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SMOOTHING STORE ATMOSPHERE WITH DARKNESS

MASTER THESIS

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in Strategic Management

Dr. Mathias STREICHER

Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism

The University of Innsbruck School of Management

Submitted by:

Jessica ELSÄSSER 4

Innsbruck, May 2019

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Abstract

While extant research investigated the effect of cue congruency on consumer behaviour, we

aim to fill a gap in literature by examining how perceived cue congruency can be improved by

manipulating illumination. Within an experimental study, we tested whether darkness

improves perceived cue congruency between smell and haptic; thus, increasing willingness to

pay. Results have shown that, compared to the bright condition, participants in the dark

condition indicated higher WTP estimates; whereas, perceived cue congruency mediated the

effect of darkness on WTP. The findings provide an innovative and easy solution to improve

perceived cue congruency and therefore consumer behaviour.

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Table of contents

List of tables ............................................................................................................................ IV

List of figures .......................................................................................................................... IV

List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................... IV

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

2 Store atmospherics ....................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Olfactory .................................................................................................................. 4

2.2 Haptic ....................................................................................................................... 5

2.3 Vision ....................................................................................................................... 6

2.4 How do store atmospherics influence behaviour? ................................................... 7

2.5 Store Atmosphere and Boundary Conditions .......................................................... 8

2.5.1 Expectations of consumers ............................................................................... 9

2.5.2 Individual reactions - addressing the right audience ...................................... 10

2.5.3 Differentiation and re-design .......................................................................... 11

2.5.4 Negative Outcomes of Store Atmosphere ...................................................... 11

3 Cue Congruency ......................................................................................................... 13

3.1 Cue congruency versus incongruency ................................................................... 15

3.2 Sensory overload .................................................................................................... 15

3.3 Product and ambient cue congruency .................................................................... 16

3.4 Semantic cue congruency ...................................................................................... 17

4 Perceptual processing style ........................................................................................ 19

4.1 Gestalt theory ......................................................................................................... 19

4.2 Abstraction ............................................................................................................. 20

4.3 Global versus local processing style ...................................................................... 20

4.3.1 Faith in intuition ............................................................................................. 21

4.3.2 Creativity ........................................................................................................ 21

4.3.3 Mood ............................................................................................................... 22

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4.4 Similarity judgements and its connection to perceived congruency ...................... 22

5 Darkness ...................................................................................................................... 25

6 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses ................................................................. 28

7 Study – Illumination and Multisensory Integration ............................................... 29

7.1 Design .................................................................................................................... 29

7.2 Participants ............................................................................................................. 29

7.3 Stimuli .................................................................................................................... 29

7.4 Field setting and equipment ................................................................................... 29

7.5 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 30

7.6 Results .................................................................................................................... 32

8 General Discussion ..................................................................................................... 35

8.1 Theoretical Implications ........................................................................................ 35

8.2 Practical Implications ............................................................................................. 37

8.3 Limitations and Future Directions ......................................................................... 38

9 References ................................................................................................................... 40

Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 48

Affidavit ................................................................................................................................... 50

IV

List of tables Table 1: Main sensory channels according to Kotler (1973) ..................................................... 4

Table 2: Measures and items used in study .............................................................................. 31

List of figures Figure 1: conceptual model ...................................................................................................... 28

Figure 2: experimental setting ................................................................................................. 30

Figure 3: product assortment ................................................................................................... 30

Figure 4: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright condition .......................... 33

List of abbreviations WTP Willingness to pay

FI Faith in intuition

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1 Introduction

Imagine you walk into a store. What do you feel, smell, hear, and see? Is it the smell of a

certain scent? The sound of music? Or even the bright lights? Whether it is in a restaurant,

shopping centre or retail store, consumers are constantly surrounded by a combination of

sensory cues such as music, scent or light (Kotler, 1973). Importantly, everything that is

perceived by senses influences behaviour. To illustrate this, sensory cues in shopping

environments might increase the number of purchases, time spent in a shop, and willingness

to pay (WTP) (Berman & Evans, 2010). Furthermore, the perception of environments is

inherently multisensory. Sensory stimuli are perceived as one unit and not as different parts

(e.g. Soars, 2009). To illustrate this, when a car drives by several stimuli are usually received

at once - the sound of the motor, the smell of the fumes, and the visual appearance of the

vehicle (Parker & Robinson, 2018). An important component of multisensory experiences is

whether the combination of stimuli is perceived as congruent or not. Whereas, cue

congruency leads to positive consumer behaviour such as higher store evaluations,

incongruency might lead to contrary results (Spangenberg, Grohmann, & Sprott, 2005). Cue

congruency, especially its effects, has received a great deal of attention over the last few years

(e.g. Krishna, Elder, & Caldara, 2010). However, until now, there has been no attempt to

provide suggestions of how perceived congruency can be improved. Findings of Förster

(2009) might give first hints to address this issue. Förster (2009) found that participants

induced with a global processing style tend to look for more similarities; whereas, a local

processing style leads to finding more dissimilarities. As the concept of cue congruency

potentially overlaps with similarity judgments, we expect that a global processing style

improves perceived cue congruency as consumers tend to look for more similarities. That

said, the question remains of how managers induce a global processing style in stores. Steidle,

Werth, and Hanke (2011) have shown that darkness elicits a global processing style.

Therefore, within an experimental study, we aim to induce a global processing style by

dimming illumination and test if darkness improves perceived cue congruency. This leads me

to the following research question: Darkness improves perceived cue congruency and

ultimately leads to a higher WTP. The study adds important insights into how perceived cue

congruency can be improved. Additionally, the study might generate considerable interest in

practice as the findings provide an innovative solution to influence consumer behaviour, and

ultimately to increase sales (Le Gall-Ely, 2009; Turley & Chebat, 2002).

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This thesis is structured as following: First, we will begin with a literature review on store

atmospherics followed by the concept of cue congruency. After that, we will review literature

on how environments are perceived and explain the connection between global processing

style and darkness. Then the study will be presented that tests the effect of darkness on

ambient scent -haptic perception and WTP estimates. Finally, the thesis will close with a

discussion that includes theoretical aspects along with managerial implications, limitations,

and future directions.

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2 Store atmospherics

Why do we purchase products? Literature suggests that our actual purchase decision does not

only rely on product characteristics, but also on the shopping setting (e.g. Donovan &

Rossiter, 1982; Kotler, 1973). Kotler (1973) emphasized that consumers respond to more than

just the product itself. Customers consider the total product when purchasing. The total

product comprises all characteristics that accompany a product such as warranties, packaging,

price, and advertising. Additionally, Kotler (1973) came up with the idea that the place where

products are consumed or bought are even more influential than the product itself. Starbucks,

for example, provide basic products, but has become one of the largest coffee chains in the

world. The success of Starbucks possibly relies on their atmosphere which is an important

part of their service setting (Spence, Puccinelli, Grewal, & Roggeveen, 2014). They provide

cosy chairs, fireplaces, free electricity, and access to the internet. An important component of

the shopping places are sensory cues (Kotler, 1973). We are constantly surrounded by sensory

stimuli, whether it is in a store or in a private setting (Kotler, 1973). Importantly, sensory cues

can affect our mind in unconscious ways, which means that we might not be always aware of

the influence sensory stimuli have on us (Turley & Chebat, 2002; Soars, 2009). In her often-

cited review on sensory marketing, Krishna (2012) provides many examples of how sensory

cues may impact consumer perception and behaviour. It is important to note, however, that

sensory cues can have different sources: On a product-level, retailers use specific colours,

shapes, and sizes to differentiate from competitors and to influence a consumer´s buying

decision (Cowen-Elstner, 2018). On an ambient-level, brick-and-mortar stores, for example,

use sensory cues to influence consumer behaviour by creating a specific store atmosphere

(Schreuder, van Erp, Toet, & Kallen, 2016). An important, but largely underresearched,

aspect of the store atmosphere is illumination although it is often used in business places in

intended ways. Hollister, for example, designed a store in the United Kingdom that explicitly

uses dark illumination in their store (Weinmann & Groth, 2011). The Canadian fashion brand

Holt Renfrew, on the contrary, typically uses low illumination, but with bright spots to

highlight products (Yee, 2007). Practically, the store atmosphere depends on various cues so

that store illumination and other atmospheric cues often appear together (Custers, de Kort,

IJsselsteijn, & de Kruiff, 2010; Turley & Milliman, 2000). Retailers such as Lush Cosmetics

use specific scents to evoke a memory in the buyer’s mind. Other stores create their own

scents, so-called “signature scents” that fit to the brand identity and to the store itself (Spence

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et al., 2014). A study conducted by Spangenberg, Sprott, Grohmann, and Tracy (2006) has

shown that sales almost doubled by adding a scent to the store. However, nothing is known as

to how illumination and scent interact with each other. Apart from scent or music,

illumination is always part of store atmospherics because it cannot be removed as

consumption always occurs along a continuum from dark to bright. Before this thesis

discusses such potential interactions of illumination with other aspects of the store

atmosphere, the construct of store atmosphere will be reviewed.

Store atmospherics describes the intended creation of a shopping environment with the aim of

increasing the probability of purchase (Kotler, 1973). The term “Atmospherics” was

introduced by Kotler in 1973 and includes the sensory factors vision, audition, haptic, and

smell. Since an environment cannot be tasted (i.e., taste is an object-related sense) the taste

modality is usually not included in established literature on store atmospherics (Kotler, 1973).

