may be used for irrigation purposes to extend plant growing seasons, speed the growth of fish and other aquatic animals for commercial purposes.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4120 Thermal comfort Human thermal comfort is defined by ASHRAE as the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment (ASHRAE Standard 55). (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) Maintaining thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC design engineers ("Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4121 Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Any heat gain or loss beyond this generates a sensation of discomfort

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4122 Importance of thermal comfort It can affect the distraction levels of the workers, and in turn affect their performance and productivity of their work. Also, thermal discomfort has been known to lead to Sick Building Syndrome symptoms.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4123 Heat island Effect The phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the 1810s Heat island refers to urban air and surface temperatures that are higher than those of nearby rural areas. Many American cities and suburbs have air temperatures up to 10 F (5.6 C) warmer than their surrounding natural land cover.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4124 Radioactive (nuclear) pollution is a special form of physical pollution related to all major life-supporting systemsair, water and soil. Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of energy from radioactive isotopes (i.e. unstable isotopes), such as Carbon-14, Uranium-235, Uranium-238, Uranium- 239, Radium-226, etc. The emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment is oftenly called as 'Radioactive Pollution'. Nuclear Pollution

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4125 Uranium Uranium is in limited supply, so nuclear energy is considered nonrenewable. The reason uranium is chosen is because it is radioactive. Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, emit subatomic particles and high radiation as they decay into lighter radioisotopes, until they become stable. The isotope uranium 235 decays into a series of daughter isotopes. The rate at which each radioisotope decays is determined by the isotopes half life, the amount of time it takes for one half of half the atoms to give off radiation and decay.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4126 Radioisotopes can have half lives ranging from fractions of a second to billions of years. The halflife if uranium 235 is 700 million years. After several years in a reactor, enough uranium has decayed so that the fuel loses its ability to generate enough energy, and it must be replaced with new fuel. In some countries, the spent fuel is reprocessed and used again, but in most countries, spent fuel is disposed of as radioactive waste.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4127 Uranium

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4128 Measuring Nuclear Radiation One way measure radiation is to count the number of nuclear transformations or explosions which occur in a given unit of radioactive substance per second. This measure is usually standardized to radium, the first radioactive substance to be discovered and widely used. One gram of radium undergoes 3. 7 x 10 10 nuclear transformations or disintegrations per second. The activity of 1 gram of radium is called 1 curie (Ci), named for Madame Marie Curie. In recent radiation protection guides, the curie is being replaced by the becquerel, which indicates one atomic event per second. One gram of radium would equal 1 curie of radium or 3.7 x 10 10 becquerels of radium.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4129 Sources The sources of radioactivity are both natural and man- made. The natural sources include: (i)Cosmic rays from outer space: The quantity depends on altitude and latitude, it is more at higher latitudes and high altitudes. (ii) Emissions from radioactive materials from the Earth's crust. People have been exposed to low levels of radiation from these natural sources for several millenia.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4130 Man-made sources But it is the man-made sources which are posing a threat to mankind. Nuclear wastes (i.e. waste material that contains radioactive nuclei) produced during the: Mining and processing of radioactive ores; use of radioactive material in nuclear power plants ; use of radioactive isotopes in medical, industrial and research applications; and use of radioactive materials in nuclear weapons. The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnostic use of X-rays, radioactive isotopes used as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4131 Effects The effects of radioactive pollutants depends upon half-life, energy releasing capacity, rate of diffusion and rate of deposition of the contaminant. Various atmospheric conditions and climatic conditions such as wind, temperature and rainfall also determine their effects. All organisms are affected from radiation pollution, and the effects are extremely dangerous. The effects may be somatic (individual exposed is affected) or genetic (future generations) damage. The effects are cancer, shortening of life span and genetic effects or mutations.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4132 Effects The result of cell exposure to radiation causes cell death or cell alteration. The change or alteration can be temporary or permanent. It can leave the cell unable to reproduce itself. Radiation damage can cause the cell to produce a slightly different hormone or enzyme than it was originally designed to produce still produce, leaving it able to reproduce other cells capable of generating this same altered hormone or enzyme. Eventually there may be millions of such altered cells. If the radiation damage occurs in germ cells, the sperm or ovum, it can cause defective offspring. The defective offspring will in turn produce defective sperm or ova, and the genetic `mistake' will be passed on to succeeding generations, reducing their quality of life until the family line terminates in sterilization and/or death.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4134 Some of the possible effects are : (i) Radiations may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells. This affects the genetic make-up and control mechanisms. (ii) Exposure at low doses of radiations (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to suffer from fatigue, nausea, vomiting and loss of hair. But recovery is possible. (iii) Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the irradiated person soon dies of infection and bleeding. (iv) Higher irradiation doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the tissues of heart, brain etc. (v) Workers handling radioactive wastes get slow but continuous irradiation and in course of time develop cancer of different types. (vi) Through food chain also, radioactivity effects are experienced by man.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4135 Control measures There is no cure for radiation damage. Thus the only option against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioactive pollution. For this: leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioactive fuels, fission products and radioactive isotopes have to be totally stopped; safety measures should be enforced strictly; waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effective;

