Analysis of synergies, gaps and complementarities on integrated environmental management at regional level

Skadar Lake - Montenegro

Study 2

Natural base Policy and legislative framework

Socio-economic situation in the region

Author

Marija Vugdelic

Introduction

The Analysis of Synergies, Gaps and Complementarities on Integrated Environmental Management at Regional Level - Studies 1 and 2 have been prepared on the basis of the Terms of Reference (ToR) provided by NGO “Green Home” within the scope of the project “Performing the Integrated Environmental Management Plan at Local Level in the Skadar/Shkodra Lake Ecosystem – EMA PLAN”.

The focus of Study 1 was the environmental management and the economic development in Skadar Lake region. This Study provides an overview and analysis of the existing stakeholder groups relevant for the management and protection of Skadar Lake, as well as the potentials for economic development of the region based on sustainable use of natural resources. Study 1 also provides an overview of projects implemented in Skadar Lake region by various organisations in the past decade. The focus of Study 2 was the natural and anthropocentric values of the region. The study provides overview of the environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region placed in the contexts of their potential sustainable use. Apart from this, Study 2 provides the legislative framework, current management of Skadar Lake National Park, bilateral framework agreements between Montenegro and Albania, and concludes with the SWOT analysis.

The methodology used for production of these studies consisted of desk research into existing plans, reports and other documents and interviews with selected stakeholders, and most conclusions and recommendations are based on expert opinion. As almost all previous studies have already noted, there is a general problem with data availability, consistency and accuracy. This is because research into some aspects of the Lake is outdated, information scattered among institutions and individuals, and there is a general discrepancy in methodologies used, which makes comparisons and pooling of information often problematic. This study has encountered the same issue, so it advises caution in the interpretation of information.

Based on the insight into existing documentation and available data, the emphasis was given on summarising all the information and putting it into a practical context, in order to identify gaps of information and knowledge and provide recommendations for future activities. Readers who are interested in more detailed information on any aspect of Skadar Lake will be referred to one of many studies that cover natural, cultural and social aspects of Skadar Lake region in more details.

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Contents: List of abbreviation 5

1. Environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region 6

1.1. Abiotic factors 6 1.1.1. Location of the study area 6 1.1.2. Geology and geomorphology 6 1.1.3. Soils 6 1.1.4. Climate 7 1.1.5. Hydrology 7

1.2. The abiotic factors in context – setting scene for biodiversity 9

1.2.1. International recognitions 11

1.3. Environment and biodiversity – setting scene for humans 12 1.3.1. Biodiversity values 12

1.3.1.1. Direct use values 12 1.3.1.2. Indirect use values – ecosystem services 14 1.3.1.3. Recreational and aesthetic values 16 1.3.1.4. Non-use values 16

1.3.2. Trends in ecosystems 17 1.3.2.1. Pollution 17 1.3.2.2. Habitat modification and destruction 19 1.3.2.3. Species exploitation 19 1.3.2.4. Introduction of species 20 1.3.2.5. Disturbance 21

1.4. Summary 22

2. Legislative and policy framework 23

2.1. Legislative framework 23

2.2. Issues with the enforcement 28

2.3. Relevant strategic documents 28

3. Management of Skadar Lake National Park 31

3.1. Public Enterprise for National Parks 31

3.2. Skadar Lake National Park 33

3.2.1. Management plan for Skadar Lake 34

3.3. Issues with management 35

4.Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and Albania in the nature

protection context 36

5. Socio-economic situation in the region 38

5.1. Summary 43

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6. SWOT analysis 44

6.1. Institutional aspects 44

6.2. Economy 45

6.3. Environmental management plans 46

7. References 47

8. Annex 49

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List of abbreviations AL – Albania CBC – Cross Border Cooperation CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity CEED - Centre for Entrepreneurship and Economic Development CETR - Centre for Eco-Toxicological Research CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species EMA PLAN – project “Performing the Integrated Environmental Management Plan at Local Level in the Skadar/Shkodra Lake Ecosystem” EPA – Environment Protection Agency EU – European Union GEF – Global Environment Fund GMOs – Genetically Modified Organisms HMI - Hydro-Meteorological institute IBA - Important Bird Areas IPA - Important Plant Areas ISSP - Institute for Strategic Studies and Prognoses IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature KAP – Aluminium Plant LSIEMP – Lake Skadar Integrated Ecosystem Management Project MARD - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MONSTAT – Statistical Office of Montenegro MoU - Memorandum of Understanding MNE – Montenegro MSDT - the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism NBSAP - National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan NGOs – Non-governmental organizations NP – National Park NPSL – National Park Skadar Lake PAS - Protected Area System PA – Protected area PENP – Public Enterprise “National Parks of Montenegro” PES - Payment for Ecosystem Services REC - Regional Environmental Centre for Central and Eastern Europe REReP – Regional Environmental Reconstruction Programme SLC - Skadar/Shkodra Lake Commission SEE – South Eastern Europe SPSPNPSL – Spatial Purpose Spatial Plan for National Park Skadar Lake SWOT – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats ToR – Terms of Reference TSLF – Trans-boundary Shkodra/ Skadar Lake Forum UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizatio

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1. Environmental characteristics of Skadar Lake region

1.1. Abiotic factors

1.1.1. Location of the study area

Skadar Lake is located in South-East part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is situated

between 19˚03’ and 19˚30’ eastern longitude, and between 42˚03’ and 42˚21’ northern

latitude. With the length of over 40km and the maximum width of 13km, it is the

largest lake in the Balkan Peninsula. It is situated in the Zeta plain, at the foot of

Prokletije Mountains at the north and the chain of mountains running along the

Adriatic shore at the south (figure 1). The Lake is a remnant of a former marine bay

that has been separated from the Adriatic-Ionian Sea by chain of the coastal

mountains raised by the tectonic movements. Topography of the Lake region is

diverse, and there is a pronounced difference between the southern shores that run

along the slopes of coastal mountains (Rumija, Vrsuta, Sutorman), which are rocky,

steep, jagged with numerous bays, inlets and small islands, and the flat and marshy

northern shores that run along the Zeta valley. The length of the coast is 168km (of

which 110km are in Montenegro).

Figure 1 – Location of Skadar Lake in Europe, Balkans and Montenegro

1.1.2. Geology and geomorphology

The Lake is situated in a predominately limestone and dolomite rock beds. Limestone

and associated karst processes primarily determine the geomorphology, so the Lake

area has typical karst topography. The geological composition of the Lake area also

contains Quaternary alluvial and colluvial deposits as well as more recent fluvial

sediments that range in thickness from 10 to over 350m (Lasca et al. 1981). The

wider, watershed area of the Lake has a very complex geological and morphological

structure and consists of several zones with different characteristics.

1.1.3. Soils

Diverse geological base, together with dynamic topography and climatic influences

has created variety of soil types. Two main types of soils are those produced by the

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action of water (hydromorphic soils), which cover 17.000ha and include fertile soils in

Zeta plain utilised in agriculture, and terrestrial soils that have formed on elevated

terrains and are more fragmented and discontinuous. Also, the action of vegetation as

well as human activities, have also contributed to the soil diversity of this region.

Therefore, on this area, there are several soil types present, including alluvium,

diluvium, swamp, soil, brown soil, red soil, brown acid soil, black soil and rendzina

(Fuštić 1997, Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001).

1.1.4. Climate

The region of Skadar Lake is characterised by Mediterranean climate, where summers

are long, with high temperatures and high evaporation. Winters are relatively mild,

with temperatures rarely dropping below freezing point. The average annual

temperature is 14°C - 15°C, with a maximum in July (average 25,7°C ) and minimum in

January (4°C). Water temperature, on the other hand, ranges from 4.8°C in the winter,

to 28°C in mid-summer, while being at a more stable value of 13°C throughout the

year in the locations of sublacustrine springs.

Annual precipitation on the Lake, almost exclusivelly in the form of rainfall, is

between 2000 and 2800 mm, though this is rather concentrated at certain parts of the

year (autumn to early spring, with summers being very dry). Maximum precipitation

is in January, and minimum in August. However, the large watershed area has

different climate types, where the range of precipitation varies between 1700 and

3000mm.

The number of sunny days in the region is high and there are on average 2500-2600

hours of sunshine per year.

Winds on the Lake are frequent, predominantly coming from the East, North and

down Rumija mountain slopes on the South. On average some 30-40 days in a year are

with very strong winds (all data from Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake

2001, Management Plan for National Park Skadar Lake 2011-2015).

1.1.5. Hydrology

The catchment area of Skadar Lake is about 5500 km2, and it covers mountains and

rivers North and South of the Lake (figure 2). The largest water input of about 2/3 is

provided by river Morača at an average rate of 200m3/s at its mouth (170m3/s of

Morača in Podgorica, together with 26m3/s of its tributary Cijevna few kilometers

upstream from the confluence and other minor inflows in the vicinity of the Lake).

However, it is important to note that the water inflow from Morača varies greatly

during the year, and that the ratio between minimum and maximum values can be as

high as 1:245. This information is important in the context of gravel and sand

exploitation that modify the river bed and can have severe impacts on flow regime

and thus the Lake water dynamics because of such extreme variations.

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The rest of the water volume comes from numerous smaller rivers and streams, as

well as from the atmospheric precipitation, groundwater aquifers in Zeta plan and a

large number of sublacustrine springs scattered mostly along the southern shores of

the Lake. The Lake has only one outlet – River Bojana that drains about 80% of its

waters into Adriatic Sea at the average rate of 320 m3/s. The rest is lost via

evaporation.

Figure 2 – Map of the Lake watershed area, showing the main tributaries, outflow and direction of

water movement.

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The water level shows annual fluctuation depending on the season, and it varies

between 4.6 m, when Lake surface is around 350 km2 and volume around 1.7 km3, and

9.8 m, when Lake covers around 500 km2 and has a volume of 4.0 km3.

The surface area of the Lake significantly changed about 150 years ago, when floods in

river Drin watershed (Albania) brought large quantities of sediments into Bojana

river, reducing its capacity to drain Lake waters. This event caused permanent

flooding of surrounding lowlands and gave Lake its present appearance, surface and

dynamics. Occasionally, as a result of severe weather conditions, River Drin flows into

Bojana River, reversing its flow back into the Lake and raising its water level.

Because of such dynamics, the Lake has a rapid water turnover of 2-3 times per year.

This turnover and the shallowness of the Lake has two main implications - it lacks

thermal stratification and the retention of sediments, as well as various pollutants and

nutrients resulting from anthropogenic activities, is low, so the water quality can

remain relatively high despite various inputs it receives (all data from Special Purpose

Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001, Management Plan for National Park Skadar

Lake 2011-2015).

1.2. The abiotic factors in context – setting scene for biodiversity

Skadar Lake is located in the region that had a long and turbulent natural history,

which resulted in a very heterogeneous geological composition and topography and

thus a complex mosaic of microenvironmental conditions. Its position in the Balkan

Peninsula allowed the Lake region to escape the influences of last glaciation, which

means that it was able to provide colonisation area and a refugium for numerous

species that were retreating from the ice that covered most of Europe (Hewitt 1999).

