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Paragenesis of Cretaceous to Eocene

carbonate reservoirs in the Ionian fold and

thrust belt (Albania): relation between

tectonism and fluid flow

1. M. Van Geet1,2. R. Swennen1,3. C. Durmishi2,4. F. Roure3,5. PH. Muchez1

Article first published online: 15 AUG 2002
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DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x

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Sedimentology

Volume 49, Issue 4, pages 697718, August 2002

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Abstract Article References Cited By

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Keywords:

Carbonate turbidites; diagenesis; dual porosity; fractures; layer-parallel shortening; stable isotopes

Abstract

ABSTRACT This paper examines the diagenetic history of dual (i.e. matrix and fracture)

porosity reservoir lithologies in Cretaceous to Eocene carbonate turbidites of the Ionian fold and

thrust belt, close to the oil-producing centre of FierBallsh (central Albania). The first major

diagenetic event controlling reservoir quality was early cementation by isopachous and syntaxiallow-Mg calcite. These cements formed primarily around crinoid and rudist fragments, which

acted as nucleation sites. In sediments in which these bioclasts are the major rock constituent,

this cement can make up 30% of the rock volume, resulting in low effective porosity. In strata inwhich these bioclasts are mixed with reworkedmicrite, isopachous/syntaxial cements stabilized

the framework, and matrixporosity is around 15%. The volumetric importance of these cements,

their optical and luminescence character (distribution and dull orange luminescence) and stableisotopic signal (

18O and

13C averaging respectively; 05 VPDB and +2 VPDB) all

support a marine phreatic origin. Within these turbidites and debris flows, several generations of

fractures alternated with episodes of cementation. A detailed reconstruction of this history was

based on cross-cutting relationships of fractures and compactional and layer-parallel shortening(LPS) stylolites. The prefolding calcite veins possess orange cathodoluminescence similar to that

of the host rock. Their stable isotope signatures (18

O of 386 to 085 VPDB and 13

C of

014 to + 298 VPDB) support a closed diagenetic rock-buffered system. A similar closedsystem accounts for the selectively reopened and subsequently calcite-cemented LPS stylolites

(18O of 181 to 114 VPDB and 13C of +152 to +256 VPDB). Within the prefolding

veins, brecciated host rock fragments and complex textures such as crack and seal features

resulted from hydraulic fracturing. They reflect expulsion of overpressured fluids within thefootwall of the frontal thrusts. After folding and thrust sheet emplacement, some calcite veins are

still rock buffered (18O of 096 to +02 VPDB and 13C of +079 to +137 VPDB),

whereas others reflect external (i.e. extraformational) and thus large-scale fluid fluxes. Some of

these veins are linked to basement-derived fluid circulation or originated from fluid flow alongevaporitic dcollement horizons (18O around +30 VPDB and 13C around +15 VPDB).

Others are related to the maturation of hydrocarbons in the system (18

O around 71 VPDB

and 13

C around +93 VPDB). An open joint system reflecting an extensional stress regime
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/abstracthttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/abstracthttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/referenceshttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/referenceshttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/citedbyhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/citedbyhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/pdfhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/pdfhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/pdfhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/citedbyhttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/referenceshttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2002.00476.x/abstract


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developed during or after the final folding stage. This joint system enhanced vertical

connectivity. This open joint network can be explained by the high palaeotopographical positionand the folding of the reservoir analogue within the deformational front. The joint system is pre-

Burdigalian in age based upon a dated karstified discordance contact. Sediment-filled karst

cavity development is linked to meteoric water infiltration during emergence of some of the

structures. Despite its sediment fill, the karst network is locally an important contributor toreservoir matrix porosity in otherwise tight lithologies. Development of secondary porosity along

bed-parallel and bed-perpendicular (i.e. layer-parallel shortening) stylolites is interpreted as a

late-stage diagenetic event associated with migration of acidic fluids during hydrocarbonmaturation. Development of porosity along the LPS system enhanced the vertical reservoir

connectivity.