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4136 there should be regular monitoring and quantitative analysis through frequent sampling in the risk areas; preventive measures should be followed so that background radiation levels do not exceed the permissible limits; appropriate steps should be taken against occupational exposure; and safety measures should be strengthened against nuclear accidents.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4137 Radiation Effects

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4138 Nuclear Disasters In 1986, an explosion at the Chernobyl plant in Ukraine caused the most severe nuclear power plant accident in history. Engineers turned off the safety systems to conduct tests. Human error combined with unsafe reactor design caused an explosion that destroyed the reactor and sent clouds of radioactive debris into the atmosphere for almost 10 days. The land for at least 19 miles around the plant is still contaminated today. Atmospheric currents carries radioactive fallout from Chernobyl to the rest of the Northern Hemisphere.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4141 SOLID WASTE Definition: Solid waste Refuse from places of human or animal habitation." "useless or worthless material; stuff to be thrown away." A resource that is not safely recycled back into the environment or the marketplace."

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4142 All solid and semi-solid wastes arising from human activities, are discarded as useless or unwanted are included in the term 'Solid-Wastes' or 'Refuse'. The quantity of solid-wastes produced depends upon the living standards of the population. It also depends on seasons.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4143 Solid waste means all putrescible and non- putrescible wastes, including garbage, rubbish, refuse, ashes, waste paper and cardboard; discarded or abandoned vehicles or parts thereof; sewage sludge, septic tank or other sludges; commercial, industrial, demolition and construction waste; discarded home and industrial appliances; asphalt, broken concrete and bricks; manure, vegetable or animal solid and semi-solid wastes, dead animals, infectious waste, petroleum-contaminated soils and other wastes;

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4144 Putrescible means rapidly decomposable by microorganisms, which may give rise to foul smelling, offensive products during such decomposition or which is capable of attracting or providing food for birds and potential disease vectors such as rodents and flies.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4145 Garbage It includes putrescible organic waste like the animal, fruit or vegetable residues resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking and eating of foods. Garbage: the four broad categories Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits. Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish. Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics. Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4146 Rubbish: It includes combustible and non-combustible solid-wastes, excluding food wastes or putrescible materials. Combustible rubbish includes paper, card board, textiles, plastic, rubber, wood, garden-trimmings, etc. Non-combustible rubbish consists of glass, crockery, tin-cans, aluminum cans, metals, construction wastes, etc.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4147 Solid waste

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4149 Types and Sources of Solid-wastes There are three general categories of solid-wastes: (i) Municipal wastes, (ii) Industrial wastes, and (iii) Hazardous wastes.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4150 Municipal wastes: Municipal wastes are those wastes which arise from residential - household activities, commercial (markets, hotels, garages, institutions, etc.) and open areas (streets, parks, beaches, highways, play grounds, demolition and construction wastes, street-sweepings, dead animals) etc.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4151 Industrial wastes: Industrial wastes are those wastes which arise from industrial activities. Hazardous Wastes: Typical hazardous wastes are radioactive substances, chemicals, biological wastes, flammable wastes, and explosives. Are those wastes that pose a substantial danger immediately or over a period of time to human, plant or animal life. A waste is said to be hazardous if it exhibits any of the following characteristics, viz., ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity or toxicity.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4152 sources of hazardous wastes Industries, Nuclear plants, Hospitals, Research institutes, Laboratories

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4153 Causes of Solid Wastes The main causes for the rapid growth in the quantity of solid wastes are: (i) Over-population. (ii) Urbanization. (iii) Affluence. With production or per capita consumption, there is a tendency to declare items as obsolete, resulting in their discard. This leads, to solid waste pollution. (iv) Technology. Rapidly growing technologies for most economic goods are leading to returnable packaging to non-returnable packaging. For example, returnable glass bottles/ containers being replaced by non-returnable cans, plastic containers, etc.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4154 Effects of Solid Wastes Pollution Causes various health and environmental hazards, such as : Diseases like bacillary dysentery, diarrhoea and amoebic dysentery may result in humans from eating contaminated food and water contamination through flies, which breed on the refuse dump and solid waste. Rats depending upon these solid wastes may also cause plague, salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic typhus like diseases through direct bite. The crops and water supply may also get contaminated and may result in large scale epidemic of cholera, jaundice, gastrointestinal diseases, hepatitis etc.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/4155 E-waste management e-Waste for short - or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) - is the term used to describe old, end-of-life or discarded appliances using electricity. It includes computers, consumer electronics, fridges etc which have been disposed of by their original users