However, certain ambient cues can arouse the memory of taste, such as the smell of

chocolate, can be related to the taste of sweetness (Spence et al., 2014). Sensory factors may

be designed into the space or may be inherent to the environment (Kotler, 1973). To

exemplify this illumination might be intrinsic, on the one hand, resulting from the daylight

shining through the windows of a store. On the other hand, illumination might be a designed

quality of space by using artificial light. Table 1 provides the main dimensions of an

atmosphere described by Kotler (1973), followed by a short description of the dimensions

relevant for the underlying study.

Visual dimensions Aural dimensions Olfactory dimensions Tactile dimensions

- Colour

- Brightness

- Size

- Shapes

- Volume

- Pitch

- Scent

- Freshness

- Softness

- Smoothness

- Temperature

Table 1: Main sensory channels according to Kotler (1973)

2.1 Olfactory

Scent is besides music probably the most researched sensory cue in literature. Scent impacts

perception and behaviour. More precisely, scent might increase time spend in the store, the

likelihood of purchase, and WTP (Spence et al., 2014). For example, authors observed an

increase of purchase intentions, in rooms with ambient scent compared to unscented rooms

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(Spangenberg, Crowley, & Henderson, 1996). Additionally, Cowen-Elstner (2018) underlines

that ambient scent improves consumers evaluation of the store. Interestingly, Li, Moallem,

Paller, and Gottfried (2007) have shown that, in some cases, scent exerts an even greater

influence on participants if they are not aware of it. Another important aspect of scent is the

power of recall. It can be argued that scent is the strongest sense in terms of memory.

Individuals are capable memorizing a scent in their long-term memory. Consumers pay more

attention to the stimuli in a store with a pleasant scent; thus, enabling them to recall this

information more easily (Cowen-Elstner, 2018). Due to its effect on consumer behaviour,

scent is an important tool for increasing sales. Many companies such as Samsung or Sony

create own scents for its stores. To illustrate this, Samsung stores are surrounded by a

honeydew melon scent. Sony created a vanilla and mandarin orange scent to make their

customers feel relaxed and to make their store a pleasant place to be (Spence et al., 2014).

Although, haptic is a strong sense for humans, potentially stronger than olfaction (Krishna,

2012), the influence of haptic on consumer behaviour has been neglected in literature so far.

2.2 Haptic

Aristoteles proposed that our senses are hierarchically ordered. In first place is the haptic

sense, followed by the other senses. Additionally, he claimed that all other senses merely

improve the acuity of haptic. It is argued, that haptic might be an important, but often

neglected, modality. Literature provides several studies that demonstrate the importance of

touch for humans (e.g. Harlow, 1958), however there is relatively little knowledge about how

tactile dimensions determine consumer behaviour. Several studies have revealed that touching

products improves product evaluation (Grohmann, Spangenberg, & Sprott, 2007) and actual

choice of the product (Streicher & Estes, 2015). On the other side, consumers are not willing

to purchase a product if they have the feeling that it has been touched by others (Argo, Dahl,

& Morales, 2006). Although haptic has been neglected in literature so far, it could be an

important part of the purchasing decision, especially for products where vision fails to provide

all the information that might be necessary for an informed decision. These might be products

with material properties such as towels or carpets. For instance, touching bathroom towels

delivers, in comparison to only-visual cues, information about the texture and softness of said

good (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003). Therefore, within our experimental study, we used a towel

as tactile sensory stimuli to gain more insights into the effect of haptic on consumer behaviour

and the interplay with scent. Although haptic is considered to be the strongest sense for

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humans (Harlow, 1958; Krishna, 2012), Schreuder et al. (2016) found support for the

dominance of vision over touch in a consumption related context.

2.3 Vision

The visual modality has received presumably the most attention in consumer research. Kotler

(1973) categorized vision into the dimensions colour, brightness, size, and shapes. Vision is

often said to be a predominant and omnipresent factor in human perception, which can also

dominate judgements and behaviours (Cowen-Elstner, 2018; Helmefalk, 2016; Krishna,

2012). In a study by Schifferstein (2006), participants had to evaluate the importance of

vision, hearing, feel, smell, and taste in using products which were sampled from various

categories. Consonant with the dominant view, vision turned out to be the most important

factor from a consumer perspective to evaluate products. Therefore, it seems fair to conclude

that vision is the most dominant sensory factor in shaping consumer behaviour. This

dominance of vision has been illustrated by Hoegg and Alba (2007) in their seminal study. In

this study, participants had to rate the taste of orange juice. Critically, the authors manipulated

the colour and the taste of the drink so that the orange juice would either differ in terms of

taste or colour (e.g., two glasses of orange juice were identical in taste but not in colour).

However, participants rated the juices which differed in their visual appearance (but were

identical in taste) to be more dissimilar than the juices that only differed in the taste

dimension. Differing samples of orange juice with the same colour, in contrast, were

perceived to be more similar even when the taste differed. This example illustrates the

dominance of vision (here the colour) over taste. Although, the visual dimensions colour, size,

and shapes have received a great deal of attention in literature, illumination has been

neglected so far. However, illumination is an omnipresent factor (Kotler, 1973) potentially

providing an easy opportunity to impact consumer behaviour. Merely changing the level of

illumination increases sales (Hultén, 2012), the amount of actual consumption (Gal, Wheeler,

& Shiv, 2007), the time spent in the store, and the numbers of touched items (Summers and

Herbert, 2001). As already mentioned, touching products, in turn, impacts, for instance,

product evaluation (Grohmann et al., 2007) and choice of a specific product (Streicher &

Estes, 2015). Due to the potential effects of illumination on consumer behaviour and the easy

manipulation of lighting, we aim to discover whether darkness positively affects WTP.

Literature reveals plenty of studies on the effects of sensory cues, especially regarding scent

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and music. (e.g. Spangenberg et al., 2005). However, the effect of darkness remains, for now,

an underresearched topic. It is clear that illumination as well as scent are of practical

reasoning which makes our study relevant not only for literature but also in managerial terms.

Additionally, tactile dimensions are not widely researched in literature on store atmospherics.

Therefore, we aim to contribute to existing literature by investigating the interplay between

haptic, scent, and illumination. To gain deeper understanding about the concept of store

atmospherics, the process of how behaviour is influenced by sensory stimuli is clarified.

2.4 How do store atmospherics influence behaviour?

Although consumers may already have pre-existing purchase plans, much of their actual

shopping behaviour is determined by the context in which consumption takes place. Thus,

store atmospheres might transform the wishes and purchase intentions into actual purchases

(Kotler, 1973). But why is this the case?

The classic environment model developed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) might give a

deeper understanding of the mechanism of how environments influence consumer behaviour.

Mehrabian and Russell (1974) argue that environments create specific emotions which may

positively influence behavioural responses. The model developed by Mehrabian and Russell

(1974) states that certain environmental stimuli trigger emotions, like pleasure, arousal and

dominance and emotions, in turn, affect behavioural responses (Donovan, Rossiter,

Marcoolyn, & Nesdale, 1994). This statement is in line with more up-to-date neuroscientific

literature. Damasio (2006) highlighted that emotions play an important role in the decision-

making process and, in some cases, emotions even determine our decisions. To illustrate this

point, studies have shown that shopping-related intentions and WTP are higher when the

atmosphere is perceived as being pleasant and arousing (Donovan & Rossiter,1982).

Furthermore, Spies, Hesse, and Loesch (1997) have shown that in pleasant store

environments, the consumers’ mood improved; thus, consumers spent more money and were

more satisfied. Furthermore, a positive mood has been shown to increase willingness to

communicate with store employees (Berman & Evans, 2010). The model proposed by

Mehrabian and Russell (1974) explains the effects of environments on behaviour in general.

Donovan and Rossiter (1982) modified the model of Mehrabian and Russell (1974) to apply it

to store atmospheres. This enables us to get a deeper understanding of the relation of store

atmospherics to consumer behaviour.

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The concept of (1) stimulus-(2) organism-(3) response (SOR) adapts the model of Mehrabian

and Russell (1974) to store atmospherics by including sensory cues as environmental stimuli.

Similarly to Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Donovan and Rossiter (1982) argue that sensory

stimuli such as light, music or scent cause certain emotions that influence customers’

behavioural responses. In the case of the SOR model, (1) stimuli are sensory factors. (2)

Organism is the emotional reaction towards sensory cues. Ultimately, (3) response illustrates

the resulting behaviour, which can be linked to approach (positive) or avoidance (negative)

behaviour. Approach and avoidance behaviour include shopping-related intentions (Donovan

& Rossiter, 1974). To illustrate this, environmental stimuli might increase time spent in a

shop and, in turn, time spent in a shop improves purchase probability (Berman & Evans,

2010). Literature reveals that it is more than twice as likely that customers who spend 40

minutes in a shop would buy something, compared to customers that spend only 10 minutes in

a store (Soars, 2009). Furthermore, it has been argued that customers spend more time

exploring the goods a store peddles in pleasant atmospheres (Berman & Evans, 2010). This in

turn, is likely to influence both, planned and unplanned purchases (Turley & Chebat, 2002).