Introduction

Exploration in fold and thrust belts is a very challenging task. It necessitates a good

understanding of pre-, syn- and post-tectonic processes, which can, to a degree, be inferred from

the interpretation of seismic transects and from forward kinematic modelling (Roure & Sassi,1995). In order to determine processes that might have affected potential reservoirs, such as

cementation, fracturing, pressure solution and secondary porosity development, detaileddiagenetic research is needed. It is well acknowledged that fluids play a major role in many

geological processes and that episodic fluid expulsion occurs in tectonically active regimes (e.g.

Oliver, 1986;Marquer & Burkhard, 1992). Based on an integrated approach combiningpetrography, stable isotope analysis and fluid inclusion data, it is often possible to reconstruct

fluid flow through time (Muchez et al., 1991, 1994;Travet al., 1998). Additional techniques,such as the study of organic material, apatite fission tracks and clay minerals, can help to

constrain the geological evolution better in tectonized areas (Pagel et al., 1996). Furthermore, itis of interest to investigate the stage in the deformation history at which fluids changed their

characteristics.Muchez et al. (1995) andHenry et al. (1996) reported that synkinematic fracturesare dominantly rock buffered, whereas open systems are more characteristic of large fluid fluxes

and mass transfer along thrust and shear zones (see alsoKerrich et al., 1984;Marquer &Burkhard, 1992).

The aim of this paper is to unravel the diagenetic history of Cretaceous to Eocene deep-marine

carbonates in the Ionian Zone (Albanian fold and thrust belt) and to determine the effects of

diagenetic processes on reservoir properties. This is one of the first papers in which therelationships among diagenesis, tectonic features (e.g. joints and tectonic stylolites) and the

porosity evolution of dual (i.e. matrix and fracture)-porosity reservoirs is addressed. Based on

numerical and forward kinematic modelling data (Roure et al., 2001), it was possible to place the

diagenetic evolution into the deformation history of the external Albanides. An understanding ofsuch relationships is critical to unravelling the history of fluid circulation in fold and thrust belts.

For this purpose, a surface analogue of the Ionian Zone carbonate reservoirs has been studied.

This study is part of the SUBTRAP (SUBThrust Reservoir APpraisal) programme, during which

similar studies have been carried out on outcrop analogues as well as on cores in the Salt Range(Pakistan), the Cordoba platform and Veracruz Basin (Mexico) and the Canadian Rocky

Mountain fold and thrust belt near Calgary (Canada; e.g.Ferket et al., 2002; Ortuno Arzate et al.,

2002).
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Methodology

A representative set of lithofacies was identified and sampled during field work in the study area

south of the Patos field (FierBallsh, central Albania). Sampling emphasis was placed on

lithotypes containing matrix porosity and particular diagenetic/deformation features, such as

fractures and stylolites. Sixty-five thin sections were examined by conventional andcathodoluminescence (CL) petrography. CL petrography was carried out with a Technosyn Cold

Cathodoluminescence model 8200, mark II. Operating conditions were 1620 kV gun potential,

420 A beam current, 005 Torr vacuum and 5 mm beam width. Stable isotope analysis wasconducted on 05-g samples extracted with a 03-mm microdrill from 47 specimens. Pre-

extraction petrographic examination was used to ensure sample purity and to identify diagenetic

phases of cements. Stable isotope analysis of carbon and oxygen was performed on a FinniganMat delta E mass spectrometer. Carbonate powders were dissolved in 100% orthophosphoric

acid at 25 C. All data were corrected according to procedures modified fromCraig (1957) and

are expressed in values in per mil () difference from the VPDB international standard.

Reproducibility, determined by replicate analysis of NBS 19 and NBS 20, is better than 01

for oxygen and 005 for carbon. Doubly polished sections (100150 m thick) of tworepresentative samples of each of the most common vein generations were prepared for fluid

inclusion analysis on a Linkam heatingcooling stage. However, two-phase fluid inclusions were

rare or absent in the prepared sections.

Some of the rocks were also studied by microfocus X-ray tomography in order to visualize poreconnectivity and quantify porosity. This non-destructive imaging technique produces three-

dimensional density images with resolution of the order of 15 15 15 m (Van Geet et al.,2000, 2001).