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES-3 156 FLOODS Floods occur when water from heavy rainfall, melting ice or snow, tsunamis or a combination of these, exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving river system. It is a natural process

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES-3 157 Floods occur when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water; water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels or retained in natural ponds and constructed reservoirs held behind dams.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES-3 158 Failure of levees and dams and inadequate drainage in urban areas can also result in flooding. Floods damage property, cause soil erosion and endanger the lives

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES-3 159 Flooding may deposit as much as 0.4 inches (1 cm) of sediment a year on a flood plain Floods throughout Asia in 1998 killed 7,000 people, damaged more than 6 million houses and destroyed 25 million hectares of cropland in Bangladesh, China, India and Vietnam In 2005, the remarkable flooding by Hurricane Katrina, caused more than $200 billion in losses, constituted the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra /ES-3 160 Flood Control Measures Reforestation Construction of dams, reservoirs, and floodways (artificial channels that divert floodwater) Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5161 Global Environmental Problems and Global Efforts UNIT-5 P. Ravindra Babu, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5162 Contents Global Warming Greenhouse effect Green House Gases (GHG) Sea Level Rise Climate change and impact on human environment Ozone Depletion Deforestation and Desertification International Conventions/Protocols Earth Summit Kyoto Protocol Montreal Protocol

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5163 GLOBAL WARMING Definition: Global warming is an increase in the Earth's temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of "greenhouse gases" (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere. These gases (CO 2, CH 4, N 2 O and CFCs) are radiatively active gases because they can absorb long wave infrared radiation. The atmospheric cover around the earth acts like a window glass pane.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5164 It allows most of the solar radiation (short wave length energy ) to enter right up to the earth's surface, but does not allow a substantial amount of the long-wave radiation (heat) emitted by the earth to escape in space. The outgoing longwave infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases normally present in the atmosphere. This is known as Green House Effect. There is concern that increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and other trace greenhouse gases due to human activities will enhance the green-house effect and cause 'global warming'.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5165 The warming trend over the last 50 years (0.13C per decade) is nearly twice the rate for the last 100 years. Temperatures in the atmosphere and in the oceans (to depths of at least 3000m) have also been rising, along with water vapor content of the atmosphere.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 166 Average Global Temperature by Decade, 1880- 2004 Decade Average Temperature Degrees Celsius 1880-188913.82 1890-189913.69 1900-190913.74 1910-191913.79 1920-192913.91 1930-193914.02 1940-194914.05 1950-195913.98 1960-196913.94 1970-197914.01 1980-198914.26 1990-199914.40 2000-200414.59

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5167 S. No. Gases Major sources 1. C02 Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, respiration. 2. CH4 Wetlands, anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes, termites. 3. N 2 0 Natural soils, fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion. 4. 0 3 Photochemical reactions in troposphere, transport (diffusion) from stratosphere. 5. CFC-11 Manufacturing of foams, aerosol propellant. 6. CFC-12 Refrigerant, aerosol propeltent, manufacturing of foams. 7. CFC-113 Electronics solvent. 8., HCFC-22 Refrigerant, production of fluoropolymers. 9. CH3CC13 Industrial degreasing solvent. 10. CC14 Intermediate in production of CFC- 11, CFC-12, solvent.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5168 Graphs of the rise in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Global Average Temperatures

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5169 Major sources of greenhouse gases Carbon dioxide: CO 2 is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The level of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased from the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm to about 368 ppm in 2000. The CFCs persist for 45 to 260 years or more in the atmosphere. The relative contribution of different greenhouse gases to global warming. Year 1990 2030 2060 2100 CO2 Cone, (ppm) 354 470 600 850 Temp, rise (C) 1.1 2.0 3.3 Sea-level rise (cm) 18 38 65

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5170 Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5171 Melting of Glaciers

