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© The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007

Object-Oriented andClassical Software

Engineering

Seventh Edition, WCB/McGraw-Hill, 2007

Stephen R. Schachsrs@vuse.vanderbilt.edu

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CHAPTER 5

THE TOOLSOF THE TRADE

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Overview

Stepwise refinement Cost–benefit analysis Software metrics CASE Taxonomy of CASE Scope of CASE Software versions Configuration control Build tools Productivity gains with CASE technology

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5.1 Stepwise Refinement

A basic principle underlying many softwareengineering techniques“Postpone decisions as to details as late as possible to

be able to concentrate on the important issues”

Miller’s law (1956)A human being can concentrate on 7 ± 2 items at a time

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5.1.1 Stepwise Refinement Mini Case Study

Design a product to update a sequential masterfile containing name and address data for themonthly magazine True Life Software Disasters

Three types of transactionsType 1: INSERT (a new subscriber into the master file)Type 2: MODIFY (an existing subscriber record)Type 3: DELETE (an existing subscriber record)

Transactions are sorted into alphabetical order,and by transaction code within alphabetical order

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Typical File of Input Transactions

Figure 5.1

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Decompose Process

No further refinement is possible Figure 5.2

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First Refinement

Figure 5.3

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Stepwise Refinement Case Study (contd)

AssumptionWe can produce a record when PROCESS requires it

Separate INPUT and OUTPUT, concentrate onPROCESS

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Stepwise Refinement Case Study (contd)

What is this PROCESS? Example:

Figure 5.4

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Stepwise Refinement Case Study (contd)

More formally:

Figure 5.5

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Second Refinement

Figure 5.6

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Third Refinement

This designhas a majorfault

Figure 5.7

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Stepwise Refinement Case Study (contd)

The third refinement is WRONG“Modify JONES” followed by “Delete JONES” is

incorrectly handled

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Stepwise Refinement Case Study (contd)

After the third refinement has been correctedDetails like opening and closing files have been ignored

up to nowFix these after the logic of the design is completeThe stage at which an item is handled is vital

Opening and closing files isIgnored in early steps, butEssential later

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Appraisal of Stepwise Refinement

A basic principle used inEvery workflowEvery representation

The power of stepwise refinementThe software engineer can concentrate on the relevant

aspects

WarningMiller’s Law is a fundamental restriction on the mental

powers of human beings

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5.2 Cost–Benefit Analysis

Compare costs and future benefitsEstimate costsEstimate benefitsState all assumptions explicitly

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Cost–Benefit Analysis (contd)

Example: Computerizing KCEC

Figure 5.8

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Cost–Benefit Analysis (contd)

Tangible costs/benefits are easy to measure

Make assumptions to estimate intangiblecosts/benefitsImproving the assumptions will improve the estimates

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5.3 Software Metrics

To detect problems early, it is essential tomeasure

Examples:LOC per monthDefects per 1000 lines of code

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Different Types of Metrics

Product metricsExamples:

Size of product Reliability of product

Process metricsExample:

Efficiency of fault detection during development

Metrics specific to a given workflowExample:

Number of defects detected per hour in specification reviews

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The Five Basic Metrics

SizeIn lines of code, or better

CostIn dollars

DurationIn months

EffortIn person months

QualityNumber of faults detected

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5.4 CASE (Computer-Aided Software Engineering)

Scope of CASECASE can support the entire life-cycle

The computer assists with drudge workIt manages all the details

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5.5 Taxonomy of CASE

UpperCASE (front-end tool)versus

LowerCASE (back-end tool)

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Some Useful Tools

Data dictionaryComputerized list of all data defined within the product

Consistency checker

Report generator, screen generator

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Taxonomy of CASE (contd)

(a) Tool versus (b) workbench versus (c)environment

Figure 5.9

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5.6 Scope of CASE

Programmers need to have:Accurate, up-to-date versions of all project documentsOnline help information regarding the

Operating system Editor Programming language

Online programming standardsOnline manuals

Editor manuals Programming manuals

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Scope of CASE (contd)

Programmers need to have:E-mail systemsSpreadsheetsWord processorsStructure editorsPretty printersOnline interface checkers

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Online Interface Checker

A structure editor must support online interfacecheckingThe editor must know the name of every code artifact

Interface checking is an important part ofprogramming-in-the-large

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Online Interface Checker (contd)

ExampleThe user enters the call

average = dataArray.computeAverage (numberOfValues);

The editor immediately respondsMethod computeAverage not known

The programmer is given two choicesCorrect the name of the method to computeMeanDeclare new procedure computeAverage and specify

its parameters

This enables full interface checking

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Online Interface Checker (contd)

ExampleDeclaration of q isvoid q (float floatVar, int intVar, String s1, String s2);

Call (invocation) isq (intVar, floatVar, s1, s2);

The online interface checker detects the fault

Help facilityOnline information for the parameters of method qBetter: Editor generates a template for the call