Trace element analysis (Mg, Fe, Mn, Sr, Na) of all vein types was performed according to

standard procedures by atomic absorption spectrometry (protocol is described in detail inSwennen et al., 1990).

Thermal modelling has been carried out based on the results of the Thrustpack kinematicmodelling of the thrust emplacement history taking faulting, flexural deformation, vertical

movements, synorogenic sedimentation and erosion into account. For the thermal modelling,

different reference points were taken to trace coeval burial and palaeotemperature curves for the

Late Cretaceous to Eocene reservoirs from the end of the passive margin until the present. Apurely conductive heat transfer was used, with a heat flow of 30 mW m2 and a surface

temperature of 16 C.

Geological setting

A general map of the structural geology of Albania is shown inFig. 1A. The major structural

zones in the eastern Internal and western External Albanides possess a NNWSSE alignment.The thrust sheets are WSW oriented. They form the extension of the Dinarides in the north and

the Hellinides in the south, which relates Albania to the Alpine orogeny. The Korabi and Mirdita

Zones of the Internal Albanides mainly consist of ophiolites. Within the External Albanides,from east to west, the Krasta-Cukali, the Kruja, the Ionian and the Sazani Zones can be
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differentiated (Velaj et al., 1999;Meo & Aliaj, 2000;Roure et al., 2001). These zones

correspond to horst- and graben-like elements resulting from extensional tectonics, especiallyduring Late Jurassic and Early to Middle Cretaceous times (Gealey, 1988), with platform

carbonates (Kruja and Sazani Zones) alternating with basinal carbonates (Ionian Zone;Meo &

Aliaj, 2000). These zones become more allochthonous towards the east. The Sazani Zone is

autochthonous and forms the extension of the Apulia platform. North of the transversal Vlora-Elbasan structural element, post-Eocene sediments of the peri-Adriatic depression cover the

Ionian Zone. Most of the oil and gas fields occur in the transition area where the Ionian Zone

plunges below the peri-Adriatic depression. Because well-developed surface analogues offractured carbonate reservoirs with matrix porosity occur in the latter area, near the cities of Fier

and Ballsh, research was focused in this area.

Figure 1. (A) General tectonic map of Albania. (B) General stratigraphy of the Ionian Zone(vertical scale is approximate as exact thicknesses are unknown).

Figure 1Bgives a general lithostratigraphic section of the Ionian Zone carbonates in the study

area. According toMoorkens & Dhler (1994), the sequence can be split into three majorlithological units:

1Triassic to Lower Jurassic evaporites and dolomites. The lower part of the successionconsists of mudrock, with thin evaporite intervals grading upwards to an alternation ofdolomite and evaporite beds and then to massive dolomites. Deposition occurred in

lagoonal to shallow platform conditions. Intracrystalline porosity developed within coarse

crystalline dolomite intervals, and some evaporite collapse breccias may form potentialreservoirs.

2Lower Jurassic to Eocene fine-grained carbonates, reflecting mainly basinal depositional

conditions. Several prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs (e.g. Ballsh, Krane, Gorisht, Delvina)

occur in these strata. Their characteristics, especially those of the Upper Cretaceous toPalaeocene strata, are the focus of this paper.

3Oligocene siliciclastic turbidites (flysch), locally overlain by coarse-grained porous

Miocene and younger deposits (molasse). Important oil and gas reservoirs are especially

prevalent in Messinian to Tortonian sands and Pliocene deltaic sands. Burdigalian to
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Serravallian molasse sandstones lie above an angular unconformity surface, sometimes

in contact with the eroded crests of the more frontal thrusts affecting the Ionian Zonecarbonates (Fig. 2). During fieldwork for this study, corals and burrowing pipes of

phollades and barnacle shells intermixed with reworked limestone pebbles were observed

at this contact. These features suggest a beach setting (e.g.Davis, 1985).

Figure 2. Cross-section through the Selishta, Selenica and Kremenara structures in central

Albania with an indication of the different regional disconformities.