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5172 Ozone layer depletion The ozone layer, is the part of the Earth's atmosphere and contains ozone (O 3 ). It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 40 km to 45 km above Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5173 Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations which continues to operate today. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the total amount of ozone in a column overhead, is named in his honor. The average thickness of the atmospheric ozone layer at any place varies from month to month, but is generally between 260 and 330 DU.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5174 Ozone Layer Depletion

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5175 Chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs), contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5176 The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (315- to 400-nm), UV-B (280-315 nm), and UV-C. UV-C, which would be very harmful to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 km altitude.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5177 However it is interesting to note that ozone gas is a pollutant at lower levels and cause severe problems like oedema, hemorrage etc. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV- B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm,

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5178 CFCs, CH 4 and N 2 O escape into the stratosphere and cause destruction of O3 there. Most damaging is the effect of CFCs, which produce "active chlorine" (Cl and CIO radicals) in the presence of UV-radiation. These radicals catalytically destroy ozone, converting it into oxygen. CH4 and N2O also cause ozone destruction through a complicated series of reactions. For making these discoveries related to O3 destruction, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, along with Paul Crutzen, were honoured with Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5179 Ozone hole : During the period 1956-1970, the spring-time O3 layer thickness above Antarctica varied from 280 to 325 Dobson Unit (1 DU = 1 ppb). The thickness was sharply reduced to 225 DU in 1979 and to 136 DU in 1985. The ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5180 Later, the O3 layer thickness continued to decline to about 94 DU in 1994. The decline ozone layer thickness is termed Ozone hole.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5181 The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone by agreeing to limit the production and use of ozone-depleting substances, phasing out of ozone-depleting substances and helping the developing countries to implement use of alternatives to CFCs. To-date, more than 175 countries have signed the Montreal Protocol. Montreal Protocol

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5182 The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing).

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5183 The treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing- out is achieved in 2030.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5184 Production of ozone-depleting substances in EEA member countries Source: European Commission 1999b; UNEP, 1998

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5185 Earth Summit The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Earth Summit), held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 3 June to 14 June in 1992. It was held twenty years after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) took place in Stockholm, Sweden. established the principles for reducing greenhouse gas emission.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5186 Government officials from 178 countries and 30,000 individuals from governments, non-governmental organizations, and the media participated in this event. To discuss solutions for global problems such as poverty, war, and the growing gap between industrialized and developing countries. The central focus was the question of how to relieve the global environmental system through the introduction to the paradigm of sustainable development.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5187 It enunciating 27 principles of environment and development, Agenda 21 Agreement on the operating rules Statement of principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests, Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, and United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity were products of independent, but concurrent, negotiating processes that were opened for signatures at UNCED.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5188 Agenda 21, the international plan of action to sustainable development, outlines key policies for achieving sustainable development that meets the needs of the poor and recognizes the limits of development to meet global needs. Agenda 21 has become the blueprint for sustainability and forms the basis for sustainable development strategies. It attempts to define a balance between production, consumption, population, development, and the Earth's life- supporting capacity. It addresses poverty, excessive consumption, health and education, cities and agriculture; food and natural resource management and several more subjects.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5189 The Kyoto Protocol is an internationally and legally binding agreement. The major feature of it is to set binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005 Kyoto Protocol

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5190 The reductions amount to an average of 5% against 1990 emission levels over the five year period from 2008 - 2012. The main difference between the Protocol and the Convention is that the Convention encourages industrialised countries to stabilise their emissions whereas the Protocol commits them to actually do it.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5191 The Kyoto Protocol is administered and regulated by an international treaty linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Most countries within the UNFCCC joined the treaty and ratified Kyoto over a decade ago.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5192 The 3 Kyoto Mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol offers its members three different mechanisms to help meet there targets. These are known as; Emissions Trading The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI)

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5193 Emissions Trading It allows for an industrialised country to express its allowed emissions or assigned amounts within the treaty as 'assigned amount units' (AAUs). As a result countries that have unused units can then trade them with other countries who have surpassed their own allowances and require additional units. Since carbon dioxide is the principle GHG, most people now refer to it as trading carbon within a carbon market.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5194 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialised countries to meet their emission targets/levels through investment and/or co- operation in a emission reduction project in a non industrialised country or developing country. This gives industrialised countries greater flexibility in terms of the best way that they can meet their overall targets.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5195 Joint Implementation (JI) The mechanism known as Joint Implementation allows for emission reduction units (ERUs) to be earned by one industrialised country from a project in another industrialised country. An example of this may be the sharing of new technology and/or foreign investment in a emissions reduction project.

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/41 Environmental Pollution Unit - 5 Dr. P. Ravindra Babu, Associate...

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