Additionally, if the atmosphere is perceived as being pleasant, customers’ intent to return to

the store (e.g. Berman & Evans, 2010; Bitner, 1992) and to visit the store more frequently

(Spence et al., 2014). Furthermore, environmental stimuli facilitate the development of a

store’s image. A store’s image, in turn, results in store loyalty towards the establishment and

continued patronage (Turley & Chebat, 2002).

As shown, several studies confirm the positive impact of atmospheres on consumer behaviour

(e.g. Spies et al., 1997). Unsurprisingly, store atmospherics have grown in importance over

the last decades, not only in literature but also in practice.

2.5 Store Atmosphere and Boundary Conditions

Over the past few years, store atmospherics have received a lot of attention not only in

literature, but also in practice. Restaurants, for instance, were among the first service

industries that tried to create extra value for their customers by creating so-called “atmosphere

restaurants”. The owner of Pier Four in Boston once said: “If it weren`t for the atmosphere, I

couldn`t do nearly the business I do.” (Kotler, 1973, p. 58). Apart from restaurants, store

atmospherics grew in importance for retailers as well. As discussed above, illumination is an

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omnipresent factor in service escapes that is often used to create a specific store atmosphere.

To illustrate this, shoe stores like ‘Holt Renfrew Shoes’, make use of lightning to create a

dynamic and luxurious atmosphere. The shoe retailer uses low ambient lightning with high

contrasts to highlight specific products (Yee, 2007). Store atmospherics have not only

changed the rules for restaurants and retailers, to name a select few, but is also relevant for

airlines, psychiatric offices, and advertisement agency offices (Kotler, 1973). Kotler (1973)

argues that creating a store atmosphere is especially relevant for stores where the consumers

buy or consume the product and where design options are given. Hence, store atmospherics

are particularly of importance for retailers whilst being less relevant for manufactures and

wholesalers, making it reasonable to provide, within the underlying study, managerial

implications for retailers.

Although store atmospherics provide potential to increase sales, in some cases, designing

store atmospheres involve high investments that perhaps fail to pay off (Turley & Chebat,

2002). Thus, it is advised to thoughtfully plan the creation of store atmospheres and to

consider the following points.

2.5.1 Expectations of consumers

To begin with, whether store atmospheres successfully improve consumer behaviour or not

might depend on the expectations of consumers; thus, it is advisable to create store

atmospheres that meet consumers’ expectations (Kotler, 1973). To illustrate this, customers

expect marketing agencies to be creative; therefore, offices with an avant-garde look are

designed to meet the expectation of creativeness. Additionally, customers usually have pre-

determined expectations of what they wish to have from the shopping experience (Kotler,

1973). The creation of a desired shopping experience might be facilitated by sensory factors.

For instance, customers frequenting high-end hotels desire a luxurious experience. Sensory

stimuli such as the furniture, lighting or music might be incorporated into the design to create

an association with a luxurious, special atmosphere. Therefore, many upscale hotels use, for

instance, their own scents (olfaction) or high-quality furniture such as leather seats (haptic)

(Choi & Kandampully, 2019). Importantly, expectations, but also the perception, of certain

stimuli might vary from customer to customer.

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2.5.2 Individual reactions - addressing the right audience

Individuals perceive stimuli differently (Turley & Chebat, 2002). For example, genders

might perceive stimuli differently. Recent studies have found differences between men and

women in shopping motivation, shopping styles, and - most importantly - how environmental

cues are processed (Hart, Farrell, Stachow, Reed, & Cadogan, 2007). To further illustrate this,

Spangenberg et al. (2006) conducted a field experiment at a clothes boutique and have shown

that men prefer a sweet floral aroma; whereas, women long for a vanilla scent. Using different

scents in the men’s (sweet floral) and women’s department (vanilla) increased sales.

Additionally, studies have revealed a link between age and the preference for specific types of

ambient music. For example, younger people spend more time than planned at stores where

instrumental music is played while more mature shoppers spend a greater amount of time than

planned in shops where music with lyrics has been played (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1990).

Hence, customers’ reaction towards sensory stimuli strongly depends on individual

characteristics; therefore, reactions might vary from customer to customer.

Kotler (1973) concludes that the higher the dissimilarity among customers, the higher the

differences in reactions towards sensory stimuli and the more difficult it is to design an

intended store atmosphere perceived equally among consumers. In practice, some retailers

create store atmospheres in line with their target group. ‘Forever21’, for instance, usually

plays loud music, uses bright colours, and display a plethora of items to attract teenagers. In

contrast to that, high-end clothing stores like ‘Holt Renfrew’ display a few items at spacious

locations with a minimalistic interior. If a store attracts a homogenous group of customers, it

might be easier to design an appealing atmosphere. However, creating store atmospheres that

positively influence consumer behaviour is challenging when serving a heterogenous group of

customers (Kotler, 1973; Turley & Chebat, 2002). In the case of serving a heterogenous

audience, Kotler (1973) suggests choosing between a neutral atmosphere or designing

different atmospheres for different parts of the store. In line with this, Turley and Chebat

(2002) suggest different strategies ranging from consistent stores to the creation of several

atmospheres. Hence, creating a store atmosphere also influences segmentation and positioning

strategies (Kotler 1973; Turley & Chebat, 2002).

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Consequently, the design of store atmospheres strongly depends on the target group, as

customers perceive sensory cues differently (Turley & Chebat, 2002). Surely, competition and

design trends might also influence the creation of atmospheres.

2.5.3 Differentiation and re-design

If price differences and product heterogeneity are small, differentiation is an important factor

to succeed in the market. While price and quality have been the major success factors

historically, the atmosphere nowadays is a decisive factor for differentiation (Kotler, 1973;

Spence et al., 2014; Turley & Chebat, 2002). An example would be ‘Apple’, a company was

able to differentiate from their competitors on both a product-level and on an ambient-level.

In contrast to their competitors such as Samsung, they created large stores with minimalistic

design principles. Apple stores, compared to their competitors, deliver a shopping experience.

To provide an effective and competitive atmosphere in the long-term, re-designs of the

atmosphere might be necessary (Kotler, 1973).

Design trends are continuously changing over time. Additionally, there could be a wear-out-

effect, which means that customers might get used to the atmosphere (Kotler, 1973; Turley &

Chebat, 2002). Therefore, Turley and Chebat (2002) suggest regularly assessing store

atmospheres according to their efficiency, influence on consumers and if the right message is

delivered. Studies have shown that redesigning atmospheres pays off. Even small changes in

the environment impact consumer behaviour and sales (Turley & Chebat, 2002).

2.5.4 Negative Outcomes of Store Atmosphere

Although even small changes in the atmosphere can have an enormous impact on consumer

behaviour, mishandling elements might have an adverse effect. The lifestyle brand Hollister

for example designed a new clothing store in the United Kingdom. In the store, illumination

was dimmed to create a club-like atmosphere where people spend more time and ultimately

purchase more items. However, customers were dissatisfied and criticized the low level of

illumination. Customers indicated that the prices are not visible, and some even argued that

they got lost in the shop due to the darkness (Weinmann & Groth, 2011).

Besides the aforementioned boundary conditions, the combination of sensory stimuli play a

vital role in the creation of efficient store atmospheres. Earlier literature investigated the

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effects of sensory stimuli on a sense-to-sense basis. However, researchers observed an

interaction across different sensory factors. Therefore, scholars started revising their concepts

by stating that sensory factors are perceived as one unit and not as different parts (e.g. Soars,

2009). Specifically, it has been argued that perceptions of environments are multisensory by

nature. Therefore, managers increasingly aim to create multisensory experiences that form a

holistic perception (e.g. Schreuder et al., 2016).

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3 Cue Congruency

Consumption experience is inherently multisensory. We are constantly surrounded by a

combination of sensory cues (Soars, 2009). To illustrate this on a product-level, the

consumption of coffee involves all senses – vision, auditory, olfactory, taste, and haptic.

Visual cues, for example, are present during coffee consumption through the colour of the

coffee or the presence of foam. It could be argued that multisensory consumption already

starts with the preparation of the coffee. Visual cues such as the colour (vision) or sound

(auditory) of the machine can shape consumption experience. Additionally, the way how

coffee is served is perceived by senses. For example, the colour (vision) and the material of

the mug (haptic) might influence consumption. A study conducted by Van Doorn, Wuillemin,

and Spence (2014) reveals the relationship between the colour of a coffee mug and the

intensity rating. White mugs enhanced the ratings of intensity compared to transparent mug.

Furthermore, the coffee has been perceived as being less sweet in white mugs compared to

transparent and blue mugs. Furthermore, the aroma and flavour of the coffee are perceived by

taste and smell.

Multisensory experience might also take place on an ambient-level. In the case of airplanes,

passengers are constantly surrounded by sensory cues ranging from visual elements such as

the colour of the cabin to the sound of the cabin or specific scent. To illustrate this, visual

cues like the colour of the seats or the dresses of stewardesses and stewards are present in

every airplane. The impact of colours in cabins has been studied by Cowen-Elstner (2018).

The author identifies a more positive evaluation of coloured cabins compared to grey cabins.