Upper cretaceous to palaeocene carbonate reservoir

The best carbonate reservoir intervals, according to Albpetrol reservoir geologists, are situated in

the fractured Upper Cretaceous to Palaeocene succession (Albpetrol, 1993). Locally, Eoceneporcellaneous carbonates are also productive. This Albanian carbonate sequence is the time

equivalent of the Scaglia carbonate reservoirs of the Adriatic Sea and onshore Italy (Cazzola &

Soudet, 1993;Bosellini et al., 1999). The studied carbonates consist primarily of fine-grainedcalciturbidites. Individual beds in central Albania (near the city of Kremenara) are 1035 cm

thick. The turbidites reflect deep-marine depositional conditions (Cazzola & Soudet, 1993) and

commonly consist of pelagic foraminiferal and coccolith wackestone/mudstone. The thickest

beds contain typical turbidite sequences, including basal coarser grained intervals overlain by

parallel and convolute laminae. The coarser intervals are locally impregnated with hydrocarbons(Fig. 3A). Semi-continuous beds of chert nodules, which contain ghosts of pelagic foraminifera,

are less common than in underlying Middle and Upper Jurassic porcellaneous carbonates. Withinthe Upper Cretaceous interval, several metre-thick massive debris flow units occur (Fig. 3B).

Most of the clasts consist of resedimented rudist-dominated platform carbonates with

macromoulds.

Figure 3. (A) Parallel-laminated interval in the lower part of a fining-upward turbidite with well-developed matrix porosity and oil impregnation (dark laminae). (B) Debris-flow deposit. Note oil

impregnation between clasts along stylolites (arrows). (C) Interval with widespread development
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of oil-impregnated matrix porosity in the lower part of fining-upward turbidites. Lines trace

some of the oil-impregnated strata, which are black. The total length of the outcrop shown isabout 5 m. (D) Photomicrograph of packstone/grainstone with (oil-filled) interparticle porosity.

Note equant calcite cement bordering many of the intergranular pores next to crinoid ossicles and

rudist fragments. Development of syntaxial cements (arrows) is also common. Scale bar is

90 m. (E) Photomicrograph of packstone/grainstone with inter- and intraparticle porosity afterhydrocarbon removal. Reworked micrite particles form the dominant rock constituent. Notice the

virtual absence of cements. Scale bar is 90 m. (F) SEM photomicrograph of equant calcite

bordering interparticle cavity walls after removal of hydrocarbons. Note absence of corrosion onthe crystal faces. Scale bar is 10 m.

Turbidite matrix porosity

Lithologies with well-developed matrix porosity are present in some of the outcrops. Three

dominant lithotypes can be recognized in the turbidite sequence: (1) porous

packstones/grainstones; (2) non-porous bioclastic packstones/grainstones; and (3)

mudstones/wackestones. The porous intervals occur dominantly in the lower portions (but notnecessarily at basal contacts) of fining-upward turbidite sequences, where they locally comprise

more than 30% of the sequences (Fig. 3C). Porous intervals are composed of bioclastic pack- andgrainstones consisting of an accumulation of broken bioclasts such as crinoids, foraminifera and

rudist and shell fragments. Small reworked and rounded clasts of mudstones and peloidal

wackestones are also present. Clast and particle size ranges from 100 to 250 m. Sorting exertsan important control on porosity, with high initial interparticle porosity being the dominant type

in well-sorted lithologies (Fig. 3D). Intraparticle porosity occurs only within foraminifera(Fig. 3E). In crinoid- and rudist-rich intervals of lithotype 2 bioclastic packstone/grainstone,

syntaxial rim cements are pervasive, greatly reducing porosity (Fig. 3E). Up to 30% of the rockvolume in such intervals can be made up of this cement showing dull orange luminescence. In

porous lithotype 1 packstone/grainstone lithologies, crinoid and rudist components are lessfrequent, and these bioclasts as well as peloids occur in a micrite matrix. Syntaxial rim cements

also developed in these packstones/grainstones, but do not occlude all the pores. It can thus beclassed as framework stabilizing. These intervals are heavily oil impregnated (Fig. 3D). Other

components are either cemented by equant calcite cement or not cemented (Fig. 3E). Lithologies

rich in mixed micrite and bioclast components are generally not cemented. Equant calcite cementoccurs as an isopachous cement and locally also borders biomoulds, but seldom exceeds 15

vol%. A microfocus X-ray tomography three-dimensional representation of the porosity network

is shown inFig. 4A. Based on the study of six porous samples by this technique, averageporosity is 16%. Finally, in lithotype 3 mudstone/wackestone lithologies, compaction destroyed

all porosity.
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Figure 4. (A) Microfocus X-ray tomography view of a porous carbonate turbidite after removal

of hydrocarbons. Matrix porosity has been enhanced by thresholding and is green, as is theborder of the plug. Non-porous (i.e. calcite) pixels are transparent. A two-dimensional plane is

also shown where faint differences in blue-green colour visualize minor variations in porosity