The template shows type of each parameter The programmer replaces formal by actual parameters

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Online Interface Checker (contd)

AdvantagesThere is no need for different tools with different

interfacesHard-to-detect faults are immediately flagged for

correction Wrong number of parameters Parameters of the wrong type

Essential when software is produced by a teamIf one programmer changes an interface specification,

all components calling that changed artifact must bedisabled

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Online Interface Checker (contd)

Even when a structure editor incorporates anonline interface checker, a problem remainsThe programmer still has to exit from the editor to

invoke the compiler (to generate code)Then, the linker must be called to link the productThe programmer must adjust to the JCL, compiler, and

linker output

Solution: Incorporate an operating system front-end into the structure editor

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Operating System Front-End in Editor

Single command go or runUse of the mouse to choose

An icon, or A menu selection

This one command causes the editor to invoke thecompiler, linker, loader, and execute the product

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Source Level Debugger

Example:Product executes terminates abruptly and prints

Overflow at 4B06

orCore dumped

orSegmentation fault

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Source Level Debugger (contd)

The programmer works in a high-level language,but must examineMachine-code core dumpsAssembler listingsLinker listingsSimilar low-level documentation

This destroys the advantage of programming ina high-level language

We needAn interactive source level debugger (like dbx)

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Source Level Debugger (contd)

Output from a typical source-level debugger

Figure 5.10

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Programming Workbench

Structure editor withOnline interface checking capabilitiesOperating system front-endOnline documentationSource level debugger

This constitutes a simple programmingenvironment

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Programming Workbench (contd)

This is by no means newAll the above features are supported by FLOW (1980)The technology has been in place for years

Surprisingly, some programmers still implementcode the old-fashioned way

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5.7 Software Versions

During maintenance, at all times there are atleast two versions of the product:The old version, andThe new version

There are two types of versions: revisions andvariations

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5.7.1 Revisions

RevisionA version to fix a fault in the artifactWe cannot throw away an incorrect version

The new version may be no better Some sites may not install the new version

Perfective and adaptive maintenance also result inrevisions

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5.7.2 Variations

A variation is a version for a different operatingsystem–hardware

Variations are designed to coexist in parallel

Figure 5.11

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5.8 Configuration Control

Every code artifactexists in three formsSource codeCompiled codeExecutable load image

ConfigurationA version of each

artifact from which agiven version of aproduct is built

Figure 5.12

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Version-Control Tool

Essential for programming-in-the-manyA first step toward configuration management

A version-control tool must handleUpdatesParallel versions

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Version-Control Tool (contd)

Notation for file name, variation, and version

Figure 5.13

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Version-Control Tool (contd)

Problem of multiple variationsDeltas

Version control is not enough — maintenanceissues

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5.8.1 Configuration Control during Postdelivery Maintenance

Two programmers are working on the sameartifact mDual/16

The changes of the first programmer are containedin mDual/17

The changes of the second programmer arecontained in mDual/18The changes of the first programmer are lost

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5.8.2 Baselines

The maintenance manager must set upBaselinesPrivate workspaces

When an artifact is to be changed, the currentversion is frozenThereafter, it can never be changed

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Baselines (contd)

Both programmers make their changes to mDual/16

The first programmerFreezes mDual/16 and makes changes to itThe resulting revision is mDual/17After testing, mDual/17 becomes the new baseline

The second programmerFreezes mDual/17 and makes changes to itThe resulting revision is mDual/18After testing, mDual/18 becomes the new baseline

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5.8.3 Configuration Control during Development

While an artifact is being codedThe programmer performs informal testing

Then the artifact is given to the SQA group formethodical testingChanges from now on can impact the product

An artifact must be subject to configuration controlfrom the time it is passed by SQA

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Configuration-Control Tools

UNIX version-control toolssccsrcscvs

Popular commercial configuration-control toolsPVCSSourceSafe

Open-source configuration-control toolcvs

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5.9 Build Tools

ExampleUNIX make

A build tool compares the date and time stamp onSource code, compiled codeIt calls the appropriate compiler only if necessary

The tool then compares the date and time stamp onCompiled code, executable load imageIt calls the linker only if necessary

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5.10 Productivity Gains with CASE Tools

Survey of 45 companies in 10 industries (1992)Half information systemsQuarter scientific softwareQuarter real-time aerospace software

ResultsAbout 10% annual productivity gainsCost: $125,000 per seat

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Productivity Gains with CASE Tools (contd)

Justifications for CASEFaster developmentFewer faultsEasier maintenanceImproved morale

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5.10 Productivity Gains with CASE Tools

Newer results on fifteen Fortune 500companies (1997)

It is vital to haveTraining, andA software process

Results confirm that CASE environmentsshould be used at CMM level 3 or higher

“A fool with a tool is still a fool”

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Summary of Tools in Chapter 5

Figure 5.14