Coloured cabins are perceived as being more attractive and of higher quality. The sound of

the cabin can be referred to auditory cues. It could be the inherent sound of a plane or a

manipulated sound. Austrian Airlines for example, play classical music during boarding. Ren

and Xu (2018) argue that music positively affects the boarding time. This in turn, leads to

customer satisfaction and economical as well as operational benefits for airlines. Thus, the

combination of different senses is of practical importance and managers increasingly

incorporate various cues in the consumption environment. Finnair, for instance, became aware

that music affects taste and thus created menus that match their music. To further exemplify

this, sweet corn and chicken soup has been matched with a bubbling sound to evoke feelings

of freshness (Mejia, 2017). These examples have shown how different stimuli interact with

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each other shaping consumption experiences. Hence, we cannot speak of consumption on a

sense-by-sense basis as customers are inherently surrounded by a combination of sensory

stimuli (Soars, 2009).

The concept of multisensory integration provides a good explanation of how various sensory

stimuli are perceived. When a car drives by, you see it, you can probably hear the motor and

at the same time you smell its fumes. Our brain receives various types of information from

different sensory modalities at the same time and processes it into one perception instead of

different stimuli (Parker & Robinson, 2018). Therefore, it has been suggested to create a store

atmosphere approaching different senses (e.g. Cowen-Elstner, 2018).

Schreuder et al. (2016) confirms the statement of creating a multisensory consumption

experience by highlighting that, in comparison to a unisensory environment, a multisensory

setting can intensify emotional response, which in turn is said to impact behaviour (Donovan

& Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). For instance, a multisensory stimulation with

the senses vision and haptic leads to a positive attitude toward the product and an increase of

purchase intention; whereas, in the conditions of vision-only and touch-only, lower ratings

can be observed (Schreuder et al., 2016). In recent years, there has been a growing interest in

investigating sensory cues in a multisensory frame; therefore, the combination of two sensory

factors has been examined (Krishna et al., 2010; Spangenberg et al., 2005). Many studies

have revealed that the right combination of sensory cues is vital in order to positively

influence consumer behaviour (Schreuder et al., 2016). Literature calls this fit between

sensory stimuli “cue congruency” (Peracchio & Tybout, 1996)

Cue congruency can be described as the quality of the similarity and alignment of two or

more stimulus features (Peracchio & Tybout, 1996). Krishna et al. (2010, p.412) define cue

congruency as the following: “[…] to be the degree of fit among characteristics of a

stimulus.” Research has illustrated the impact of congruency on behavioural intentions and

feelings (Schreuder et al., 2016). Cue congruency leads to faster reactions times of

recognition, enhanced quality of information processing, and to a more positive product

evaluation (Krishna et al., 2010). Soars (2009) concludes that the right combination of

sensory cues might impact decision-making and probability of purchase. Additionally, one

sensory cue might help to uncover other unpleasant sensory factors. For example, Schreuder

15

et al. (2016) mentioned that the negative effects of traffic noise (auditory) might be reduced

by visual elements such as green plants. However, is cue congruency always better than

incongruency?

3.1 Cue congruency versus incongruency

We could argue that individuals prefer consistency. For example, people prefer people who

are similar to them (Förster, 2009). Therefore, we could expect that individuals prefer stimuli

that are congruent and, on the contrary, we could assume that cue incongruency might lead to

contrary results. However, some research has shown that incongruency between sensory

stimuli might be beneficial in some cases (Spence et al., 2014). Roggeveen, Goodstein, and

Grewal (2014) for example, highlighted that incongruency might lead to higher evaluations

compared to congruency; nevertheless, these cases are rare. Examples of this might be high-

end merchandise and modernist restaurants (Spence et al., 2014). As the underlying study

focuses on retailers in general and not on rare cases, studies that facilitate cue incongruency

can be neglected. Additionally, there are several studies that confirm the positive effect of cue

congruency in comparison to incongruency, giving enough reasons to strive for cue

congruency. For instance, research regarding vision and audition has shown that congruency

leads to a better evaluation of the store and product compared to incongruency (Schreuder et

al., 2016). In line with this, Spangenberg et al. (2005) have shown that congruency between

music and scent leads to better store ratings compared to incongruency. In addition, Krishna

et al. (2010) argues that congruency between haptic and smell leads to a more positive

product evaluation compared to incongruency. Although it is advised to combine several

congruent sensory stimuli to shape consumption experiences (e.g. Schreuder et al., 2016), too

many cues might negatively impact consumer behaviour (Krishna, 2012).

3.2 Sensory overload

Whereas it is argued that consumption experience is inherently multisensory, and stores

should combine various sensory cues (e.g. Spence et al., 2014) other authors such as Krishna

(2012) mention the negative outcome of sensory overload. Just as we are confronted by

information overload, we can also have sensory overload. For instance, research by Homburg,

Imschloss, and Kühnl (2012) has shown that in comparison to two congruent cues, three

congruent sensory stimuli might lead to dissatisfaction. This phenomenon might be associated

with the level of stimulation, as three moderately stimulating cues lead to satisfaction. The

16

right level of stimulation might differ from individual to individual. The loud and vibrant

store atmosphere found in ‘Abercrombie & Fitch’ might be appealing to young customers, but

the loud music and intensive scent might be too overwhelming for older patrons (Spence et

al., 2014).

The discussion above indicates that a multisensory atmosphere is not always better than a

unisensory environment. Just like Spence et al. (2014), Schreuder et al. (2016) argues that

multisensory cues do not necessarily contribute to desired consumer behaviour. Spangenberg

et al. (2005) advises that it is better to use a unisensory environment instead of an incongruent

atmosphere. The authors base their suggestion on the finding that the use of a single sensory

cue (in their case music) might lead to the same results as a congruent mix of scent and music.

Therefore, we cannot argue that multisensory cues are better than unisensory atmospheres. On

the contrary, we know from cognitive neuroscience and marketing research that multisensory

atmospherics are potentially stronger than unisensory atmospherics (Spence et al., 2014). If

multisensory cues are combined well, positive results could be observed (e.g. Krishna et al.,

2010; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Spangenberg et al., 2005). This discussion confirms the need for

future research on the effect of multisensory stimuli. More studies should be conducted to

facilitate designing atmospheres resulting in positive behavioural reactions.

Within the underlying study, we categorised congruency into two different levels: ambient

and product cue congruency, and semantic congruency. In the following section, literature

about these different levels of cue congruency will be reviewed.

3.3 Product and ambient cue congruency

Research has moved from studying congruent combinations between single sensory factors

and other variables such as the product, to multisensory cue congruency. For instance

congruency between music and marketing stimuli has been shown to influence consumer

perception. A study by North, Hargreaves, and McKendrick (1999) revealed that wine is sold

better with congruent music. Therefore, French wine is better sold with French music instead

of German music. On the contrary, German wine is sold better with German music.

Similarly, it has been argued that sensory stimuli should be congruent with the product. For

instance, congruency between music and products impacts purchase behaviour (Spangenberg

et al., 2005). Moreover, scent impacts decision-making (Spangenberg et al., 2005). and

17

product evaluation (Bosmans, 2006) when it is perceived as congruent with the product or

with the product class.

While past studies failed to investigate how sensory cues interact with each other, research

has shifted their focus from the examination of one stimulus to multisensory cues (Spence et

al., 2014). For instance, Morrison, Gan, Dubelaar, and Oppewal (2011) noted that congruency

between music and scent leads to pleasure, which in turn impacts shopping behaviour

(Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Likewise, Mattila, and Wirtz

(2001) studied the interaction between music and scent in a retail store setting and observed

improved store evaluation, customer satisfaction, and an increase in impulse buying compared

to an incongruent combination of stimuli. Spangenberg et al. (2005) adds that congruency

between music and scent increases the intention to visit the store in the future and improves

the evaluation of store atmospheres.

Music-scent combinations are a widely researched topic. However, literature about research

on the interplay between other sensory cues such as vision-olfaction and olfaction-haptic is

somewhat lacking. Thus, the underlying research aims to contribute to literature by studying

the interplay between haptic, illumination, and scent. As haptic and scent might evoke

semantic associations, existing literature on semantic congruency will be reviewed.

3.4 Semantic cue congruency

Krishna et al. (2010) argues: “An interesting component of congruence is that it is determined

by the appropriateness or fit of the semantic associations among the characteristics” (p.412).

The perception of sensory cues is linked with experiences resulting in experiences being

related to specific associations. Due to these associations with experiences, semantic

meanings arise. To illustrate this, it has been argued that scent stimulates semantic

associations. More specifically, the smell of citrus, for instance, is associated with cleaning

(Krishna et al., 2010). Holland, Hendriks, and Aarts (2005) revealed that customers that are

surrounded by the smell of citrus are more likely to clean their cubicles after eating cookies

compared to the condition with no scent. This behaviour might be due to the association of

citrus scent to cleaning products. Similarly, a study by Liljenquist, Zhong, and Galinsky

(2010) exemplifies the meaning of semantic associations. The authors replicated a retail-like

condition in which individuals were surrounded by a scent of a recognizable cleaning product.

18

The study revealed that the recognizable scent led participants to be tidier. Consequently, we

can say that the activation of semantic sensory associations impacts behaviour (Krishna et al.,

2010). Apart from the impact of semantic meanings on behaviour in general, Spangenberg et

al. (2006), have shown that if the semantic meaning between scent and product is congruent,

the perception of the product and the store atmosphere is improved; thus, semantic cue

congruency positively affects consumer behaviour. Hitherto, semantic cue congruency

between more than one sensory stimulus has not been researched. Krishna et al. (2010) had

the first attempt to fill this gap in literature.