Additionally, Lake is located on the meeting point of biogeographic zones of Europe,

Africa and Asia. Furthermore, it is the largest freshwater basin in Dinaric mountain

range, which is a rarity given the range’s predominantly karstic composition, which

does not retain water. Thus, given such a location, complex combination of factors and

dynamic interactions between them, conditions for colonisation and survival of a

diverse range of organisms were created here, resulting in very high biodiversity of

the region observed today.

In this area, there is a complexity of habitats with high diversity of organisms, much

higher than other sites of comparable size. Within the whole Lake region, there are

several types of habitats. Aquatic habitats are dominant, including lacustrine,

marshland, floodplains, riverine and littoral, but here, one can also find diverse

terrestrial ecosystems such are dry-forests and shrublands, rocky areas, grasslands.

There is about 22500ha of deeper lake waters, 7800ha of shallow, permanently

flooded areas, 5200ha of periodically flooded areas, and 12500ha of hills and rocky

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terrains in and immediately around the Lake (Management Plan for National Park

Skadar Lake 2011-2015). A study on habitat mapping based on Landsat data, satellite

images, historic and topographic maps and local literature, identified a large number

of habitats based on EUNIS and Natura 2000 classifications (Schwarz 2010). The most

abundant habitats include freshwaters as well as the marshalnds with extensive

floating carpets of macrophytes and reed-beds swamps. This study emphasized the

presence of aquatic forests, the extent of which equals the last remaining large

softwood stands at the middle and lower Danube, as well as the grasslands and

steppes along the North-East coast of the Lake, which are very important and yet

endangered habitats. The study provides a detailed map of habitats in the Skadar Lake

and Bojana River region.

All of those habitats are inhabited by a large number of species from various different

taxa. Some taxa are better studied than others – vertebrates and vascular plants in

general are well known and species lists are relatively complete. Better studied

species include birds that are of conservation interest (pelicans, cormorants, herons

and egrets), some mammals (otters, bats), reptiles, higher plants and fish, the latter

because they are commercially exploited. Substantial data exists for the presence of

some invertebrate taxa (certain Arthropod groups) and aquatic algae, but in general

most groups of organisms are poorly studied. Species composition is provided in the

Annex, and summarised in table 1. As it can be seen from those two tables, the

number of species, genera, families and other higher taxa present in the Lake region is

substantial. Apart from the species diversity, large number of different taxa and

presence of endemic species and subspecies indicates high levels of genetic diversity.

Thus, from the above, one can conclude that biodiversity of Skadar Lake region is high

on all levels – of genes, species and ecosystems. Indeed it has been estimated that the

region is considered to be a biogenetic reserve of European importance (Kaukelaar et

al., 2006).

Table 1- Species composition in higher taxa. For more detailed information, refer to the Annex. Information based on the Biodveristy Database of Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001 and additional sources.

Phylum Species Note

Lower plants (algae, mosses, ferns...)

8 1105 Species list not yet complete

Higher (seed) plants 1 714

Invertebrates 12 302 Species list not yet complete

Vertebrates 389

Total 2510

However, although species list of the Lake is extensive, with the exception of few well-

known species (mainly birds), population data and other ecological information on

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species or higher taxa is lacking. This is particularly true for fish species, which

although commercially exploited, are not properly researched in terms of population

dynamics and parameters that would allow their sustainable use (please refer to the

section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1). Also lacking is data on the interactions, food webs,

biomass production, nutrient cycling and other aspects of the Lake ecology, which is

all relevant in the context of anthropogenic influences, primarily pollution.

1.2.1. International recognitions

Because of the range of natural assets and high levels of biodiversity summarised

above, the Lake area received several international recognitions.

In 1996, it has been included in the Ramsar list of wetlands of international

importance based on the richness and diversity of ornithofauna. It fulfils Ramsar

criteria for holding more than 20.000 water birds, as well as for holding at least 1% of

a global population of any water bird species (which it does for several different

species – most notably pygmy cormorants of which it harbors 16% of the European

population – Stumberger and Schneider-Jacoby 2010).

Skadar Lake region is on the list of Important Plant Areas (IPA) because it is

populated by species that have national and international conservation importance

and due to the presence of representative habitats that are of European and global

importance (Petrović 2009).

It is on the list of Important Bird Areas (IBA) because it meets several criteria adopted

by the Birdlife International. The Lake has been recognised as an important site for

breeding, wintering and passage of waterbirds, holding more than 20000 individuals

throughout the year. It is a habitat for globally endangered species, and those of

European conservation interest for European Union, and a breeding site for six

species that are restricted to the Mediterranean biome (CZIP, internet source).

Based on the criteria of Bern Convention, 17 Emerald habitats with good

representation have been identified in the Lake region, mostly from Resolutions 4 and

6 (list provided in Mrdak et al. 2011).

Although the work on identification of Natura 2000 habitats based on the Habitat and

Bird directives of the EU has started for Montenegro, the list of those habitats is not

yet complete, though some of the habitats that meet relevant criteria to be considered

Special Areas of Conservation have been identified for Skadar Lake region. They

include: 3150 - natural eutrophic lakes with Magnopotamion or Hydrocharition-type

vegetation, 6210 - semi-natural grasslands – important orchid sites, 91E0 - alluvial

forests with Alnus, Fraxinus and Salix, 91F0 - riparian mixed forests of Quercus, Ulmus

and Fraxinus, among others (Schwarz 2010).

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1.3. Environment and biodiversity – setting scene for humans

The region of Skadar Lake is characterised by diversity of soils, mild climate with

sufficient and seasonally-adequate precipitation, availability of freshwater sources,

and richness of biodiversity. Furthermore, such a large freshwater body, nested

within the largest valley in Dinarids (Zeta-Skadar valley) that is regularly fertilised

owing to fluctuations of Lake waters, is a real rarity within the karst terrain of the

Balkans, so this whole suite of factors has provided favourable conditions for settling

of human populations since the early history.

Traces of early settlers in this region date to prehistory, and all major civilisations that

inhabited South Europe passed through this area and left their trace. Thus, there is a

long history of interactions between humans and ecosystems in this region. The

utilisation of biodiversity and ecosystem services was important for survival and

prosperity of local communities, and it continues to be important even in the present

day society of Montenegro. The values of Skadar Lake biodiversity are multifold, and a

recent study by UNDP Montenegro (2011) has for the first time provided a rough

estimate of the economic value of the ecosystem services for Montenegrin system of

protected areas, Skadar Lake included.

1.3.1. Biodiversity values

1.3.1.1. Direct use values

Certain biodiversity and other natural elements have been directly used for

subsistence and are providing economic benefits.

One of the main economic activities in the Lake region is fisheries. Most of about 50

species of fish inhabiting the Lake are exploited as wild-caught, with carp, eel, twaide

shad and bleak having the most economic significance. Fish is caught for direct

consumption by local population, or as a source of household income. In the case of

bleak, it is exploited primarily by the fish processing factory in Rijeka Crnojevića.

More details on fisheries and economic benefits from this activity are provided in the

section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1.

Other wild species exploited directly from the nature by local population for their own

consumption or retail include:

- Medicinal plants, primarily sage – This plant is abundant along the South

rocky shores of the Lake, and has traditionally been collected by the local

population. There is a sage processing facility in the village of Ostros, but it

has not been operational for several years. Sage is used directly by people

for their own consumption, or sold on local green markets or to herb-

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processing facilities outside this region. Monitoring and economic data on

sage exploitation is lacking.

- Chestnuts – there are extensive chestnut forests along the south shores of

Skadar Lake, among the largest in South Europe. The nuts of this tree are

used by local population for their own consumption, or for sale on local

markets, where its price varies between 1-3€ per kilo. Chestnut tree and its

fruit are a part of local tradition, and local community organises a festival to

celebrate this plant (Koštanijada in Ostros, organised annually in

November), which gives it an additional, non-use, cultural value.

Monitoring and economic data on chestnut use is lacking.

- Wild fruits, primarily pomegranate, are used for direct consumption. Local

population makes cordial which is considered a healthy drink. Small

quantities are sold on the doorstep or to local restaurants and catering

facilities, at the price 3-5€ per litre. There are some initiatives to make this

a local brand and to organise its trade and export. Monitoring and economic

data on this is lacking.

- Water chestnut (calltrop) – an abundant floating water plant with a

characteristically shaped fruit that has been used by local population for

direct consumption. It was used raw, roasted or dried and grounded into

flour for bread making. Its use in local cuisine has diminished, although it is

still locally used mostly by the people in Vranjina village. There is no data

that this fruit is being sold for economic benefit.

- Birds – primarily water fowl has been traditionally hunted in Skadar Lake

area. Hunting on birds has been officially banned within the National Park

since 2002, however, illegal hunting still occurs, with primary targets being

migratory coots and ducks (several species). Hunting grounds where this

activity is allowed exist in the Lake vicinity, and the main bird species

hunted there is partridge. Birds are hunted for sport or individual

consumption, some are sold to restaurants or exported (illegally) to Italy. If

there is economic benefit from selling hunted birds, it is for a small number

of individuals.

- Mammals – boars and rabbits are hunted for sports and recreation in the

hunting grounds surrounding the Lake, where this activity is allowed and

regulated by the Law on hunting and managed by the hunting associations.

- Frogs – collection of frogs within Skadar Lake national park is not allowed.

However, it is known that a small number of individuals do collect frogs

and receive economic benefit from their sale at restaurants or export to

Italy. Data on this activity is lacking.

- Snakes have been caught by local individuals who have economic benefit

from the sales of collected venom. Data on this activity is lacking.

Forests that surround the Lake and consist mainly of oak and hornbeam trees are cut

for direct use as fuel-wood or as a construction material by local population. Willow

trees inhabiting shallow and seasonally flooded areas have also been exploited as fuel-

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wood, as well as for weaving baskets and other items and tools associated with

traditional fishery practices, though this activity has diminished in the past few

decades. Data on economic benefits of exploitation of those forests is lacking.

Reed has traditionally been used by local population for thatching roofs, crafts and

other household-related uses. The collection of reed although diminished, is still

taking place, and bundles of reed can be seen for sale at local markets or along the

roads. Data on its use and economic benefits are lacking.

Peat, as a product of decaying marshland vegetation, has also been utilised on a local

scale, as a nutrient-rich natural fertiliser. There are initiatives to exploit this resource

on a much larger scale, as it has been estimated that its deposits exceed 40 million m3.

Such quantities would allow its exploitation at the rate of 30t per year, which could

bring significant economic benefits (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake

2001).

An exploitation of another natural resource - sand and gravel brought in by Morača

River (as well as other Lake tributaries), is an activity that brings significant economic

benefits. The extraction concession fees are a substantial proportion of the annual

National Park income (see section 3.1.), while it has been estimated that extraction

generates production with a direct sales price of 138.530€ and brings a full market

value of 346.326€ for the concession holders (ISSP 2011).

1.3.1.2. Indirect use values – ecosystem services

Presence of certain ecosystems provides some services that are indirectly utilised by

humans, or which indirectly contribute to human wellbeing and security. The extent

and the value of those services have only relatively recently come under the spotlight

globally, whereas in Montenegro not much work has been done in order to research

those services and how they contribute to the local and national welfare.