(sample diameter is 6 mm; pixel size is of the order of 15 m in three dimensions). (B)

Photomicrograph of a debris-flow clast cut by an oil-stained stylolite (white arrows). The clast,which makes up the entire right and middle part of the photomicrograph, is composed of

biomoulds partially to completely cemented by drusy calcite. Remaining mouldic porosity is oilfilled. The outlines of bioclasts are still discernible because of the presence of micrite envelopes(black arrows). Scale bar is 90 m. (C) Macroscopic view of the cross-cutting relationship of

compactional (1) and layer-parallel shortening stylolites (2). Scale bar is 6 mm. (D) SEM

photomicrograph of secondary porosity along a stylolite after oil has been removed. Notice thevertical stylolite striations (black arrows). Scale bar is 100 m. (E) Photomicrograph of calcite

cement post-dating extension of an LPS stylolite. The bedding is subvertical (see alignment of

bioclasts indicated by an arrow). Scale bar is 90 m. (F) Photomicrograph of an LPS stylolitewith pores (arrows) and microsparitic calcite cement (M). A vein crosses the middle of the photo

and has an LPS component. Bedding is subvertical. Scale bar is 90 m.

Lithologies with porosities of the order of 15% and containing


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Figure 5. Carbon and oxygen isotope cross-plot of porous grainstone/packstone with equant and

syntaxial calcite and non-porous carbonate mudstone/wackestone. The cements do not seem toexert any effect on the marine isotopic composition of the mudstones/wackestones, which

suggests an early diagenetic marine origin for the cements.

Table 1. Stable isotope composition of Cretaceous and Palaeocene marine constituents and

carbonates.

18

O VPDB 13

C VPDB

Shackleton & Kennett (1975) 05 to 17 +02 to +14

(Late Palaeocene foraminifera)

Veizer & Hoefs (1976) 10 to 42 00 to +31

(major population Cretaceous carbonates)

Scholle & Arthur (1980) 25 +25 to +40

(AptianAlbian carbonates)

Moldovanyi & Lohmann (1984) 20 +40

(Lower Cretaceous carbonates)

Shackleton (1986) 00 to 05 +10 to +35

(Palaeocene carbonates)

Jrgensen (1987) 05 to 20 +05 to +30

(Upper Cretaceous chalk)

Swennen & Dusar (1997) 125 to 263 +196 to +240

(Maastrichtian chalk)

Frank & Arthur (1999) 17 to +10 +05 to +22

(Upper Maastrichtian)

Debris-flow matrix porosity

A wide spectrum of clast sizes (decimetre to submillimetre) are present within the debris-

flowdeposits, some of which display intraclast porosity. Nearly all clasts consist of a mixture ofplatform bioclasts (mainly rudists), with partially to completely cemented biomoulds. The

biomoulds are easily discernible because of the presence of micrite envelopes (Fig. 4B). Most of

the debris-flow clasts or biomoulds are cemented by isopachous, syntaxial and dogtooth calcite.Drusy calcite cement typically fills biomoulds (Fig. 4B). These cemented biomoulds are

regularly truncated at clast edges, suggesting that dissolution and subsequent cementation
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occurred in platform settings before reworking and transportation to the deep-marine

environment. The porosity of many of these partially cemented clasts is dominantly non-effective. However, because many of these clasts are surrounded by stylolites and some

secondary porosity developed along stylolites (described below), intraclast pores contain some

hydrocarbons. Thus, debris flows contribute, to some degree, to the total hydrocarbon content of

the sequence (Fig. 4B).