In comparison to other authors, Krishna et al. (2010) focused their study on more than a single

sense. The authors imply that multisensory semantic congruency between haptic and smell

might lead to a more positive product evaluation compared to incongruency. In the

congruency condition, participants had to evaluate either the combination of a rough paper

(masculine) and a masculine scent or the combination of a smooth paper (feminine) and

feminine scent. In the incongruency condition, masculine and feminine cues were combined.

The authors conducted two pre-tests showing that haptic and scent can have semantic

meanings. With the first pre-test, the authors wanted to ensure that rough paper is linked to

masculine and smooth paper to feminine. With the second test, the authors aimed to find

perfumes that are perceived as either masculine or feminine. The studies have shown, that the

scent of a product impacts the perception of haptic. Additionally, the authors discovered that

semantic congruency between scent and texture/temperature leads to an improved haptic

appraisal and product evaluation. The study by Krishna et al. (2010) provides novelty by

highlighting that if congruent, semantic meanings of two sensory stimuli improve consumer

behaviour.

The existing studies about the positive effects of cue congruency give enough reasons to aim

congruent stimuli. The question remains how perceived cue congruency can be improved. To

examine this question, we are taking a step back and putting our attention to how we perceive

environments. Therefore, in the next chapter, existing literature on perceptual processing

styles will be reviewed.

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4 Perceptual processing style

How do we perceive environments and what impact has perception on our behaviour? We

already know from previous chapters that the perception of sensory cues plays a vital role in

store atmospherics, especially in respect to congruency between stimuli (e.g. Schreuder et al.,

2016). Several studies from authors such as Spangenberg et al. (2005) or Krishna et al. (2010)

have revealed that whether we perceive stimuli as congruent or not has several effects such as

on store evaluation (see Chapter two). Hence, perception drives cue congruency (Schreuder et

al., 2016). In a broad sense, the present thesis aims to manipulate how customers perceive

environments to positively impact cue congruency. To examine this, we review existing

literature on perception.

4.1 Gestalt theory

There have been several attempts to explain how we perceive our surroundings. One

explanation delivers gestalt psychologists and perception principles (Lin, 2004). The term

“Gestalt” is German and can be described as the silhouette of a scene or a whole

configuration. Lin (2004, p.164) describes perception as the following: “Perception is a

function of multiple sources of input from the environment and from one’s own

predisposition, expectations, motives, and knowledge gleaned from past learning

experiences.” All these elements shape how we see our world (Lin, 2004). This definition is

similar to what has been examined in previous chapters. Customers receive different input

from store atmospheres at one time and form it into a single percept (Parker & Robinson,

2018). Gestalt principles are in line with this theory. Gestalt psychologists argue that we

perceive stimuli not on a feature-by-feature basis, but simultaneously as a whole (Lin, 2004).

Hence, leading us again to the statement that cues cannot be considered independently.

Additionally, basic assumption of gestalt psychologists is, that we process visual information

all at once, independently of how rich certain stimuli are. In contrast to this, Navon (1977)

mentions that the assumptions of gestalt theorists are probably too vague and are removed

from reality. Navon (1977) argues that the longer we look at something respectively the

longer we are surrounded by cues, the more detailed a picture gets. At first, we focus on the

gestalt, then our perception gets sharper, which means we are looking at the details. The

longer the exposure, the more likely it is that individuals perceive their environment on both

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levels. In other words, we are processing information from abstract to detail, from global to

local levels. Clearly, gestalt principles can be referred to the concept of abstraction.

4.2 Abstraction

Burgoon, Henderson, and Markman (2013) argue that experiences can be interpreted in a

broad respectively abstract way or in concrete, detailed terms. To exemplify abstract thinking,

a cup can be seen on a higher level of abstraction - beautiful cup - and on a lower level of

abstraction - ceramic cup. A beautiful cup is not easy to imagine, whereas a ceramic cup is a

more concrete description of a cup. Money is also an abstract definition, whereas dimes and

quarters can be linked to more concrete levels of thinking (Burgoon et al., 2013). Importantly,

the level of abstraction can be referred to the concept of processing styles. A high level of

abstraction can be associated with a global processing style, whereas a low level of

abstraction can be associated with a local processing style (Förster, 2009).

4.3 Global versus local processing style

Whether individuals adapt a local or global processing style depends on how people observe

objects. A global processing style is characterized by the tendency to focus on the gestalt of

an environment rather than focusing on the details (Förster, 2009). In other words, when

thinking in a global way, people see the world abstractly. To exemplify this, imagine you

have a picture of a forest in front of you. You can either zoom-in or zoom-out. When zooming

into the picture of the forest, you perceive the trees; whereas, when zooming out, the whole

forest can be seen. This phenomenon can be linked to perceptual-level-theory. In

psychological terms, looking at the forest can be regarded to global processing style; whereas,

paying attention to the trees refers to local processing style. In other words, if we zoom-in, we

perceive all the details of the forest, enabling a local processing style. On the contrary, if we

zoom-out, we perceive the “gestalt” of the picture, the forest (Förster, 2009; Navon, 1977).

Consequently, adapting a global versus local processing style affects an individual’s

behaviour. For instance, the way how we organize information - either in an abstract or

detailed way - impacts human interaction. To illustrate this, when judging other people, we

tend to rely on very abstract stereotypes instead of looking at the details and considering

individual personality traits. In addition to this, thinking in an abstract way regulates

behaviour, influences how people learn information, and how judgements are formed

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(Burgoon et al., 2013). To illustrate this, a global processing style results in higher creativity

(Steidle & Werth, 2013) and faster decision making (Förster, 2009). Compared to Navon´s

(1977) theory that global features are perceived first, other authors argue that some people

think more abstract and some more in concrete terms (Burgoon et al., 2013). But why is this

the case? According to Burgoon et al. (2013) the way how we think depends on situational

factors. To name just a few, abstract thinking correlates with self-control, life satisfaction

(Burgoon et al., 2013) and mood (Gasper & Clore, 2002).

4.3.1 Faith in intuition

Besides global and local processing styles, there are several modes of how individuals process

information. For example, some might process information either in an analytical or intuitive

way. More precisely, people rating high in intuition, process information automatically,

holistically, and trust their gut feeling (Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Ray, & Heier, 1996; Keller,

Bohner, & Erb, 2000). People high in intuition make spontaneous and emotional decisions

(Weinhardt, Hendijani, Harman, Steel, & Gonzalez, 2015). On the other side, processing

information analytically means relying on their consciousness and refers to rational thinking

(Epstein et al., 1996; Keller et al., 2000). In other words, people high in analytical reasoning

make deliberate decisions (Weinhardt et al., 2015). Analytical thinking might be associated

with focusing on the details, thus we can speak of local processing style. In comparison to

this, intuitive thinking might be referred to heuristic processing; thus, we might refer intuitive

thinking to a global processing style (Epstein et al., 1996). As the degree to which we think in

an intuitive way differs among individuals, Epstein et al. (1996) emphasised the need to

develop measures. The scale to measure the level of individuals’ intuitive thinking is called

faith in intuition (Epstein et al., 1996; Keller et al., 2000). Potentially there are more factors

that correlate with abstract thinking. For example, creativity can be associated with global

processing style (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010).

4.3.2 Creativity

Literature revealed that a global processing style facilitates creativity. On the contrary, a local

processing style comes along with less creativity (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010). Friedman,

Fishbach, Förster, and Werth (2003) have shown that participants primed with a global

processing style scored higher in creativity tasks. For example, participants primed with

global processing style mentioned more unusual applications of a bed. In detail, participants

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thinking in a more abstract way associated bed with sex instead of sleeping. Other studies

confirmed this statement by showing that participants induced with a global processing style

found more creative titles for cartoons compared to participants in the local-processing-style-

condition (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010). Countering this, Klauer and Singmann (2015)

cannot support the statement that processing styles are associated with creative thoughts. The

scholars aim was to replicate the findings of studies conducted by Förster and Dannenberg

(2010). In a study, participants had to find a creative title for a cartoon picture in which a dog

sitting on a sofa has been drawn. Although the authors used a sample size 2.5 times larger

than in the original study by Förster and Dannenberg (2010), the authors were unable to

replicate the findings; thus, studies have shown no impact of processing styles on creative

thoughts. Nevertheless, other conditions such as the fact that the authors used just one item to

measure creativity or different settings might have influenced the results. Furthermore, in

addition to Förster and Dannenberg (2010) other authors such as Friedman et al. (2003)

delivered supporting evidence that processing styles can be associated with creativity and

there is a large amount of research to support this link. As well as global processing style,

positive mood also impacts the level of creativity, whereas mood influences processing styles

(Lin, 2004).

4.3.3 Mood

The way how we process information affects mood. In turn, it is said that mood may alter

how we process information (Burgoon et al., 2013; Förster, 2009; Gasper, 2004). Gasper

(2004) has shown that positive moods activate global processing styles. On the contrary,

negative moods activate local processing styles. Additionally, not only the current mood is

associated to processing styles, as chronic moods such as optimism or anxiety can be referred

to the adaption of global or local processing styles (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010).

Furthermore, Isen and Daubman (1984) found that good moods can be linked to higher

similarity judgements. In other words, participants in a good mood noted more similarities,

unlike participants who were in a bad mood, as they found more dissimilarities. Speaking of

similarities, Förster (2009) argues that a global processing style facilitates finding similarities.