Nevertheless, it is important to highlight the need for more research into ecosystem

services, of Skadar Lake region in particular, as a large fraction of Montenegrin

population depends on them. This issue is also important within the context of

introducing concepts of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and designing markets

for them, which can ultimately contribute to the financial sustainability of protected

areas system, including NP Skadar Lake.

Wetlands, in general, act to prevent floods, owing to the wetland vegetation and a

network of their roots in the soils that absorb incoming water, slowing it down and

distributing it slowly over the area. It has been estimated that an acre (0,4ha) of

wetland can retain about a million gallons (3.7x106 litres) of water (EPA U.S. internet

source). Inundation of the North shores of Skadar Lake is a regular seasonal event,

however in the recent years we have witnessed extreme precipitation and floods that

caused much damage to material goods and agricultural crops in the Lake vicinity.

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Although no data exists on flood prevention potential of Skadar Lake wetland habitats,

if one takes the above estimate and the presence of 5.200ha of periodically flooded

areas, it is reasonable to believe that the retention capacity of incoming water of this

area can be substantial and that it can contribute significantly to the mitigation of

flood events. According to the climate change scenario for our country (Government of

Montenegro 2010), it is to be expected that extreme weather conditions, floods

including, will become more frequent events. In this context, research, protection and

management of Skadar Lake wetlands become emphasized.

Regular seasonal floods bring nutrients to seasonally flooded areas, making them

fertile, and which are used as agricultural lands during the periods of low water level.

They are used both as arable land (where small-scale farms are sown with vegetables)

or as pastures (for cattle grazing) that are also hayed. In such a way, floodplains

provide conditions for certain forms of agriculture (for more, please refer to the

section 2.3. on farming in Study 1).

Further, wetland vegetation acts as a natural filter for pollution, as the plants take up

nutrients and store them in their tissues, in such a way removing them from the

water. North shores of the Lake are agricultural lands that are intensively farmed. The

use of artificial fertilisers and pesticides has increased, and they inevitably leek into

the soils and groundwater. Marshlands of the northern Lake shores most likely

present a filter for those substances, preventing eutrophication of Lake waters. Some

indication that this is the case comes from the analysis of water quality and the

observed spread of the marshland vegetation and flooded forests in this area,

however research on those links is lacking.

As mentioned above, fisheries are among the most important economies of local

population surrounding the Lake. Marshlands of the Lake, on the other hand, provide

spawning sites and nurseries for fish species, especially carp that is commercially the

most important species. In such a way, they provide a service that makes this

important economic activity possible (refer to the section 2.1. on fisheries in Study 1).

Because of its size and hydrologic characteristics, the Lake and related springs and

aquifers present an important freshwater source for local population (which most

commonly drills wells), but also for the wider region. Namely, a Regional water supply

system has been constructed draining freshwater from one of the sublacustrine

springs, and is transporting it to the coastal region. It has been estimated that this

benefits resident population of 170.000 people (ITSC 2006) as well as tourists, who

spend up to 7.6 million nights (MONSTAT internet database).

Skadar Lake presents one of the largest peatlands in south-east Europe, and layers of

this organic material present an important carbon sink that needs long-term

preservation (Schneider-Jacoby et al., 2010), primarily in the context of climate-

change.

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1.3.1.3. Recreational and aesthetic values

The landscape of the Lake consists of three very different elements – the marshlands

of the northern shores, with lush aquatic vegetation inhabited by a great diversity of

animals, including numerous bird species; the open waters of the Lake, on which large

flocks of migratory birds can be observed during the winter and where traditional

fishing boats as well as tourist and recreational vessels pass; and the mountainous

karst landscape of the southern and western shores, with many islands and bays,

which also has elements of anthropogenic cultural landscape in the form of

picturesque villages that are the result of a long history of human-nature interactions

and traditional land-use practices. Such diversity of landscapes provides a unique

aesthetic experience and gives the whole Lake region special aesthetic values that are

valorised through tourism.

Boat excursions are the most common form of tourism offer on the Lake. Visitors are

primarily attracted by the landscape that can best be experienced by cruising on the

Lake waters. Additionally, the aquatorial of the Lake is used for windsurfing, more

recently kayaking, while surrounding terrestrial area is popular for hiking which

increasingly attracts more and more visitors. There is a network of hiking paths

mostly along the southern shores of the Lake.

Birdwatching presents another special form of tourism that directly depends on the

aesthetic and recreational values of biodiversity, in this case the birds. Owing to the

rich ornithofauna, development of this form of touristic and recreational activity is

made possible, and it has started to act as a source of income for the National Park

and local population (refer to the section 2.2. on tourism in Study 1).

Apart from tourism, such landscape provides an attractive set-up for film-making,

which can be a source of economic benefit. Several movies were made in the region.

For instance, about a decade ago, an international film was made on the Lake,

providing short-term employment for the local population. In 2010, this activity

provided National Park authorites with an income of 4.274€ from filming licences

(ISSP 2011).

1.3.1.4. Non-use values

As discussed above, Lake with its environmental conditions and natural resources and

landscape values has provided conditions for early settlers. Dynamic history of the

state of Montenegro has been tightly linked to this region, as inferred from numerous

archaeological and historical remains as well as from the ethnographic heritage found

here. So the whole region features strongly in the cultural heritage and the creation of

national identity, which gives it an additional non-use value. In relation to that,

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Montenegrins have ethical obligations for future generations to maintain the existing

conditions and values of the region.

Apart from that, there are ethical obligations towards the European and global

community linked with particular species found here – including endangered and

flagship species (Dalmatian pelicans), red listed and migratory species that are part of

global ecosystems.

The above values cannot be directly economically quantified, but should be

considered as they certainly have their place in all the discussions and plans regarding

protection and development in this region.

1.3.2. Trends in ecosystems

Ecosystems, those of the Lake including, are dynamic natural systems, where

population dynamics and species composition change depending on the combination

of environmental factors. However, in recent times, anthropogenic influences are

becoming increasingly more important in affecting ecosystem dynamics, so rapid

changes with numerous consequences are becoming a trend.

Several anthropogenic effects are important when considering Skadar Lake

ecosystems. They include various forms of pollution, overexploitation of species,

destruction of habitat (abandonment of traditional land uses, land conversion,

deforestation, fires, river channel modifications through the extraction of mineral

resources and peat), introduction of species and small-scale disturbance. They will be

discussed in turn.

1.3.2.1. Pollution

Water pollution is often considered as one of the main environmental problems of the

Lake. This includes pollution from point sources (organic – from untreated sewage

discharges in the watershed area, or inorganic from industrial complexes) and

nonpoint sources (agricultural runoff). Increased levels of pollutants can cause

eutrophication and can accumulate in plant and animal tissues, in such a way

disrupting natural ecosystem dynamics, and can also act as toxins, mutagens,

carcinogens, affecting the health of humans utilising those ecosystems.

Various parameters of organic and inorganic pollution have been monitored for the

past few decades. Institutions responsible for monitoring are CETI,

Hydrometeorological institute (within the annual environmental monitoring

programme) and University of Montenegro (School of Natural Sciences and

Mathematics), which has conducted research within several projects. Although the

18

body of data on monitoring is substantial, it has certain defficinencies, owing to which

it is hard to draw definitive conclusions regarding the trends in pollution. This is

because the collected data are inconsistent between the institutions, between years,

and are not in accordance with international monitoring standards and

recommendations (such as those from the EU Water Directive, for example).

Additionally, there are seasonal variations depending on the hydrological regime,

which can cloud the underlying effects of pollution (ERICo 2011).

Nevertheless, some general trends have emerged from the data gathered by those

monitoring programmes. The concentration of organic pollutants (ammonia and

nitrites) is the highest along the northern shores and Morača River mouth, which

drains most of the watershed area. In this region, along the North shores of the Lake,

the spread of marshland vegetation has been observed in the recent past, as well as

the occurence of algal blooms. All of this indicates that the main sources of organic

pollution are considered to be runoff from the agricultural lands of Zeta plan that

fringes the northern shores of the Lake and inputs of nutrients from the untreated

urban wastewaters that arrive via tributaries (mainly Morača River). The expansion of

the marshlands is linked to the effects of organic pollution, as the aquatic

macrophytes take up nutrients dissolved in the water, which increases their biomass

production, however no direct research has been done to determine whether there is

a direct cause and effect link between the two.

Apart from nutrient inputs, the Lake waters has been receiving a load of persistent

organic pollutants, including PCB and PAH, mainly coming from Aluminium plant in

Podgorica (KAP). Such substances are resistant to degradation and persist in the

environment, where they can bioaccumulate in plant and animal tissues, causing

negative effects especially on the end consumers in trophic chains, humans included.

Monitoring programs done during the ‘90s, showed that concentrations of those

pollutants measured in water, soil and fish tissues were high and above the allowed

concentrations. However, more recent measurements (in the past few years), show a

marked drop in their concentrations. Apart from natural contributions to this

decrease (such is the high turnover rate of Lake waters, high precipitation,

permeability of soils…), a major contribution came from the removal of the source

pollution from the KAP (ERICo 2011).

Concentrations of other, trace, elements that act as pollutants are generally low. In

general, the water quality of the Lake, according to the national official environmental

report, is satisfactory, despite some local and seasonal variations. Nevertheless, as

stated above, there is no research to link the observed trends in quality of waters and

sediments with the population and community dynamics of Lake ecosystems or

human health of populations utilising those ecosystems.

Solid waste disposal is another issue in the Lake region. Numerous illegal dumps,

especially along the tributaries and in the vicinity of villages, contribute large amounts

of solid waste (most often plastic) into the Lake. Research on the impact on human

19

health, flora, fauna and habitats has not been done, but it certainly creates aesthetic

pollution, which is the most common complaint of visitors of the Lake, and as such can

have adverse effect on tourism development.

1.3.2.2. Habitat modification and destruction

Abandonement of traditional forms of land use (like small scale farming, cattle

grazing, grass cutting) and conversion of agricultural land or natural habitats into

construction land for tourist and other infrastructure, has been taking place around

Skadar Lake in the past few decades. The regions most affected include southern

shores of the Lake (Virpazar and Crmnica region, villages in Krajina and Riječka

nahija). Such practices have caused losses of natural or anthropogenic habitats with

high biodiversity, and have also created pollution of the landscape which

compromises its aesthetic values. Abandonment of certain habitats, like the

floodplains along the North shores traditionally used for grazing and haying, left way

for natural succession by trees (poplars, willows), leading to the loss of species that

require open and seasonally disturbed grassland habitats.

Exploitation of gravel and sand (and to a lesser degree peat) is an ongoing activity

within the Lake system. Large quantities are being extracted at the downstream areas

of Morača River, including its mouth at the Lake, as well as from smaller rivers and

tributaries. Some of those activities are carried out as concessions controlled by the

National Park, though the small-scale ones on the rivers are illegal. All of them have

caused observable modifications of river channels. This is particularly obvious in the

parts of Morača River few kilometres upstream from the National Park, where its

natural channel has been significantly modified (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for

National Park Skadar Lake 2001 and present observations). During the periods of low

water levels, the river at parts becomes cut off, and large schools of fish become

stranded in pools that rapidly become deoxygenated. Reports on those events are

sporadic and anecdotal, and no proper research has been done to estimate the extent

of modification of natural river flow dynamics or the effects this has on the Lake

hydrological regime and ecosystems.