Porosity development along stylolites

At least two major types of stylolites can be recognized. Relatively high-amplitude stylolites

(centimetre size) parallel to bedding are the oldest set and are interpreted as compactional in

origin. The second set of stylolites is also characterized by relatively high amplitudes; however,they have a subvertical orientation with indentations parallel to bedding (Fig. 4C). These

stylolites are believed to have formed during layer-parallel shortening (LPS) when tectonic

compression affected the carbonates (Ramsay & Huber, 1983). Both sets of stylolites are

commonly stained with oil, filling secondary porosity (Fig. 4D). Interconnected small cavities

locally link the larger (30 by 10 m) cavities. Calcite cemented LPS stylolites also exist. Bothsides of cemented LPS stylolites still fit into each other, indicating extension of the stylolite

before cementation. The cement consists of either a microsparitic calcite (Fig. 4E and F) or ablocky spar with orange luminescence. Because these calcite-cemented LPS stylolites are

uncommon, their development is considered to be a local phenomenon. Within several of the

debris flows, contacts between clasts and matrix contain microstylolites, which are locallyimpregnated by hydrocarbons (Figs 3B and 4B).

Karst infill matrix porosity

Large (up to 10 by 10 cm), oil-impregnated sediment-filled pockets occur within non-porous

limestones. The pockets display the outline of former cavities that became filled with eitherpoorly sorted, sub- to well-rounded carbonate grains or layered carbonate detritus. The layeringin these cavities is not parallel to the host rock bedding, indicating post-deformational infilling.

The layers are mainly composed of small micritic carbonate particles (< 5 m) alternating with

poorly sorted reworked carbonate allochems (mainly wackestones) and biochems. Locally, they

contain detrital quartz grains, which are the only non-carbonate constituents present in otherwisepure carbonates. Nannoplankton assemblages of Langhian age (determination by C. Muller, IFP)

were isolated from the cavity sediment fill. In the study area, Burdigalian sandstones occurred

discordantly upon an anticlinal crest in Cretaceous to Eocene carbonates. The cavities aretherefore interpreted as karstic in origin and the layered sediments as infiltrated carbonate detrital

infill. The sediment is not cemented by calcite but is instead impregnated by hydrocarbons.

Consequently, sediment cavities retain an important interparticle porosity. These sediment-filledcavities are present 200250 m below the regional unconformity. The vertical distribution ofthese pockets has not been established, so it is not yet possible to determine whether they

become more abundant towards the discordance surface.

Joint and fracture development
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As discussed above, most of the Albanian carbonate reservoirs are fractured reservoirs

(Albpetrol, 1993;Velaj et al., 1999). The highest density of fractures and joints occurs at the topof anticlinal structures, with a clear relationship to the lithology. In general, joint density is

highest in porcellaneous fine-grained carbonate lithofacies where joints are still open. In coarser

grained turbidites, fracture density is still high, but many of the fractures are cemented by calcite,

reducing both porosity and permeability. Within debris-flow units, fractures are less frequent andgenerally cemented. Most of the fractures and joints have a subvertical orientation, independent

of lithofacies.

Several generations of cemented fractures, henceforth called veins, were recognized based on

field observations, mutual cross-cutting relationships and petrographical characteristics. Veinorganization with respect to stylolites is particularly important. Cathodoluminescence

petrography reveals that luminescence characteristics of the different vein generations and the

host rock are similar.

A first vein generation (V1) is displaced and cut by compactional stylolites, indicating that it

predates them. V1 veins are normally < 1 mm wide and are filled with orange-luminescentblocky calcite that often shows sector zonation under CL.