4.4 Similarity judgements and its connection to perceived congruency

Studies conducted by Förster (2009) indicate a connection between processing styles and

similarity/dissimilarity judgements. More specifically, the author argues that a global

23

processing style facilitates finding similarities, whereas a local processing style facilitates

finding dissimilarities. Additionally, a bidirectional effect has been shown. After participants

had to search for similarities, participants perceived global figures faster than local figures.

However, perception on a local level has been increased after participants had to find

dissimilarities. Several experiments confirmed the relationship between processing styles and

similarity/dissimilarity judgements. In terms of priming methods, the Navon task and map

task have been used. In each experiment, the participants had to find either similarities or

dissimilarities. The experiments differed in respect to the specific tasks - participants had to

find similarities or dissimilarities for different things such as TV shows, animals or people.

The well-grounded work of Förster (2009) provides several reasons to build upon his work.

Similarity and dissimilarity judgements are an important field of research in psychology;

however, the question of when people look for more similarities than dissimilarities might be

interesting to transfer to the field of consumer behaviour.

Consequently, it could be argued that a global processing style impacts human behaviour in

many ways (e.g. Burgoon et al., 2013). Yet, what is the connection to perceived cue

congruency? Coming back to the question from the last chapter: “How can we improve

perceived cue congruency?” we can assume that by inducing a global processing style,

customers perceive their environment more similar compared to a local processing style,

based on the findings of Förster (2009). However, what is the connection to congruency?

Taking a step back to the definition of cue congruency, congruity can be defined as the

quality of the similarity of up to one stimulus (Krishna et al., 2010). It could be argued that

the concept of cue congruency overlaps with similarity judgements. Consequently, the link

between processing styles and similarity/dissimilarity judgments might be transferred to the

phenomenon of cue congruency.

From a practical perspective, it could be recommended to induce customers with a global

processing style in order to improve perceived cue congruency and to ultimately impact

consumer behaviour. There are different ways of manipulating processing styles, such as the

letter task or the Kimchi-Palmer figures (Burgoon et al., 2013; Navon, 1977). However, it is

obvious that managers cannot induce certain processing styles with the help of priming tasks.

However, Steidle et al. (2011) found a link between illumination and processing styles that

24

might provide an easy solution when inducing a global processing style in retail settings.

Therefore, the next chapter focuses on the visual dimension ‘illumination’.

25

5 Darkness

Vision is said to be the most dominant sensory cue, especially in retail environments (Custers

et al., 2010; Schreuder et al., 2016). The visual dimension ‘illumination’ has an enormous

influence on different levels as it impacts physiological processes (Steidle et al., 2011),

cognition, behaviour (Zhong, Bohns, & Gino, 2010), and atmosphere perception (Custers et

al., 2010). As illumination greatly influences how we perceive our surrounding and as lighting

is part of every consumption setting (Cowen-Elstner, 2018), illumination plays a vital role in

creating store atmospheres (Custers et al., 2010). Thus illumination is an underresearched but

promising sensory cue to study.

Studies have yielded mixed results concerning the impact of darkness on consumer behaviour.

For example, Hultén (2012) has shown that dim illumination leads to increased sales in Ikea

stores; therefore, the author suggests designing darker atmospheres. Contrary to these

findings, Summers and Herbert (2001) emphasised the positive effect of brightness compared

to darkness. The experiment was carried out in two retail stores – a hardware store, and a

western apparel and feed store. The study demonstrated that brightness compared to darkness

increases time spent in the store and customers touched more items. Spending more time in a

shop consequently increases probability of purchase (Soars, 2009) and touching products

improves product evaluations for example (Grohmann et al., 2007). Research by Gal et al.

(2007) sheds a different light onto the impact of illumination. The authors have shown that

whether dim or bright illumination affects consumer behaviour might depend on other factors,

such as individual preferences. In a laboratory study, Gal et al. (2007) observed that people

preferring strong coffee tend to drink more coffee in brighter conditions; whereas, people who

prefer weaker coffee, tend to drink more coffee in darker conditions. From a practical view, it

might be beneficial to dim the lights for coffee providers that offer mainly strong coffee, such

as Starbucks, or to increase illumination, if the target group prefers weak coffee like Dunkin’

Donuts (Spence et al., 2014). Hence, it might be derived that the optimal level of illumination

depends on the target group. Additionally, the impact of illumination might vary from

industry to industry. For instance, restaurants might profit from dark atmospheres (Spence et

al., 2014). On the contrary, the example of Hollister illustrates that a too low level of

illumination might lead to customer dissatisfaction. (Weinmann & Groth, 2011). Apart from

the direct effect of darkness on consumer behaviour, other authors have illustrated the impact

26

of illumination on other variables such as feelings of anonymity (Zhong et al., 2010) and the

intensity of affective reactions (Xu & Labroo, 2014).

Dim rooms are perceived as cosier (Custers et al., 2010), more relaxing, and calming (Manav,

2007; Miwa & Hanyu, 2006) compared to bright rooms. In turn, cosy and relaxing

atmospheres are associated with benign and freeing situations, that in turn, lead to unethical

behaviour (Steidle & Werth, 2013). In a similar vein, Zhong et al. (2010) suggest that people

are prone to unethical behaviour in dark compared to bright environments. A set of three

experiments has shown that participants behaved more selfishly and cheated more often with

the intention of gaining more money. As a potential reason for this, they indicated that

participants evaluated the situation as them being anonymous and, thus, had the feeling of

being socially distant from others (Zhong et al., 2010). Xu and Labroo (2014) deliver a

similar explanation as these studies of Xu and Labroo (2014) demonstrate that illumination

impacts a wide array of judgments and influences the decision-making process. More

precisely, Xu and Labroo (2014) argued that brightness is linked to the perception of heat,

which in turn activates the hot emotional system. This means, that bright illumination,

compared to dim illumination, leads to an increase in the intensity of affective reactions,

independent of whether the affect is perceived as being positive or negative. Consequently, it

could be argued that decreasing illumination reduces negative, but also positive reactions

toward stimuli. Therefore, reactions towards people’s own behaviour and emotional

connections to others are reduced in dark atmospheres (Xu & Labroo, 2014).

Arguably, feelings of anonymity and freedom from social constraints might have an impact

on consumer behaviour. Huang, Dong, and Labroo (2018) were the first to address this issue.

The authors agree that in dimly lit environments consumers feel socially disconnected to

others and, as a result, consumers choose more hedonic instead of utilitarian items, because

they decide to buy products they truly want. Perhaps decreasing illumination to reduce

affective reactions (Xu & Labroo, 2014) might also impact perception of sensory stimuli and

ultimately influence consumer behaviour. However, more research is needed to test this

relationship. Furthermore, freedom from constraints and darkness might also impact

personality traits such as creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013).

27

Steidle and Werth (2013) suggest a connection between illumination and creativity. As

already mentioned, dim rooms are associated to freedom from social norms (Zhong et al.,

2010). Both circumstances - perceived freedom from constraints and darkness - are known to

facilitate the adaption of a global processing style (Steidle et al., 2011; Steidle & Werth,

2013), which in turn enables creative thinking (Friedman et al., 2003; Förster & Dannenberg,

2010). Thus, Steidle and Werth (2013) have shown that darkness improves creativity, whereas

the effect is mediated by freedom from constraints. As already brought up, darkness is known

to facilitate a global processing style (Steidle et al., 2011).

Importantly for the underlying study, Steidle et al. (2011) investigated the influence of dim

illumination on cognitive and perceptual level. More precisely, it has been shown that

darkness elicits a global processing style. This can be explained by perception of visual

details. In dark atmospheres, our visual perception is compared to brightness blurry and lacks

detailed information, leading to an abstract representation of the environment. Therefore, in

dark environments, people tend to adapt a global processing style, which can be explained by

the low visibility of their surroundings. Bright environments, in contrast, facilitate paying

attention to details. Noteworthy, darkness elicits a global processing style independently of

how illumination has been manipulated - either physically or with a priming method (Steidle

et al., 2011).

Coming back to the question from the previous chapter: “How can managers induce a global

processing style to their customers?” studies by Steidle et al. (2011) might answer this

quandary. Dimming illumination facilitates a global processing style. A global processing

style in turn might improve perceived cue congruency.

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6 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses

The question remains of how perceived cue congruency can be improved other than

predetermining the semantic fit. In this thesis, it has been proposed that darkness increases

perceived cue congruency because prior research has shown that darkness facilitates global

processing (Steidle et al., 2011). A global processing style, in turn, increases a similarity

focus; whereas, a local processing style increases a focus on dissimilarities (Förster, 2009). As

the concept of congruency likely overlaps with perceived similarities between two or more

perceived entities, we can expect that inducing darkness should ultimately increase perceived

multisensory congruency. As high cue congruency typically improves consumer behaviour

(e.g. Krishna et al., 2010), we expect that inducing darkness rather than brightness increases

product evaluations such as WTP. It is thus hypothesised:

H1: Inducing darkness rather than brightness increases WTP.

H2: Inducing darkness rather than brightness increases perceived cue congruency.

H3: The positive relationship between darkness and WTP is mediated by perceived cue

congruency: the higher the perceived cue congruency the higher the WTP.

Furthermore, as already mentioned in chapter 3, global processing style and creativity are said

to correlate (Förster & Dannenberg, 2010; Friedman et al., 2003). Similarly, FI could also

correlate with global processing style (Epstein et al., 1996). Hence, we expect the following:

H4: The positive effect of darkness on WTP is moderated by creativity: higher self-rated

creativity strengthens the effect of darkness on WTP.