Deforestation in the region, caused primarily by gathering of fuelwood and conversion

of natural habitats into agricultural or construction lands, has been taking place for a

long time. The effect is that forests in the immediate surrounding of the Lake are

generally degraded and fragmented. This is the trend in the wider watershed area of

the Lake, as well, and in that respect not only does it cause direct loss of biodiversity,

but can cause erosion, especially of the shallow soils on sloping terrains, such are the

ones along the South shores of the Lake.

1.3.2.3. Species exploitation

20

One of the primary economic activities in the Lake region is fishing, so fish species

exploitation is among the main environmental issues. Most of the Lake fish species

have been exploited, and various changes in fishery-practices (including the increase

in illegal fishing) and ecosystems have caused declines or losses of some species. For

instance, sharp decline in sturgeons, as well as decline in carp abundance is apparent

to those who have been fishing on the Lake for a long time. Among one of the biggest

fishery-related issues on the Lake is blocking of migratory routes on Bojana River by

dams designed to catch fish, primarily eel, sturgeons and twaite shad, the species that

migrate between the Lake and the Adriatic Sea. More information regarding fishing

and related issues is provided in section 2.1 on fisheries of Study 1.

Hunting waterbirds has been officially banned from the National Park area since

2002. However, instances of poaching are frequent, and this form of illegal activity is

poorly regulated, so exploitation of bird species continues. The most affected species

are various ducks (common pochard, ferruginous duck) and coot. Apart from direct

removal of individual from the populations, hunting also acts to disturb bird

populations. This occurs particularly during the winter, when large flocks of migratory

birds use Lake’s surface for resting and feeding, and disturbance caused in this way

makes large flocks fly away, which can affect bird vigour and ability to continue

migrations. Although precise estimates on how this affects abundance and population

sizes are lacking, data from monitoring programs suggest that the observed declines

in some species’ populations can, at least partially, be attributed to hunting.

As stated above, there is evidence of uncontrolled collection of medicinal plants, frogs

(mainly Rana ridibunda) and snakes (Viperidae), but estimates on the population

dynamics of those species are lacking. However, if such a trend continues, population

declines of those species, as a consequence of direct exploitation, are to be expected.

Cutting of trees has reduced the spread of forests, and has directly affected the

abundance of certain species, most notably the endemic subspecies of oak – Quercus

robur scuteriensis, which presently occurs only as small patches or isolated trees

scattered around the region (Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001).

1.3.2.4. Introduction of species.

There are frequent occurences of fish species introductions that are not done in a

controlled way. In the ‘70s, Prussian carp was introduced in order to increase the

fisheries success. The opulation of this species has increased, so that presently it

comprises a significant proportion of the total fish catch on the Lake, which at some

point exceeded the catch of the native carp (Mrdak 2009). Perch was also introduced

into the Lake ecosystem, where it succesfully filled an empty niche of a top predator in

the littoral zone, also becoming a significant part of the total catch (Mrdak 2009).

21

There are three potentially harmful species of fish that have been accidentally

introduced into the Lake - Amurian minnow, Mosquito-fish and Brown bullhead

(Nikčević and Hagediš 2012). Recently, a single case of a piranha was reported in

Skadar Lake, probably resulting from a deliberate release from aquaria. No similar

cases have been reported since, but similar events are expected to occur in the

absence of the awareness of potential consequences. Currently, those species do not

have a significant impact on the overall fish fauna in the Lake, but should be

monitored nevertheless.

Although the cases of introduced fish species and known and changes in their

population dynamics observed, there is no research into the ecological effects of those

introduced species on the populations of native fish or on the ecosystem in general.

1.3.2.5. Disturbance

Although there is a general trend of population decrease in rural areas around the

Lake, alteration of land uses and increase in visitation have resulted in the increased

presence of humans in remote and sensitive areas of the Lake ecosystem.

Tourist and fishermen boats enter marshlands and destroy floating vegetation, create

noise and in such a way disturb fauna especially birds. It has been estimated that a

boat leaves a disturbance corridor up to 1km wide (Schneider-Jacoby 2010). For

instance, Dalmatian pelicans used to nest on the isle of Grmožur, but due to frequent

visitation by tourists, they abandoned this nesting site. Similarly, in the sensitive

period of nesting, they are easily disturbed by fishermen boats in the marshlands.

When disturbed, they leave nests, so the eggs get exposed to insolation, which can

have an impact on the clutch survival. Considering that there is at least 200 fishermen

boats on the Lake (judging from the number of sold fishing licences), as well as a

number of tourist and recreational vessels, ranger and police patrol speedboats, this

form of disturbance can be considerable. There are initiatives to solve this problem

through Zonation of the Lake and creation of water corridors where traffic and

passage of vessels is controlled, but such a regime is still not enforced.

Increased traffic surrounding Lake creates high level of roadkill, especially reptiles

(snakes and lizards), as well as mammals such as otters. For instance, one witness

reported around 160 dead reptiles on the 5km stretch of road between Virpazar and

Vranjina, and some time later, an otter was found along the same road. Data on how

this affects species’ populations is lacking.

Use of boats and fishing causes collateral damage to many non-target species. Boat

propellers damage water macrophytes, which provide structural complexity and

habitat for other species (including nesting sites for whiskered terns). Birds such as

coot and cormorants, as well as otters frequently get caught in fishermen nets. The

use of electricity for illegal fishing also stuns and kills all the fauna that gets within the

22

current, including invertebrates and roe of all the fish species. There are reports that

birds’ nests and eggs, especially those of pelicans, have been collected for purposes of

selling them to collectors.

The evidence for the above effects is anecdotal, and often encountered in the field or

heard from local users, but no critical and systematic assessment on their extent and

influence on population and ecosystem dynamics has been carried out.

1.4. Summary

Skadar Lake presents a rather unique ecosystem in the wider region of the South-East

Europe. Dynamic natural history has created a complex environmental setting which

provided conditions for persistence of rich biodiversity.

History of human-nature interactions in this area is long, and even present day society

of Montenegro depends on direct and indirect services provided by the Lake

ecosystem. The changes in the modes of utilisation and increased pressures on natural

assets have created new trends in ecosystem and population dynamics, which are

predominantly negative. Lack of research into natural dynamics and effects of

anthropogenic influences makes it hard to determine causal relationships. Despite

conservation measures, negative trends persist, and if present-day Montenegrin

society is to continue to derive benefits from the biodiversity and other ecosystem

services of the Lake, more information and management actions are needed.

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2. Legislative and policy framework

Skadar Lake is a transboundary Lake – the border between Montenegro and Albania

splits the Lake, so that those countries contain 2/3 and 1/3 of its surface respectively.

This means that the Lake region is non-administrative, as its sides comply with

different sets of laws, regulations and plans, which has implications for conservation

and management arrangements.

On Montenegrin side, 40.000ha of Lake surface, marshlands and surrounding

terrestrial habitats have a status of a national park. The utilisation regime within the

national park is mainly determined by the Law on National Parks of Montenegro, as

well as by the by-laws and regulations adopted and enforced by the managing

authority – Public Enterprise for National Parks - NP Skadar Lake. The other two Laws

most relevant for Skadar Lake are Law on Freshwater Fisheries and Law on Nature

Protection.

2.1. Legislative framework

The Law on National Parks

Year of coming into force: 2009 (revision of this Law is ongoing. The new

Law is expected to be endorsed in 2013)

Reference: Official Gazette 56/09

Responsible ministry: Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism

Short description:

This is a Lex specialis, so its provisions are above provisions of all other Laws.

According to this Law, national parks are areas under the special protection

regime, and fall under the nature protection regulations, unless otherwise

stated.

This Law defines the following:

- descriptive borders of national parks

- management body (Public Enterprise for National Parks) founded by the

Parliament – it’s mandate, management structure and mode of

establishment

- procedures for preparation and adoption of NP spatial plans and programs

for protection, promotion and use

- management plan contents

- prohibited activities in the parks

- conditions of use of resources within parks, with particular emphasis on

forests and land (in terms of construction)

- sources of financing for national parks

- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law

24

The Law on Freshwater Fisheries

Year of coming into force: 2007

Reference: Official Gazette 11/2007

Responsible ministry: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

Short description:

This Law defines the following:

- fishing waters and areas (which includes Skadar Lake)

- conditions of use of fish stock (by companies, fishing associations etc, on

the basis of the public competition process)

- contents of the Fishery Basis document (stock assessment, allowed yields,

protection measures etc)

- types of fishing (recreational, commercial, for scientific purposes) and how

they are regulated

- aquaculture and its rules

- various protection measures (defines illegal modes of fishing, setting up of

protection services etc)

- inspection and how it is carried out

- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law

The Law on Nature Protection

Year of coming into force: 2008 (revision of this Law is ongoing. The new

Law expected to be endorsed in 2013)

Responsible ministry: Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism

Reference: Official Gazette 51/08

Short description:

This Law defines the following:

- basic principles of nature protection (integrated protection, prevention

principle, polluter/user pays principle...)

- modes of nature protection (through establishment of protected areas,

defining measures and conditions for protection within plans and other

strategic documents, fostering of scientific research...)

- conditions for use of natural assets/areas

- Natura 2000 ecological network

- categories of protected areas

- criteria for species protection

- procedures for proclamation of protected areas

- conditions for management and use of protected areas

- special nature protection measures

- contents of the Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, as the main nature

protection document

- modes of financing nature protection

25

- competences of nature protection wardens

- inspection and how it is carried out

- penalties and fees for noncompliance with the Law

Based on those Laws, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the

Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro bring several regulations, of

which the most relevant for Skadar Lake include:

Rules of Conduct within National Parks Biogradska Gora, Lovćen, Durmitor and

Skadar Lake

Reference: Official Gazzette 32/05

Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP

Endorsed by: Management board of PENP

Defines the following:

- activities that are forbidden within the borders of national parks (illegal

killing of animals and collection of plants, destruction of habitats etc)

- activities that can be conducted within the park with a special permit

(cutting timber, collection of plants, fungi and forest products)

- mode of use of national park assets (scientific research, visitation,

recreational activities, commercial activities including fishing and

agriculture)

Decree on fishing bans, limitations and measures for the protection of fish

stocks

Reference: Official Gazzete 21/12

Based on: Law on Freshwater Fisheries

Endorsed by: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

Defines the following:

- periods of fishing bans for certain fish species on Skadar Lake (as well as on

all other freshwater bodies in Montenegro)

- illegal modes of fishing (various illegal tools, minimal dimeter for gill nets,

number of fishing rods, limits in quantities for certain species)

- measures for protection of fish stock from diseases

Decision on the modes and conditions for commercial fishing on Skadar Lake

Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP

Endorsed by: Management board of PENP

Defines the following:

- parts of the Lake where permanent fishing ban is enforced

- allowed tools for commercial fishing

- conditions for fishing (licence)

26

Decision on the fees and modes of payment for using the goods of National

Parks, carrying out activities and offering services

Based on: Law on National Parks and the Statute of the PENP

Endorsed by: Management board of PENP

Defines the following:

- types and values of fees for visitation and services offered within the Park

(entry fees, premises rental, guide fees, fees for organised visits)