The second vein generation (V2) cuts the compactional stylolites but is itself cut by LPS

stylolites. Different subtypes of veins can be differentiated, such as blocky calcite veins thatcontain large, broken host rock fragments (Fig. 6A), which either float in the cement or have a

geopetal arrangement. The calcite cement shows orange luminescence with sector zonation. The

brecciated nature of the host rock and the fact that clasts are often different from the immediateneighbouring vein wall suggest that these V2 veins formed by hydraulic fracturing (V2H). There

are four other varieties of second-generation veins: V2B, which are filled by one or several

generations of blocky calcite cement (Fig. 6B); V2CS, which are composite veins with crack and

seal textures, indicating alternating episodes of fracturing and cementation; V2F, which arefibrous antitaxial veins with elongated calcite crystals, and V2C, which are composite veins

(Fig. 6C) with stretched calcite fibres and characteristic saw-tooth contacts between the briquette

structure inside the crystals. The fibres contain regular inclusion bands, which are parallel to thevein wall. Twin plane development in the vein cements is common in most of these V2 vein

types. All second-generation veins possess a weak orange-brown luminescence. At the contact

between veins and host rock, LPS stylolites developed locally (Fig. 6A) and also cross-cut thecalcite cement (Fig. 6D).
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Figure 6. (A) Photomicrograph of a hydraulically fractured interval with large fragments and fine

debris, geopetally filling the void and cemented by blocky calcite. Bedding is subvertical (arrowindicates sample top). An LPS stylolite borders one side of the fracture (outline enhanced by

white traces). Scale bar is 90 m. (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph of the second-

generation vein V2B, filled by two orange-luminescent blocky calcite cement phases (I and II),

which both possess a well-developed sector zonation. Scale bar is 85 m. (C) Photomicrographof vein V2C under cross-polarized light with stretched calcite fibres and characteristic saw-tooth

contacts between, and briquette structure inside, the crystals. Note the presence of regular

inclusion bands (arrows), which parallel the vein wall. Scale bar is 90 m. (D) Photomicrographof an LPS stylolite cutting a V2 vein. Note the presence of pores along the stylolite (arrows). The

burning of the impregnating resin during cathodoluminescence caused the brown colour.

Bedding is subvertical, as indicated by the alignment of the foraminifera. Scale bar is 85 m. (E)Open joint system (here enhanced by surface weathering). Note the presence of LPS stylolites

(arrows). A 7-cm pen is present as scale. (F) Oil seeps along open joints. Coin diameter is

18 cm. Arrow indicates stratigraphic up direction.

A third generation of calcite-filled veins (V3) consists of thin fractures (< 2 mm in width) thatwere affected by LPS and display a zigzag pattern (Fig. 4F). From a petrographical point ofview, they are equivalent to the LPS-cemented stylolites described above. Generations V2 andV3 are synorogenic, as they both predate and develop subsequent to LPS.

A fourth vein generation post-dates the folding stage (V4) because it cuts fold structures and LPS

stylolites. It was filled with blocky calcite showing yellow to orange luminescence. Finally, an

open joint system developed (Fig. 6E), along which most of the oil seeps occur (Fig. 6F).

Trace element analysis of these veins reveals low Mg (values below 3000 p.p.m.), Fe (values

below 1000 p.p.m.), Mn (values below 600 p.p.m.), Na (values below 300 p.p.m.) and Sr (values

below 600 p.p.m.) concentrations, with large variations occurring within one class of vein typesand without any systematic difference between the different vein types.

Stable isotope results

Figure 7summarizes carbon and oxygen isotope data for the different vein generations. Vein

generation V2 possesses 13

C values between 014 and +298 VPDB and 18

O values

between 085 and 386 VPDB. These variables show a covariant trend (Fig. 7). The 3spread in oxygen isotope values of V2H veins could indicate that several hydraulic

subgenerations exist. Most 13

C values plot within, or are close (1) to, that of the host rock,

so it is likely that the 13

C signature was buffered by the host rock. No significant additional

carbon source seems to have been present. The

13

C values that are slightly more negative thanmost of the host rock could be explained by the temperature-related fractionation effect (Emrich

et al., 1970). This may also explain why these slightly13

C-depleted samples have the most

negative 18

O values. The shift in 13

C of 1 corresponds with a temperature increase of only2530 C, supporting the interpretation that calcite precipitation did not occur at elevated

temperatures. Otherwise, as these veins post-date compactional stylolites, involvement of

depleted carbon derived from decarboxylation reactions could be an alternative explanation.
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Figure 7. Carbon and oxygen isotope cross-plot of different vein generations in the Upper

Cretaceous to Eocene turbidites. For reference, the stable isotope composition of the host rock is

circled (data fromFig. 4).