H5: The positive effect of darkness on WTP is moderated by FI: higher self-rated FI

strengthens the effect of darkness on WTP.

ILLUMINATION

ILLUMINATION

CONSUMER

BEHAVIOUR (WTP)

CONSUMER

BEHAVIOUR (WTP)

CUE CONGRUENCY

CUE CONGRUENCY

Figure 1: conceptual model

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7 Study – Illumination and Multisensory Integration

The present study tested H1 - H5. Before participants entered the experimental room, they

filled out the first part of the questionnaire. After that, participants entered the room in which

either dim or bright illumination was present. Moreover, the room was fragrant with vanilla-

scented candles. In the room, participants were instructed to pick a white towel up and to feel

the texture. Afterwards, participants answered the questions from the second part of the

questionnaire.

7.1 Design

The study had a one factorial between design, with the two levels of illumination (dark vs.

bright), with congruency ratings, and WTP as the main dependent variables.

7.2 Participants

One hundred seventy students at the University of Innsbruck (M = 24 years; 52.4% female)

were randomly assigned to conditions. After the experiment, participants were debriefed for

hypothesis guessing and rewarded with some sweets. Fifteen participants who guessed the

true purpose of the study were excluded from analysis (final N = 155).

7.3 Stimuli

As stimuli, one white towel (haptic sensory cue) and a vanilla-scented candle (olfactory

sensory cue) from Ikea were selected. We decided to use a towel as a haptic stimulus, as

haptic is an important aspect when purchasing towels (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003). To limit the

risk of gender-effects, we used a unisex, white towel. Furthermore, we chose a towel without

a logo on it, to ensure that haptic is in the foreground. As olfactory sensory stimulus, we

selected the scent of vanilla as it is generally well-known among Austrian students.

7.4 Field setting and equipment

The underlying study was conducted in a room at the University of Innsbruck for the duration

of four consecutive weekdays. The room was in front of the library, where a constant flow of

potential participants was given. The room was either bright or dark. We covered the whole

windows with black plastic sheets to ensure that no daylight influenced our conditions. In the

‘bright’ condition the lights from the ceiling were switched on and in addition to that we used

30

a floor lamp (see Figure 2). In the ‘dark’ condition we turned off the ceiling lights and

dimmed the floor lamp. We avoided extreme levels of illumination to lessen the impacts on

the perceived pleasantness of lighting and mood. Besides the lighting, the room was equipped

with one table on which the product assortment was presented. As illustrated in Figure 3, the

product assortment consisted of several towels with four different colours and two different

sizes. Additionally, in front of the product assortment, a white Ikea towel was placed. A

vanilla-scented candle was hidden behind the table. Moreover, to provide participants with the

choice of sitting down, we placed a chair next to the table. Furthermore, we arranged for a

chair to be next to the entry where participants could leave their private belongings.

Questionnaires were printed to avoid another source of illumination.

7.5 Procedure

As already mentioned, participants had to fill out a questionnaire before they entered the room

in which the actual experiment took place. The first questionnaire included questions about

the current state of mood, FI, and creativity. Allen and Janiszewski`s (1989) four-item scale

was employed to measure mood. Mood was tested before and after the experiment.

Additionally, the German version of the FI scale was used to assess the level of self-rated FI

(Keller et al., 2000). Creativity was measured with a three-item measure taken from

Fitzsimons, Chartrand, and Fitzsimons (2008). All measures and items are listed in Table 2.

After participants filled out the first part of the questionnaire, the first experimenter guided

them into the room. In the room, participants were welcomed by the second experimenter and

asked to sit down for a minute. This enabled the participants to experience the atmosphere of

Figure 2: experimental setting

Figure 2: experimental setting

Figure 3: product assortment

31

the room. After approximately one minute, participants were instructed to pick the towel up

and to feel the texture. The experimenter showed participants how they should hold the towel

and feel the texture to ensure a consistent procedure across participants. Afterwards,

participants filled out the second part of the questionnaire. Participants rated on a two-item

scale the perceived congruency between the scent and towel`s texture. Furthermore,

participants indicated their WTP. On a single-item scale, participants evaluated the visibility

of towel’s texture and pleasantness of lighting conditions. As a manipulation check,

participants evaluated the perceived brightness (single-item scale). Finally, participants

indicated their age and gender. Participants were debriefed for hypotheses guessing, thanked

and rewarded with some sweets.

Mood (Allen & Janiszewski, 1989; pre-measure α = .85, post-measure α = .87)

How do you feel at this moment?

1= very bad, 9 = very good; 1 = very negative, 9 = very positive; 1 = very unpleasant, 9 = very

pleasant; 1 = very sad, 9 = very happy;

FI (Keller et al., 2000; α = .86)

When forming an opinion, I fully rely on my intuition; For most of the decisions, it´s

reasonable to rely on ones feelings; I am a very intuitive person; I trust my initital

feelings about people; I trust my initial reactions towards other people; I think I can trust

my feelings; The first idea is often the best one; I listen to my gut feelings when trusting

other people; I can usually feel when a person is right or wrong even if I can´t explain

how I know; My initial impressions of people are almost always right; I am quick to

form impressions about people; When it comes to purchase decisions, I often rely on my

gut feelings; I can typically sense right away when a person is lying; If I got lost (by car/

bicycle), I decide most of the time spontaneously which direction to take; I believe I can

judge character pretty well from a person’s appareance.

1 = I do not agree at all, 9 = I fully agree;

Self-rated creativity (Fitzsimons et al., 2008; α = .82)

How much do you care about being a creative person?

1 = I do not care at all, 9 = I care very much;

How important is it that others consider you a creative person?

1 = not important at all, 9 = very important;

In your daily life, how often do you pursue the goal of being creative?

1 = very rarely, 9 = very often;

Table 2: Measures and items used in study

Table 3: Measures and items used in study

32

7.6 Results

Controls - We first analysed whether the two illumination groups (i.e., dark vs. bright)

differed in their self-reported mood before and after the study took place. There was only a

significant main effect of the two mood measures (i.e., across both illumination groups) with

participants reporting after their study slightly better mood compared to their self-reports

before entering the experimental setting (Mpre = 6.90 vs. Mpost = 7.10, F (1, 150) = 12.01, p <

.01). There was no other main or interaction effect (all p > .36). Furthermore, the two groups

did neither differ in terms of visibility of the towel’s texture (p > .63) nor did they differ in

terms of pleasantness of lighting conditions in the room (p > .76). We also assessed whether

the two groups were matched in terms of their chronic creativity and FI because any group

difference in these two measures could explain differences of our main dependent variable’s

congruency and WTP. However, the two groups did not differ on any of these two

personality traits (all p > .14). Lastly, we also checked whether our manipulation was

successful. Indeed, the bright group rated the room's illumination significantly brighter (M =

WTP estimates

Let´s assume you want to buy exactly this towel for you or someone else, how much

would you be willing to pay (indications in commas are allowed):

I would pay: €____________________

Visibility of towel’s texture

How good was the texture of the towel visible?

1 = very badly visible, 9 = exceedingly well visible;

Pleasantness of lighting conditions

How pleasant do you perceive the lighting conditions in this room?

1 = not pleasant at all, 9 = very pleasant;

Evaluation of level of illumination (perceived brightness)

How dark or bright is the room?

1 = very dark, 9 = very bright;

Figure 6: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright conditionWTP estimates

Let´s assume you want to buy exactly this towel for you or someone else, how much

would you be willing to pay (indications in commas are allowed):

I would pay: €____________________

Visibility of towel’s texture

How good was the texture of the towel visible?

1 = very badly visible, 9 = exceedingly well visible;

Pleasantness of lighting conditions

How pleasant do you perceive the lighting conditions in this room?

1 = not pleasant at all, 9 = very pleasant;

Evaluation of level of illumination (perceived brightness)

How dark or bright is the room?

1 = very dark, 9 = very bright;

Congruency ratings (r = .94)

How well does the ambient scent fit to the product assortment?

1 = fits not at all, 9 = fits very well;

How well harmonises the ambient scent and product assortment?

1 = harmonises not at all, 9 = harmonises very well;

Congruency ratings (r = .94)

How well does the ambient scent fit to the product assortment?

1 = fits not at all, 9 = fits very well;

How well harmonises the ambient scent and product assortment?

1 = harmonises not at all, 9 = harmonises very well;

33

7.09) as compared to the dark illumination group (M = 4.69; t (153) = 12.85, p < .01). The

groups were thus matched for important individual and situational factors and the light

manipulation was successful as indicated by the manipulation check.

Congruency ratings and WTP - We analysed the congruency index and the WTP estimates

using separate independent t-tests with the lighting conditions as independent factor. As

predicted, the dark illumination group rated the fit between the towel and ambient scent

significantly better (M = 6.85) as compared to the bright illumination group (M = 4.03; t (153)

= 10.35, p < .01). The dark illumination group also reported higher WTP estimates (M =

16.03) as compared to the bright illumination group (M = 10.57; t (153) = 6.01, p < .01):

Mediation - Next, we analysed whether the congruency ratings mediate the WTP estimates

using a bootstrap analysis (10k, Hayes, 2017) with the two illumination groups as

independent variable (bright = 1, dark = 2), the congruency ratings as mediator, and the WTP

estimates as dependent variable. As indicated by the prior analyses, the a-path was significant

(p < .01). The b-path from the mediator congruency to the outcome WTP estimates was also

significant, B = 3.07, se = .11, t (152) = 29.06, p < .01. Lastly, the indirect effect was also

significant as indicated by the absence of the value zero in the confidence interval [CI (6.95 –

10.31)]. Hence, the dark rather than bright illumination increased the perceived fit of the

towel texture with the ambient scent, which ultimately led to higher WTP estimates.