- types and values of fees for using premises and facilities (fees for camping,

fees for jeep tours)

- fees for collection of forest fruits, fungi and medicinal plants

- fees for catering, tourist, merchandise and infrastructural facilities (space

rental for catering facilities, hotels, small shops, using of beaches)

- fees for construction of temporary facilities within the Park (such are

kiosks, stalls etc)

- fees for filming within parks

- fees for fishing within parks

- fees for using the name and logo of parks

Other laws and regulations that are of relevance to Skadar Lake area and its

protection and management include:

National laws:

- The Law on the Environment – Ministry of Sustainabile Development and

Tourism (Official Gazette 55/00)

- The Law on Waters – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

(Official Gazette 27/2007)

- The Law on Forests – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

(Official Gazette 74/10 and 40/11)

- The Law on Agricultural Land - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural

Development (Official Gazette 15/92, 59/92, 32/11)

- The Law on Tourism – Ministry for Sustainable Development and Tourism

(Official Gazette 61/2010)

- The Law on Waste Management – Ministry for Sustainable Development

and Tourism (Official Gazette 64/11)

- The Law on Environmental Impact Assessment – Ministry for Sustainable

Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)

- The Law on Strategic Environmental Assessment – Ministry for Sustainable

Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)

- The Law on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control – Ministry for

Sustainable Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 80/05)

- The Law on Spatial Planning and Development – Ministry for Sustainable

Development and Tourism (Official Gazette 51/08, 40/10 and 34/11)

- The Law on Game and Hunting (Official Gazette 052/08-1)

27

Other regulations on the national level:

- Rules on modes and conditions for collection, use and trade of unprotected

wild species of animals, plans and fungi used for commercial purposes

(Official Gazette 62/10)

- Rules on the protection measures and modes of maintenance of road

crossings for wild animals (Official Gazette 80/10)

- Rules on the monitoring of abundance and conditions of populations of

protected wild birds (Official Gazette 62/10)

- Rules on contens and management of the registry of protected natural

assets (Official Gazette 79/09)

- Rules on the risk assessment for introduction of alien wild species of plants,

animals and fungi (Official Gazette 46/10)

- The List of Protected Species (which can’t be killed, collected in adult

and/or juvenile stages, nor their habitats, nesting and spawning sites

disturbed)

Other relevant regulations endorsed by PENP based on the Law on National

Parks and the Statute of PENP:

- Decision on the modes and conditions for sport fishing on Skadar Lake

- Decision on the modes and conditions for tourist transportation on Skadar

Lake waters

- Decision on modes and conditions for conducting birdwatching in NP Skadar

Lake

International legal acts

- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention),

- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

- Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-

making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus

Convention)

- UNESCO World Heritage Convention

- Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary

Context (Espoo Convention)

- Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural

Habitats

- Bonn Convention on Migratory Species

- EU bird directive

- EU habitat directive

28

2.2. Issues with the enforcement

The legislative framework for protection and management of Skadar Lake region and

its natural resources in Montenegro is in place. A number of legal instruments has

been endorsed in the past and more recently, within the context of EU integrations,

where national legislation has to be harmonised with the EU acquis.

Based on those regulations, the PENP is given the mandate to enforce them through

its Legal department and the Rangers service of NP Skadar Lake, together with

support from other relevant national institutions (various inspectorates, police etc).

However, although the legal framework is extensive, the enforcement is rather

defficient. Some of the main issues that exist in this respect include:

- Insufficient number of rangers and technical equipment for adequatelly

monitoring the Park area

- Insufficient capacities of rangers in terms of being acquainted with the legal

framework, technical skills for preparing proper charges, conducts during

law enforcement etc.

- The judiciary system is very slow and nature protection-related charges are

not given priority

- The judiciary personel does not have sufficient understanding of ecological

processes for efficient nature protection

2.3. Relevant strategic documents

Apart from the above Laws and regulations, there are several strategic documents

that are relevant for Skadar Lake protection, use and management.

Special Purpose Spatial Plan for National Park Skadar Lake

It is the main planning document for the Skadar Lake region. This plan was adopted

by Montenegrin Parliament in September 2001. The Plan provides a detailed

description of various components of the NP environment (geology, hydrography,

paedology, biological diversity), as well as resources, modes of their use, settlements

and infrastructure, socio-economic aspects of the region. At the same time, the Plan

defines Park’s borders and zoning, and various land uses (e.g. tourist and recreational

zones, building sites etc.) within the NP, as well as gives directions for the

development of economic activities and the protection in the region.

29

National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan 2010-2015

National Biodiversity Strategy with Action Plan (NBSAP) has been adopted in July

2010 for the period of five years with the aim to determine long term objectives and

guidelines for preservation of biological and landscape diversity in Montenegro. In

line with the requirements of the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and the Law on

Nature Protection (Official Gazette 51/08), the Strategy provides: overview of the

biological diversity (ecosystems, species, centres of biodiversity, agro-biodiversity),

biodiversity protection (in situ - species, ecosystems, habitats and ex situ), sustainable

use of biodiversity and natural resources (ecosystem services, economic sectors:

agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishery, medical and aromatic plans, GMOs, nature-

based tourism, eco-tax, non-economic values of biodiversity), issues of particular

interest for biodiversity protection and its sustainable use (tourism, spatial planning,

infrastructure, legal and institutional framework), threats to biodiversity (major

threats, causes of biodiversity loss, obstacles to efficient protection) and action plan

for biodiversity protection (challenges, measures, activities).

The activities of the Action Plan of the Strategy include: improvement of the

knowledge base on biodiversity through research, improvement of the biodiversity

monitoring programs, work on identification and mapping of Natura 2000 sites,

capacity building of institutions and researchers, decrease of the pressures on natural

habitats and mitigation of anthropogenic influences, integration of biodiversity issues

in other sectors’ policies. Their implementation is to a great extent related to national

institutions due to the complexity of obligations for biodiversity protection. With the

aim to ensure as wide as possible participation of all the relevant parties, measures

and activities are in most of the cases defined as joint obligation of several

stakeholders: competent government institutions, local self-government bodies,

professional organizations, associations and civil society bodies. The funds for

implementation of the Strategy should be secured by the national and local

governments (depending on the responsible implementation party), as well as

donations, international projects and similar.

Skadar Lake is within the Strategy described as the largest freshwater ecosystem with

the richest biodiversity that makes it a valuable wetland habitat. It also recognises the

Lake as a site for fisheries and nature-based tourism. Some of the priority measures

that are relevant to Skadar Lake include the preparation of the fish stock assessment

and environmental impact assessments on exploitation of gravel and modification of

watercourses.

National Strategy for Sustainable Development

30

This Strategy gives directions for overall development of Montenegro based on

sustainability principles. It identifies five general objectives: accelerate economic

growth and development and decrease regional differences; decrease poverty and

ensure equal access to services and resources; ensure efficient control and reduce

pollution; sustainably manage natural resources; improve public participation;

maintain cultural diversity and identities. The Strategy does not deal specifically with

the Skadar Lake region, but those objectives and measures listed within the action

plan give guidance for future activities in this region.

Tourism Development Strategy until 2020.

This Strategy gives a general overview and directions for the development of

Montenegrin tourism, and it does so through identifying several operational

objectives with sets of priority measures for achieving them, as well as by identifying

six tourism clusters, each with its own specificities (based on the location,

accessibility, natural and cultural assets, infrastructure etc). Skadar Lake in this

Strategy is treated as a part of one tourism cluster, together with Cetinje Municipality,

regarded as a “heart of the country” - a region with scenic beauty, rich in biodiversity

and cultural heritage. The tourism development for this cluster envisages activities

that are sustainable and strictly respect environmental considerations (for instance:

main activities include hiking, biking, cruises on boats powered with solar energy,

construction of facilities that respect traditional architecture).

Strategy for Fishery Development of Montenego and Strenghtening of the

Capacities for the Implementation of the Common Fishery Policy of EU

The main focus of this Strategy is redefining Montenegrin fishery policy in accordance

with the EU integration requirements, with the ultimate aim of protection and

sustainable use of marine and freshwater fish stocks. Thus, the Strategy provides

overview of the existing situation in the fishery sector in Montenegro and the set of

actions/recommendations for building sustainable and efficient fisheries that are

competitive at the wider market. The topics covered within the Strategy include:

harmonization of the legislation with the relevant EU acquis, proposals for

improvement of the monitoring system and data collection in line with the EU

standards and requirements, strengthening of the administrative capacities in order

to answer EU requirements, improvement of the quality of products, strengthening

laboratories for conducting relevant chemical and micro-biological analysis, creation

of favourable institutional framework for recovery of the national fishing fleet,

improvement of research and assessment of fish stocks etc.

Skadar Lake is in this Strategy described as the main area for freshwater fisheries. The

Strategy recognises lack of data on fish resources and fish catch as the main obstacle

31

for sustainable fishery development at the Lake, while the demand for Skadar Lake

fish at the domestic market has been recognised as the main advantage.

3. Management of Skadar Lake National Park

Skadar Lake region is primarily managed as a protected area (national park), though

other institutions have a role in the management of the wider region and resources

(for a review, please refer to the section 1. on stakeholder analysis in Study 1).

3.1. Public Enterprise for National Parks

A managing authority for the park is Public Enterprise for National Parks of

Montenegro (PENP). It is an umbrella organisation for managing all Montenegrin

national parks, and the management of the Lake is made operational through its

organisational unit National Park Skadar Lake (NPSL).

Management structure of PENP is provided in figure 3. It can be seen that it is

governed by the Director and the General Management Board advised by the Advisory

board (consisting of technical experts from various fields), and that it contains several

departments common for all parks (Financial, Legal Department, Department for

Education, Promotion and Marketing, Department for Protection and Development).

NP Skadar Lake (and other individual parks), as an organisational unit of PENP, has its

director, and departments for Technical and Administrative Affairs, General

Maintenance and a Ranger Service.

32

Figure 3 – Organisational scheme of the Public Enterprise for National Parks of Montenegro

PENP is responsible for preparation and implementation of periodic programmes for

protection, promotion and the use of national parks, i.e. management plans. These

programmes need to be approved by the Management Board and the Government.

The main PENP responsibilities include:

- carrying out measures and activities for implementation of adopted policies

regarding management, use, protection and development of national parks

- implementation of management plans

- determining and enforcing internal rules of conduct in national parks

- development and promotion of national parks

- monitoring of environmental conditions and processes within the parks and

reporting to the relevant authority (MSDT)

- issues the rights to use natural resources to other parties, in accordance with

laws and regulations (e.g. concessions)

- performing other activities of public interest, as stipulated by the laws and

other acts

The Public Enterprise is partly self-financing and partly supported by the state

budget, from the funds designated for nature protection. Besides budgetary transfers,

PENP receives revenues from the fees for the use of park’s natural resources and

recreational areas. The Enterprise is authorised to collect a large number of fees and

charges (including fishing charges, wood-cutting charges, entrance fees, fees for the

economic activities performed within park boundaries, compensations for filming,

33

camping etc). The level of these charges is determined by the Decisions brought by the

PENP Management Board (refer to the section 2.1. on legal framework). Other sources

of income include own commercial activities of the PENP, compensations for damages

done to the NP resources, collected fines, as well as from project grants and donations.