One can speculate about the fluid type involved by combining isotope data and assuming a

precipitation temperature using the fractionation equation ofO'Neil et al. (1969). Unfortunately,the fluid inclusion data are not reliable because it was not possible to measure systematic T h

and/or Tm values on a large number of inclusions. In fact, only one V2H sample provided a Th

value averaging around 52 C and Tmvalues between 3 and 0 C. Using this measurement andassuming that the majority of the observed small single-phase aqueous inclusions do not reflectmetastable conditions, formation temperatures were relatively low (< 50 C:Sabouraud et al.,

1980;


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unstable grains would have undergone dissolution, producing the observed biomoulds. Because

deposition of the turbidites was very fast, it is likely that any dissolution occurred below thesedimentwater interface. As a consequence, supersaturation with respect to low-Mg calcite

would occur, resulting in cementation by syntaxial rim and equant cements. The unstable grains

may have been aragonite components from the platform that were resedimented below the

aragonite compensation depth (Halley et al., 1984). Owing to the particularly highpCO2 duringthe Cretaceous, calcite and aragonite compensation depths in oceanic basins were rather shallow

(Berger & Winterer, 1974;Van Andel, 1975). A model invoking rapid aragonite dissolution and

calcite precipitation during early diagenesis of platform sediments redeposited in a deep-marineenvironment is favoured to explain the cementation of coarser turbidite lithologies. A similar

model was proposed byMalonne et al. (1990) from recent periplatform sediments deposited in

the Indian Ocean at depths of 500 m, with complete dissolution of unstable carbonate phases andsubsequent cementation by about 160 m of burial in


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the fault plane into the footwall block and its release during tectonic fracturing. The fact that

many of the vein cements display complex patterns, such as crack and seal features and thedevelopment of twin planes, reflects their deformation history. The twin planes observed

correspond to type 1 crystal twins according toBurkhard (1993), who indicated that factors that

influence twin plane development (e.g. differential stress, strain, strain rate, crystal size, crystal

orientation) were not necessarily responsible for the type of twins developed. Twin type isthought to be mainly a function of deformation temperature, with type 1 twins forming at

temperatures


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importance for the reservoir, formed during this folding episode. The presence of the basal

Burdigalian unconformity on top of the anticlinal structures is also important for timing thefolding event in the study area. Depending on the structural evolution during the Oligocene

(growth strata surrounding the fold or folded flexural sediments), maximum burial would have

been reached at different times for different segments of the folded structures. This is well

expressed by burialtemperature curves of the reservoir computed using basin modelling tools atkey points along a regional transect from the autochthon up to the surface exposures of the

Kremenara anticline (Fig. 10). In places, the post-unconformity Neogene sediments were not as

thick as former Oligocene flysch series, and maximum burial therefore occurred during theLower Oligocene for the top of anticlinal structures. For the flanks of the same structures,

however, maximum burial dates from any time from the Oligocene to the present. Timing

depends on the balance between erosion of the Oligocene flysch and the deposition of Neogeneseries.

Figure 11. (A) Outcrop of the Cretaceous reservoir unit in the northern part of the Kremenara

anticline, showing the distribution (regular spacing, trending grossly parallel to the fold axis) ofearly footwall LPS features. Approximately one in five to 10 of these microstructures has been

reopened as an extrados (i.e. extensional) fracture during subsequent folding of the structure. A

7-cm pen for scale. (B) Detail of (A) showing open (1) and cemented (2) fractures. Along the

open LPS features, a surface relief develops within the outcrops. A 7-cm pen for scale.

The anticlinal structure studied was emergent after creation, as evidenced by the beach-typedeposits of most likely Burdigalian age, which presently occur at its topographic crest. It is

during this emergence that karstification occurred, with subsequent sediment infill in the karst

cavities. The quartz grains present in some of these cavities might relate to the siliciclastic

transgression that buried the reservoirs.

Oil migration was probably coeval with fracturing and folding and, consequently, part of the

charge could be as old as OligoceneAquitanian. This was deduced from thermal modellingassuming that Toarcian Posidonia Shale was the source rock in the study area (Roure et al.,

2001). It is unclear whether

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