Figure 4: congruency and WTP ratings (Mean) in dark vs. bright condition

34

Moderation - Next, we checked whether the two personality traits creativity and FI moderate

the effect from illumination on congruency scores using two separate spotlight analyses

(Hayes, 2017, Model 1, 10k) with the lighting conditions as independent factor and

congruency scores as dependent variable. However, no significant interaction was observed

(all p > .51), hence no moderation occurred.

35

8 General Discussion

In conclusion, the present study suggests a novel solution to how perceived cue congruency

can be improved, leading to an increase in WTP. In more detail, as shown in Figure 4, in dark

atmospheres participants perceive stimuli as more congruent and are willing to pay more for

the towel compared to the bright atmosphere, whereby the positive effect of darkness on WTP

is mediated by perceived cue congruency; hence, H1, H2 and H3 are supported. Against our

predictions that creativity and FI moderate the effect of darkness on WTP, the results of the

study have shown no impact. Therefore, we can preclude that the effect of darkness on WTP

is bounded by the two mentioned personality traits. Due to this, H4 and H5 can be rejected.

Taken together, findings of this study support our idea that darkness improves perceived cue

congruency, which ultimately leads to a higher WTP. In the following section, our findings

opposed to existing theory are discussed.

8.1 Theoretical Implications

The main objective of the present study was to add to theory development of the multisensory

consumption experience. We believe that the present study provides the following

contribution to theory:

Studies demonstrated that darkness facilitates creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013). Results of

the present study have shown that the level of self-rated creativity does not differ among the

dark and bright atmosphere. Hence, we cannot support the statement of Steidle and Werth

(2013) that darkness promotes creativity. However, the present study measured self-rated

creativity compared to the mentioned research of Steidle and Werth (2013), which used

certain creativity tasks to measure an individual’s level of creativity (Steidle & Werth, 2013).

The different methods of measuring creativity might have influenced the results.

Coming back to the effect of illumination on consumer behaviour, research yielded

conflicting results about the optimal level of illumination in retail stores. While Summers and

Herbert (2001) have shown that bright illumination leads to more time spent at the store and

customers touch more items, Hultén (2012) has shown that dim illumination increases sales.

The present study contributes to these discrepancies by highlighting the positive effect of dim

illumination on WTP. A difference to the mentioned research is that the present study

36

investigated how illumination affects perceived cue congruency, which in turn influences

consumer behaviour.

Until now, it has been widely researched how cue congruency affects consumer behaviour

(e.g. Krishna et al., 2010; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Spangenberg et al., 2005). The present study

has provided further empirical support for the positive effect of perceived cue congruency on

consumer behaviour. More precisely, the results have indicated that higher ratings of cue

congruency correlate with higher WTP estimates compared to lower ratings of cue

congruency. Apart from this, to the best of our knowledge, there so far exists no study that has

tested the impact of cue congruency on WTP. In addition to the support of existing literature

on consumer-behavioural outcomes of cue congruency, we have revealed a new mechanism

between sensory cues.

The present study advances our understanding of multisensory consumption experience by

showing that one sensory stimulus impacts the perception of multisensory stimuli. More

specifically, the underlying study shows that darkness (vision) compared to brightness

improves perceived cue congruency between scent (olfactory) and towel`s texture (haptic).

We assumed that the relation between illumination and perceived cue congruency depends on

how consumers perceive things.

We argue that darkness positively affects cue congruency, because darkness induces a global

processing style (Steidle et al., 2011). A global processing style is said to facilitate the look

for similarities (Förster, 2009); whereas, the concept of cue congruency possibly overlaps

with similarity judgments. Thus, our study potentially extends findings of Förster (2009) by

demonstrating that darkness, that is known to induce a global processing style (Steidle et al.,

2011), improves perceived cue congruency as customers tend to look for more similarities

rather than dissimilarities (Förster, 2009).

In conclusion, the present research is the first to demonstrate how a single sensory cue

(illumination) impacts the perception of multisensory cues (haptic and olfactory). This

relationship reveals a new mechanism of how to improve perceived cue congruency; thus,

increasing WTP. Hence, we have found an innovative solution to impact consumer behaviour,

which might be of practical importance.

37

8.2 Practical Implications

We attempted to strengthen managerial relevance of cue congruency by showing a subtle

strategy to improve it. Strategically manipulating illumination might help retailers to enhance

customers’ perceived similarities among sensory cues such as scent and haptic. In turn, and of

managerial relevance, higher perceived cue congruency increases for instance store

evaluations (Spangenberg et al., 2005), customer satisfaction (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001), haptic

appraisal (Krishna et al., 2010), and, as the underlying study demonstrates, WTP.

Under certain circumstances, sensory cues like the creation of store fragrance or composition

of special music are costly (Spence et al., 2014). Therefore, designing congruent store

atmospheres might involve high investments and the risk that investments do not pay off is

high (Turley & Chebat, 2002). Unlike other sensory cues, illumination is always part of the

store atmosphere, either physically or occurring naturally (Kotler, 1973). Due to this,

dimming illumination is compared to other sensory cues a simple and inexpensive method to

increase WTP. In turn, WTP detects potential to increase sales, thus making it of ecological

relevance (Le Gall-Ely, 2009).

Essentially, the present study suggests that retailers should dim the lights to improve

perceived cue congruency; thus, increasing WTP. We tested the effect of darkness on the

multisensory cues haptic and scent. Therefore, the findings might be especially relevant for

retailers purchasing products with material properties as the probability that the product is

picked up and physically examined (haptic perception) is increased. Examples might be

apparel, household furnishing or towels (McCabe & Nowlis, 2003).

The present research provides an important practical implication. Nevertheless, a number of

potential limitations need to be considered.

38

8.3 Limitations and Future Directions

Firstly, the present study was neither specifically designed to a real purchase situation nor to a

retail setting. The experiment was conducted in a laboratory setting; however, consumer

behaviour might be different in a real-world retail setting (Spence et al., 2014). Thus,

additional experiments conducted in stores might further strengthen how the present study

may be generalised.

Another limitation is that the present study only used artificial lighting to decrease the risk of

biasing influences from changes in weather conditions. However, some retailers might not be

able to avoid the presence of natural light. Hence, findings of the present study might not be

applicable to daylight scenarios and thus difficult to implement for some retailers. In addition

to that, it could be argued that the effect of darkness on perceived cue congruency might

depend on the lux used. However, we did not measure the actual level of illumination used

during the experiment; thus, further research is necessary to provide recommendations. Cases

like the one of Hollister might provide a reference value. In a Hollister store in London, the

following lux levels were measured: On merchandise in average 106 lux were measured with

a low of 1 lux. Walkaways were lit with an average of 1.8 lux. Although a lot of customers

criticized the low illumination, Hollister noted an increase in revenue (Molony, 2018).

Though, more research is necessary to make recommendations about the optimal level of

illumination. Concerning lighting, another potential direction for future research on cue

congruency might be the impact of colour temperature. Warm light is associated to cosiness

and feelings of benignity (Boyce & Cuttle, 1990), which facilitates the adaption of a global

processing style (Friedman & Förster, 2010). Therefore, future research could investigate

whether warm compared to cold light improves perceived cue congruency.

In addition to this, besides mood, creativity, and FI there might be several factors that have

influenced the results. As already mentioned, different types of customers react differently to

stimuli (Kotler, 1973). Therefore, future research that tests the impact of individual

characteristics on the effect of illumination on WTP might further strengthen the underlying

findings. As a first attempt, we tested if the level of creativity and FI moderate the effect, but

we found no correlation. Nonetheless, it is possible that other personality traits, such as

anxiety, might restrict the effect.

39

Importantly, as Steidle et al. (2011) suggest, we assumed that darkness induces a global

processing style. However, the present study failed to test whether participants indeed adapted

a global processing style or not. Findings thus needed to be interpreted with care. If a global

processing style was not induced, the question remains why darkness improves cue

congruency. Independent of whether we induced a global processing style or not, the

underlying study has shown that darkness increases perceived cue congruency, and thus WTP.

Our study clearly has some limitations. Despite this, our study provides several theoretical

and managerial contributions. Additionally, we believe our findings could add a fundamental

issue for future research on multisensory consumption experience. As illumination is

omnipresent (Cowen-Elstner, 2018), we suggest considering the influence of illumination in

future studies on perceived cue congruency. In other words, as illumination might influence

perceived cue congruency, we advise controlling the level of illumination on studies that test

the influence of certain stimuli on consumer behaviour.

40

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Appendix

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Affidavit

I hereby declare that this Master’s thesis has been written only by the undersigned and

without any assistance from third parties. I confirm that no sources have been used in the

preparation of this thesis other than those indicated in the thesis itself.

This Master’s thesis has heretofore not been submitted or published elsewhere, neither in its

present form, nor in a similar version.

Place, Date, Signature