The total budget of the PENP (for all five national parks) in 2011 amounted to

2.032.967€. Of this amount, 1.132.967€, or 55,7%, was own income. About 36% of

this amount came from the entrance fees, 9,7% from fishery-related activities on

Skadar Lake (fishing licenses and concessions for bleak), 21,8% from various tourism-

related activities (rafting charges in NP Durmitor, sale of souvenirs, accommodation,

parking etc), 22,3% from various other economic activities (gravel extraction, space

rental, use of resources etc) and 10% from donations (source PENP annual report for

2011). This indicates relative importance of various economic activities as sources of

income to PENP.

In terms of expenditures, in 2011 they amounted to 2.030.470€, the majority of which

was spent on salaries (59,2%), while the rest went on various operational costs (fuel,

office running costs, maintenance, telecommunications etc; source PENP annual

report for 2011).

3.2. Skadar Lake National Park

This is an organisational unit within PENP that is directly responsible for the

management of Skadar Lake region.

The seat of NP Skadar Lake is in Vranjina, where all the offices and services are

located. The current structure is as follows:

- Department for Technical and Administrative affairs – has 7 employees,

who are responsible for administration of the Park, as well as for planning

and implementation of annual activities regarding biodiversity protection,

stakeholder cooperation, tourism development etc. (together with the

technical experts from the Department for Protection and Development on

the central level in PENP)

- General Maintenance Department – has 19 employees, who are responsible

for maintaining the Park’s infrastructure, ambiental hygiene in the Park,

clearing of hiking trails etc.

- Ranger Service – has 17 employees, whose responsibility is 24-hour

surveillance of the Park territory, enforcement of laws and regulations,

prevention and hindering of various illegal activities, provision of

information and other services to visitors and other users. They are

authorised to control the vessel movements within the National Park, and

to apply penalty provisions of relevant laws and collect charges and fines.

34

In terms of financing, NP Skadar Lake does not have financial independence. In other

words, the income from own activities, project grants and donations is transferred to

the PENP’s budget, from which allocations are made to individual parks in accordance

with the planned activities. This means that NP Skadar Lake cannot independently

make investment decisions and budget allocations for protection and development

activities it deems fit in the Lake region.

According to the PENP Annual report, total revenue for NP Skadar Lake for 2011 was

527.291€, of which 30,2% was derived from entrance fees, 18,4 % from fishery

activities (licenses and concessions for bleak), 10,5% from gravel extraction, 3,5%

from charges for tourist boats, 13,3% from various rental services, 13,3% as

amortisations from donations. This indicates that the main sources of income is from

tourism/visitation (entrance fees and boat charges), followed by the economic

activities related to fisheries and other resource use within the Park.

In terms of expenditures in NP Skadar Lake, in 2011 they were 605.060€, which

exceeds income from the Park alone. Of this, 54,8% was spent on salaries, and the rest

on various running and operational costs. The amount of 17,3% of the expenditure is

on fuel, registration, maintenance and amortization for vehicles and vessels, which

indicates high costs of patrolling and enforcement by the ranger service in the field.

3.2.1. Management plan for Skadar Lake

The main management document of PENP-NP Skadar Lake is a 5-year management

plan. The current plan has been brought for the period 2011-2015, and it is made

operational through annual action plans.

The current management plan has been prepared and endorsed with the support of

GIZ, through their project “Cross-boundary spatial planning Lake Shkoder/Skadar

Region, Albania and Montenegro” (refer to the section 3.2. on projects in Study 1).

This was the first time that the preparation of a management plan for a protected area

in Montenegro had an element of public participation. It was done through a series of

interviews with a large number of stakeholders (more than 200), where they had a

chance to fill in a questionnaire and provide personal views and inputs regarding

future activities on the Lake. Those ideas were incorporated into the document

together with visions and plans of the management planning team of PENP, resulting

in the 5-year plan that is currently valid.

Apart from the general information on the Lake region, its natural and cultural assets

and socio-economic aspects, this plan contains zonation concept of the Park, as well as

several strategic directions, each with own set of activities. Those directions include:

- Protection of natural values

- Protection of cultural heritage

35

- Development of informative and educational contents

- Improvement of cooperation with users of the Park area

- Improvement of cooperation with international and national organisations

and donors

- Improvement of cross-border cooperation

- Other special objectives (including demarcation of park area and zones,

infrastructure development, waste management and tourism destination

management)

The plan is operationalised through annual work plans. Every year, the Park

authorities prepare an implementation report evaluated by the Ministry of

Sustainable Development and Tourism.

3.3. Issues with management

The National Park Skadar Lake has an established managemend body, a management

plan and sources of financing. However, despite that, the conflict between the

ecosystem protection and conservation on one, and the use of natural resources on

the other side still persist. This can be attributed mainly to the gaps at two levels. At

the level of planning, the main issues are that it is not done as a participatory process,

so that other stakeholders do not have an opportnity to contribute with their ideas

and knowledge. Similarly, there is a general lack of coordination with other relevant

institutions, so that the plans and other strategic documents are not harmonised.

Finally, plans and activities are, at least partially, made on the basis of personal

(expert) opinion or on the concensus of few individuals, rather than on the systematic

research and objective data from monitoring of the situation in the field.

The other level is that of the actual management, i.e. the implementation of planned

activities. Here, the problem is partially in the lack of institutional capacities,

including the insufficient number of personell, especially for the enforcement;

insufficient technical equipment and and often financial resources. Further, conflicts

with users, especially those who do not respect rules and regulations, often occur,

hampering conservation activities and drawing attention and resources away from

the priority conservation activities. Finally, there are defficiencies in the enforcement

because the relevant personell (i.e. the rangers) do not have all the relevant

capacities; the complexity of the environment makes certain habitats hard to reach

and control; the social environment is such that everyone knows everyone, which

makes it hard to process legal charges due to personal relations.

36

4. Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and

Albania in the nature protection context

Cross-border cooperation between Montenegro and Albania in the area of Lake

Skadar has been significantly improved since 2000, when the first international

project, “Promotion of Networks and Exchanges in SEE countries”, started its

implementation. The main aim of the project was to enhance cooperation between

neighbouring countries over shared natural resources. Cooperation established

between Montenegro and Albania over Skadar Lake at that time on many different

levels – protected area management, NGOs, schools, universities, media, local

communities etc - has been formalized through the Memorandum of Understanding

(MoU) signed by two relevant Ministries from two involved countries over

environmental protection and implementation of the principle of sustainable

development. The agreement was designed with the support of the project

implementing agency - REC and signed in 2003. By doing so, the two countries

committed to conservation of the natural resources of the Lake in a coordinated and

integrated manner and to improvement of the relevant national-level regulatory and

institutional capacities. Furthermore, the MoU was an expression of willingness of the

two governments to work together on improving the protection and management of

the Lake and its resources. Thus, not only that the legal and political framework for

bilateral cooperation between Montenegro and Albania over improvement of Skadar

Lake management has been established, but the mandate was given to other relevant

stakeholders to strengthen bilateral cooperation on many different levels.

Taking that opportunity, the cross-border Forum for Skadar Lake has been

established, gathering representatives of different institutions from two countries

relevant for the management and protection of Skadar Lake (National Park, local

authorities, ministries, NGOs, nature protection institutes, educational institutions).

They further enhanced cooperation between two countries through many different

activities implemented jointly during the period 2000 - 2009. The Forums developed

and signed Declaration on Skadar Lake, which among other thing, defined the Day of

the Lake (third weekend of June) to be celebrated in both countries every year.

Further development of bilateral co-operation between Montenegro and Albania over

management and protection of Skadar Lake on the governmental level was enhanced

through the international workshop “Lake Skadar International Designations for

Territorial Development”, held in October 2005, when two Prime-ministers expressed

the necessity and willingness to work further on joint protection of Skadar Lake. The

workshop was conducted by international organizations: UNDP, UNESCO and IUCN.

Cooperation between the two countries was continued through activities of Skadar

Lake Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP), the largest international

project regarding management of Skadar Lake resources so far. Through this project,

37

the Agreement between the Ministry of Tourism and Environment of Montenegro and

Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Water Administration of the Republic of

Albania for the protection and sustainable development of the Skadar-Shkoder Lake

has been signed, thus establishing Skadar-Shkoder Lake Commission. The

Commission meets twice a year, once in Montenegro, once in Albania, in order to

discuss all major issues regarding management and protection of Skadar Lake.

Commission also established four technical bilateral working groups on specific

issues: water management, monitoring and research, communication and tourism

promotion and management and legal harmonization (for more information on the

above-mentioned projects, refer to the section 3.2. on projects in Study 1).

All the above mentioned high level documents created political framework for the

bilateral cooperation between Montenegro and Albania over the shared natural

resources. They created platform for the improvement of Skadar Lake management

and actually gave mandate to other institutions from both countries to join forces and

work together on bilateral protection and promotion of Skadar Lake values.

38

5. Socio-economic situation in the region

Montenegrin part of Skadar Lake belongs to three municipalities: Podgorica - capital

of Montenegro, Cetinje – old royal capital and Bar – the biggest port in Montenegro.

The basic information about those municipalities are presented in table 2:

Table 2- Basic information on municipalities to which Skadar Lake belongs (MONSTAT internet

database)

Municipality Surface (km2) Number of

inhabitants

Number of

settlements

Average age of

population

Podgorica 1.441 185.937 140 35,7

Bar 598 42.048 76 37,9

Cetinje 910 16.657 84 40,3

Table 2 shows number of inhabitants in each of those municipalities. Comparison of

the data for the last 40 years clearly shows trends of depopulation in the Municipality

of Cetinje and villages within the National Park borders, while the number of

inhabitants slightly increased in municipalities Podgorica and Bar. Because of this, the

proportion of the total population of Montenegro that inhabits this region has

increased some 10% in the past four decades, which together with various changes in

economic activity and land-use practices has implications for the pressures on the

Lake and its resources.

In relation to the average age structure, it can be concluded that those municipalities

can be considered as old societies. In villages within the NP boundaries this trend is

even more pronounced, where more than 50% of inhabitants are over 50 years of age.

This is especially true for villages within Cetinje Municipality, where couple of villages

do not have any inhabitants who are under 50 years of age.

Table 3 - Population by municipalities (MONSTAT internet database)

Municipality 1971 1981 1991 2003 2011

Podgorica 98.796 132.290 152.025 169.132 185.937

Bar 27.580 32.535 37.321 40.037 42.048

Cetinje 22.024 20.213 20.307 18.482 16.657

Total in 3

municipalities 148.400 185.038 209.653 227.651 244.642

Montenegro 529.604 584.310 615.035 620.145 620.029

As a % of

Montenegrin pop. 28,02% 31,66% 34,08% 36,7% 39,45%

39

According to the Special Purpose Spatial Plan for the National Park, there are 17

settlements within the territory of the Park, where the number of inhabitants varies

between 1 (Kruševice) to 253 (Podhum – table 4).

Table 4: Number of inhabitants in 17 settlements within the National Park (Special Purpose Spatial

Plan 2001 and MONSTAT internet database)

Settlement “Nahija” 1971 1981 1991 2003 2011

Bobovište Krajina 470 490 553 230 180

Bes Krajina 235 246 272 67 41

Donji Murići Krajina 260 312 367 125 101

Total Krajina 965 1048 1192 422 322

Krnjice Crmnica 216 108 57 26 18

Godinje Crmnica 225 79 41 60 49

Virpazar Crmnica 383 412 409 337 277

Kruševice Crmnica 23 18 6 1 1

Komarno Crmnica 108 62 56/37 26 15

Total Crmnica 955 679 550 450 360

Donje Selo Riječka

nahija

95 53 47 23 10

Rijeka Crnojevića Riječka

nahija

587 484 340 216 175

Prevlaka Riječka

nahija

102 53 30 24 22

Šindjon Riječka

nahija

68 44 34 25 15

Dodoši Riječka

nahija

241 112 69/72 53 43

Žabljak Riječka

nahija

96 56 49 40 26

Vranjina Riječka

nahija

315 244 180/177 218 209

Total Riječka Nahija 1504 1046 749 599 500

Begova Glavica Lješanska

nahija

78 73 32 53 24

Podhum Zeta and

Malesija

216 268 279 240 253

Total NP Skadar Lake 3718 3114 2811 1764 1459

Analyses of demographic trends of the settlements, which administratively belong to

the Park, as well as the settlements which are directly linked to the Park, indicated a

40

decrease in the number of inhabitants in the long-term period (CEED 2010). In the

last ten years, decrease is slower, which is more due to the demographic exhaustion

than to active measures for consolidation and improvement of Lake and its

surrounding.

The 17 settlements that are within the National Park area can be divided among five

strongly distinct geographical areas, called “nahije”. Those are: Krajina, Crmnica,

Riječka nahija, Lješanska nahija, Zeta and Malesija, and they are all very distinct in

terms of both population and predominant activities. They all vary in the number of

households/inhabitants, as well as socio-economic, cultural and religious features.

The three biggest settlements on the Lake, which also have some urban

characteristics, are: Virpazar (Bar Municipality, Crmnica region), Rijeka Crnojevića

(Cetinje Municipality, Riječka nahija) and Vranjina (Podgorica Municipality, Riječka

nahija, Figure 4).

Krajina – spreads along the southern Lake’s shore. Administratively it belongs to the

municipality of Bar, although settlements are remote and isolated from the municipal

center due to transport infrastructure. According to the Special Purpose Spatial Plan

for NP Skadar Lake (2001), it consists of 22 rural settlements (8 in Ostros and 14 in

Šestani) out of which 3 are within the protected area: Bobovište, Besa and Donji

Murići. Comparative analysis of the number of inhabitants shows negative

demographic trend in Krajina, especially in the last twenty years. Comparing census

from 1991 and 2003, and two different methodologies used, it is evident that

significant number of inhabitants from this region went to work abroad, especially

from settlement Besa.

The main activities of people living in this region are fishing and small-scale

agriculture (mainly fruits and olives). This is an area with low economic base, but

exceptional natural and cultural values. Therefore, it offers extraordinary

opportunities for: hiking, biking, ‘sun and beach’ (owing to a number of beaches and

islands) etc.

Crmnica is situated at the southern and south-western shore of the Lake and

represents a spatial continuity with Krajina. According to the Spatial Plan for NP

Skadar Lake (2001), Crmnica consists of 24 small settlements, five of which belong to

the National Park: Krnjice, Godinje, Kruševice, Komarno and Virpazar. Virpazar acts as

an administrative centre of Crmnica. Comparing the number of inhabitants through

the past few decades, negative demographic trend is evident in all settlements (e.g.

Kruševica presently has only 1 inhabitant). On the other hand, settlements in Crmnica

have unique features that bring significant value to the National Park – the village of

Godinje, for instance, has very distinct rural characteristics, i.e. preserved village

architecture, and is famous for wine production. People living in Crmnica nowadays

are mainly involved in wine production and nature-based tourism, which are

increasingly becoming important income-generating activities. Therefore, this is an

41

area with significant tourist potential, especially hiking, boat cruising, gastronomic

tourism, religious tourism etc.

Figure 4 – Map of the main settlements within the NP Skadar Lake and main activities of the local

population

42

Riječka nahija occupies western part of the Lake, with several distinct sub-regions:

Ceklin, Ljubotnj, Građani, Kosijeri and Dobrsko selo. Out of its 37 villages, 7 are within

the National Park, with 500 inhabitants in total. The main settlement, Rijeka

Crnojevića, used to be an important port and trading and market place, and as such an

important economic centre in the whole Lake region in the past. After the road Cetinje

– Podgorica has been constructed following the Second World War, Rijeka Crnojevića

rapidly lost its importance and consequently a significant number of inhabitants (the

population more than halved in the last thirty years). Today, Rijeka Crnojevića, with

its distinct appearance of a fishing village, acts more as a tourist attraction, i.e. place

where tourist can take one of the hiking trails (passing by famous historic

monuments, or rich biodiversity), taste traditional food (fish, wine) in some of the

houses adapted as restaurants, or visit Park’s information center.

In terms of economic activities, the population of Rijeka Crnojevića is mainly engaged

in providing tourist services (several restaurants, boat tours), or is employed in

Cetinje, Podgorica or the fish processing factory located here. The rest of the

population in Riječka nahija is engaged in some small-scale agriculture, and is mainly

employed in Cetinje and Podgorica.

Lješanska nahija is a bit detached from the Lake itself being situated in the

continental part, Northwest form the Lake, with only one settlement within the

National Park boundaries - Begova glavica. Negative demographic trend is evident in

this region as well (population more than halved between 2003 and 2011 census).

The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture, livestock breeding and the

production of wine and tobacco. Due to its closeness to the capital, population is very

much oriented towards generating income in Podgorica.

Zeta and Malesija are situated in the northern part of the Lake and have one

settlement within the National Park boundaries, but with 15 settlements in the buffer

zone. However, in total, Zeta has 28 settlements with more than 20.000 inhabitants

and a stable demographic trend. The dominant economic activity in Zeta is extensive

agriculture which has a considerable impact on Skadar Lake. Solid waste dump sites

(scattered along the local roads or the Lake shore) and a significant proportion of

illegal fishermen represent yet another impact of this region’s population on the Lake

resources.

43

5.1. Summary

Skadar Lake is located in the central region of Montenegro, where about a third of the

country’s population lives. The social and economic trends in the past few decades

were towards a decrease of population in rural areas, increase in the average age of

the population, changes in land-use practices and main economic activities shifting

from traditional agriculture, towards tourism and service sector. Loss of employment

opportunities in the region primarily related to the collapse of industry, also has

implications for a number of illegal activities, most notably illegal fisheries and

construction of tourism-related facilities, through which people try to generate

income.

44

6. SWOT analysis

6.1. Institutional aspects

Strengths

- Existing and recognised management

structure

- A number of national instutitions whose

work is related to the Lake

- A commitment towards Lake

conservation by institutions, national

policies, strategies and plans

- Existence of cross-border cooperation

between institutions on different levels

- Increased experts capacities in NPs of

MNE in couple of last years

- Communication with local population

about specific issues (although on an ad

hoc basis)

- Well equipped premises of the NPSL

Weaknesses

- Poor administrative capacities within

relevant institutions (regarding

management planning, project

management, financial management,

sustainable development, environmental

impact assessment, monitoring)

-Lack of coordination and communication

between institutions

- Unclear and sometimes overlapping

responsibilities and competences of

different institutions

- Lack of trans-boundary coordination of

development plans and projects

- Communication with local population

not institutionalized

- Lack of personnel and equipment in

Protection Unit within the NP SL

Opportunities

- National plans and programs regarding

environmental protection and

sustainable development

- Interest of many international

programmes, initiatives, organisations,

donors for this region

- A suite of mechanisms and tools for

protection and management provided by

international conventions, initiatives and

organisations (like Ramsar, UNESCO and

others)

Threats

- Lack of and deficiency in control and

enforcement mechanisms among

institutions (within country and on a

cross-border level)

45

6.2. Economy

Strengths

- A number of traditional economic

activities (fisheries, agriculture,

especially wine-production), together

with a more recent development of

tourism

- Unique natural and cultural values of

the region

- Lake as cross-border area (MNE-AL)

belonging to the two still “undiscovered”

countries

Weaknesses

- No clear vision or concensus on what

developmental directions to take and in

which way

- Decrease in population size and its

ageing

- Abandonment of traditional practices

and forms of land and resource use

- Lack of/or insufficient accommodation

capacities

- Inadequate road infrastructure, i.e. local

roads in some areas, which enabled

development of biking and hiking

Opportunities

- Stable and growing economy on the

national level

- Increase in nature- and culture-oriented

tourism

- Increased awareness and development

regarding organic farming and

sustainable resource uses

- Vicinity of the Lake to important tourist

markets

- Trend in tourism - nature based

tourism in combination with traditional

agriculture products, crafts etc

Threats

- Global economic crisis

- Dump sites and illegal buildings on the

lake shores or in the NP vicinity

- Pollution, mainly from sewage waters

and industries (Shkodra city, Podgorica,

Niksic, KAP, pesticides ...)

- Depopulation in the western and

southern parts which threatens existence

of traditional villages

- Population increase in northern buffer

zone, with intensive agriculture

- Possible construction of highway Bar-

Boljari through Skadar Lake region

46

6.3. Environmental management plans

Strengths

- Existence of environmental

management plans for Montenegrin side

of the Lake

- Trainings and study visits of the NP staff

to other protected areas much advanced

development of management plans

Weaknesses

- Management plans not linked to

research

- Lack of information about specific

species, e.g. fish population, mammals

- Insufficient or non-existent involvement

of local population and other

stakeholders in development of

management plans

Opportunities

- International protection status, with

international organisations/conventions/

programs providing guidelines, best

practices etc.

- Interest of international community for

trans-boundary protected areas might

open doors for new funding

opportunities and institutional support

- Existing cooperation platforms with

Albania

- Initiative for including Skadar Lake at

the UNESCO’s MAB programme

Threats

- Idea about possible decrease of the level

of the Lake not based on

scientific/monitoring data and analysis

- Incomparable or no management plans

on the Albanian side of the Lake

47

7. References:

Biodiversity Database of the Shkodra/Skadar Lake (2001) – Checklist of species

prepared within the project Promotion of Networks and Exchanges in the Countries of

South East Europe

CEED (2010) – Socio-economic analysis Social and Economic Assessment, Study

within the Lake Shkodra/Skadar Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP)

CZIP – http://www.birdwatchingmn.org/

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/index.cfm

ERICo 2011 - Lake Skadar/Shkoder Monitoring Programme Development,

Fishery Management Plan – Montenegro (2012); within the Lake Shkodra/Skadar

Integrated Ecosystem Management Project (LSIEMP)

Fuštić B. (1997) - Zemljišta sliva Skadarskog jezera, In: Mijušković, M. (ed): Prirodne

vrijednosti i zaštita Skadarskog jezera. Crnogorska Akademija Nauka i Umjetnosti,

Naučni skupovi, Book 44, pp. 187 – 195

Gligorović B., Pešić V. (2007) - Contribution to the knowledge of the dragonflies

(Odonata) from Lake Skadar's drainage basin (Montenegro). Acta entomologica

Serbica, 12 (2), pp. 11–16.

Government of Montenegro (2010) - The Initial National Communication on Climate

Change of Montenegro to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC), Podgorica.

Hewitt G. 1999 - Post-glacial re-colonization of European biota, Biological Journal of

the Linnean Society, Vol. 68, Issues 1-2, pp. 87-112

ISSP (2011) – Economic valuation of Montenegro’s protected area system, Study

within the project: Catalysing financial sustainability of protected areas in

Montenegro, UNDP

ITSC (2006) - Environmental Impact Assessment Study on Regional Water Supply

System of Montenegrin Coast from Water Source Bolje Sestre, Podgorica.

Keukelaar F. et al. (2006) - Lake Shkoder Transboundary Diagnostics Analysis, Final

report, World Bank (IBRD)

Lasca N., Radulović V., Ristić R., Cherkauer D. (1981) - Geology, hydrology, climate and

bathymetry of Lake Skadar, In Karaman G. (eds): The biota and limnology of Lake

Skadar. Univerzitet Veljko Vlahović, Titograd; Smithsonian Institution, Washington;

Center for great lakes studies, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, pp. 17-38

Management plan 2011-2015 for National Park Skadar Lake -

http://www.nparkovi.me/sajt/o-nama/dokumenti

MONSTAT internet database - www.monstat.org

48

Mrdak D. (2009) - Environmental risk assessment of the Morača dams: fish fauna of

Morača River canyon and Skadar Lake, Report committed by WWF MedPO and Green

Home under the framework of Sharing Water Project - Skadar Lake component

Mrdak D., Petrović D., Katnić A., Erceg M. (2011) – Integrated study to support the

designation of the trans-boundary Lake Skadar/Shkodra as Biosphere Reserve in the

frame of the project “Supporting the proposed trans-boundary Biosphere Reserve of

Lake Skadar/Shkodra Area through a participatory approach”

Petrović D. (2009) - Important Plant Area country reports – Montenegro. In: Radford

E., Odé B. (eds.), Conserving Important plant Areas: Investing in the green gold of

South East Europe, Plantlife International, UK, pp. 55-62

PENP Annual Report 2011 - http://www.nparkovi.me/sajt/o-nama/dokumenti

RMSI (2008) - Risk Assessment for South Eastern Europe: Desk Study Review. South

Eastern Europe Disaster Risk Mitigation and Adaptation Initiative; Global Facility for

Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR), UN International Strategy for Disaster

Risk Reduction (UN/ISDR), Geneva.

Schneider-Jacoby M., Stumberger B., Schwarz U. (2010) – Zonation concept for Lake

Skadar-Shkoder and the Bojana-Buna Delta, In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M.,

Stumberger B. (eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation;

Euronatur, Radolfzell, pp.103-115

Schwarz U. (2010) – Habitat mapping of the Livanjsko Polje (BA), the Neretva Delta

(HR, BA) and Lake Skadar-Shkoder (ME,AL), In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M.,

Stumberger B. (eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation;

Euronatur, Radolfzell, pp. 79-88

Special Purpose Spatial Plan for NP Skadar Lake 2001 – Official Gazzette 46/01

Stumberger B., Schneider-Jacoby M. (2010) – International importance of three

Adriatic Flyway priority sites: Livanjsko Polje, the Neretva Delta and Lake Skadar-

Shkoder with the Bojana-Buna Delta, In: Denac D., Schneider-Jacoby M., Stumberger B.

(eds.) Adriatic Flyway – Closing the gap in bird conservation; Euronatur, Radolfzell,

pp.53-58

UNDP (2011) – The Economic Value of Protected Areas in Montenegro, Study within

the project: Catalysing financial sustainability of protected areas in Montenegro

8. Annex Table A1 – The list of plant taxa with the number of species. Source: Biodiversity Database for Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001

Phylum Class Family Species number

Comment

Cyanophyta Cyanophyceae 97

Chromophyta Chrysophyceae 20

Xanthophyceae 13

Bacilliariophyceae 352

Dinophyta Dinophyceae 16

Cryptophyceae 4

Chlorophyta Chlorophyceae 231

Conjugatophyceae 236

Charophyceae 18

Euglenophyta Euglenophyceae 100 More recent studies in both Montenegro and Albania have identified additional numbers of species and genera of various phytoplanktonic algae, and it is possible that their list is still not complete

Rodophyta 5

Bryophyta 1

Pteridiophyta Selaginellaceae 1

Equisetaceae 4

Thelypteridaceae 1

Adiantaceae 1

Aspleniaceae 2

Dryopteridaceae 1

2

Hypolepidaceae 1

Marseileaceae 1

Spermatophyta Cupressaceae 3

Betulaceae 1

Corylaceae 4

Fagaceae 9 Includes:

- Skadar Lake endemic subspecies Quercus robur scuteriensis that has significantly decreased in abundance and distrubution and needs special conservation attention

- Chestnut (Castanea sativa) that makes large some of the largest forests of this type in South Europe along the South shores of the Lake and is used by local population

Salicaceae 11

Moraceae 3

Canabaceae 1

Urticaceae 3

Ulmaceae 3

Portulacaceae 1

Aristolochiaceae 3

Polygonaceae 11

Euphorbiaceae 9

Caryophyllaceae 20

Nymphaeaceae 4 White and yellow water lillies are among the most common and dominant aquatic macrophytes

Ceratophyllaceae 2

3

Lauraceae 1 Laurel tree - the last fragments of laurel forests are found on the islands along the South shores

Ranunculaceae 31

Papaveraceae 7

Brassicaceae 27

Cistaceae 4

Tamaricaceae 3

Violaceae 4

Hypericaceae 3

Tiliaceae 1

Malvaceae 5

Linaceae 2

Geraniaceae 10

Zygophyllaceae 1

Rutaceae 1

Polygalaceae 2

Anacardiaceae 2

Aceraceae 2

Celastraceae 1

Rhamnaceae 4

Vitaceae 1 Autochthonous sorts of grape (Vranac, Kratošija) are grown in the Skadar Lake region

Crassulaceae 7

Saxifragaceae 2

4

Rosaceae 19

Fabaceae 50

Lythraceae 4

Punicaceae 1

Oenotheraceae 3

Trapaceae 1 Includes water chestunut (calltrop) Trapa natans, one of the most common aquatic macrophytes, which is also used by local population and is of conservation interest

Haloragaceae 2

Cornaceae 1

Araliaceae 1

Apiaceae 24

Plumbaginaceae 1

Primulaceae 6

Convolvulaceae 7

Boraginaceae 17

Solanaceae 3

Scrophulariaceae 23

Acanthaceae 2

Verbenaceae 4

Lamiaceae 37

Plantaginaceae 7

Gentianaceae 3

Manyanthaceae 1

Apocynaceae 4

5

Oleaceae 7

Rubiaceae 9

Caprofoliaceae 6

Valerianaceae 4

Dipsacaceae 7

Campanulaceae 7

Asteraceae 64

Poaceae 68 Includes one of the most dominant aquatic species – reed Phragmites communis

Cyperaceae 31 Includes one of the most common aquatic species - Scirpus lacustris

Scheuchzeriaceae 1

Lemnaceae 3

Juncaceae 8

Liliaceae 12

Amarylidaceae 1

Iridaceae 5

Orchidaceae 9 All orchids are of conservation interest

Araceae 1

Typhaceae 2

Sparganiaceae 3

Potamogetonaceae 12

Zannicheliaceae 1

Najadaceae 3

Alismataceae 3

Butomaceae 1

6

Hydrocharitaceae 2

Lentibulariaceae 2

Amaranthaceae 3

Chenopodiaceae 4

Cucurbitaceae 1

Junglandaceae 1

Myrtaceae 1

Oxalidaceae 1

Gesneriaceae 1 Includes Balkan endemic Ramonda serbica, which is of conservation interest

Table A2 – The list of animal taxa with the number of species. Source: Biodiversity Database for Shkodra/Skadar Lake 2001 ankd other sources

7

Phylum Class Order Family #Species

Spongia 1

Cnidaria 2

Plathelminthes Trematodes 25

Cestodes 7

Nematoda 11

Rotatoria Monogonata 51

Gastrotricha 1

Acantocephala 7

Mollusca 34 Some species of molluscs (certain bivalves and snails) are rich in biomass and as such present a significant proportion of fish (carp) diet.

More recently, five new snail species that are endemic to the Lake have been described. Also includes bivalve species Pseudoanadonta comlanata that is of conservation interest (Mrdak et al. 2011)

Annelida Oligochaeta 4

Hirudinea 5

Arthropoda Arachnida 18

Crustacea (sph) Cladocera 41

Copepoda 16

Ostracoda 13

Malacostraca Isopoda 1

Amphipoda 5

Decapoda 3

Mysidacea 1

8

Insecta Diptera Chironomidae 7 Species of other aquatic insects are present on the Lake, but the Biodiversity checklist from 2001 does not list them. This includes stoneflies (Plecoptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera) etc.

Chaoboridae 1

Ephemeroptera 1

Odonata 45 Although of conservation interest, dragonflies have only recently been researched and a checklist provided (Gligorović, Pešić, 2007)

Bryozoa 2

Vertebrata (subphylum)

Petromyzonidae 3 Fish species list based on Mrdak 2009.

Acienseridae 2 Includes two sturgeon species, both on the Red List

Anguillidae 1 Eel is commercially exploited

Clupeidae 1

Salmonidae 6 Includes endemic subspecies

Thymallidae 1

Cyprinidae 21 Includes commercialy exploited species – bleak, carp, as well as some Skadar Lake endemics

Cobitidae 2

Ictaluridae 1

Gasterosteidae 1

Poecilidae 1

Mugilidae 2

Percidae 1

Moronidae 1

9

Blennnidae 1

Gobiidae 3 Includes recently described Skadar Lake endemics

Pleuronectidae 1

Cithatidae 1

Reptilia Testudinidae 1

Emydidae 1

Geoemydidae 1

Gekkonidae 2

Lacertidae 9

Anguidae 2

Typhlopidae 1

Colubridae 10

Viperidae 3

Amphibia Caudata Salamandridae 4

Anura Bombinatoridae 1

Bufonidae 2

Hylidae 1

Ranidae 7 Includes endemic and endangered Skadar frog (Rana shqiperica)

Aves Gaviformes 3 Based on the Checklist of bird species of the National Park

Podicipediformes 5

Pelecanoformes 4 Includes Dalmatian pelican and one of the world’s largest colonies of pygmy cormorant

Ciconiiformes 14

Anseriformes 24

10

Accipitiformes 21

Galliformes 10

Gruiformes 2

Charadriformes 43

Cuculiformes 3

Strigiformes 5

CCaprimulgiformes 1

Apodiformes 2

Coraciformes 5

Piciformes 5

Passeriformes 90

Mammalia Rodentia Cricetidae 4

Muridae 7

Gliridae 4

Sciuridae 1

Erinaceomorpha Erinaceidae 1

Lagomorpha Leporidae 1

Carnivora Mustelidae 6 Includes the otter, the only water mammal

Canidae 2

Felidae 1

Soricomorpha Soricidae 6

Talpidae 3

Artiodactyla Suidae 1

11

Chiroptera Vespertilionidae 16

Rhinolophidae 4