Simplified Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope ... Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope...
Transcript of Simplified Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope ... Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope...
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Simplified Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope Displacements
Jonathan D. Bray, Ph.D., P.E., NAE Faculty Chair in Earthquake Engineering Excellence
University of California, Berkeley
Thanks to Thaleia Travasarou & Others, and to NSF, Packard, & PEER
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Simplified Procedures for Estimating Seismic Slope Displacements
OUTLINEI. Seismic Slope Stability
II. Seismic Slope Displacement Analysis
III. Simplified Slope Displacement Procedures
IV. Pseudostatic Slope Analysis
V. Conclusions
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Two Critical Design Issues1. Are there materials that will lose significant
strength as a result of cyclic loading? “Flow Slide”
2. If not, will the earth structure or slope undergo significant deformation that may jeopardize performance?“Seismic Displacement”
I. Seismic Slope Stability
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Las Palmas Gold Mine Tailings Dam Failure
Sand ejecta near toe of flow debris View from scarp looking downstream
View across scarpM8.8 Maule, Chile EQ Failure & FlowCaused 4 deaths
(upstream method)Bray & Frost 2010
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Fujinuma Dam: 18.5 m high earthfill dam completed 1949
Bray et al. 2011; photographs from M. Yoshizawa
Uncontrolled release of reservoir led to 8 deaths downstream of dam
2011 Tohoku EQ
Mw = 9.0
R = 102 km
PGA = 0.33 g
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LIQUEFACTION EFFECTS
Idriss & Boulanger 2008
Flow Liquefaction
Cyclic Mobility
strain-hardening limited strain
strain-softening large strain
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Liquefaction Flow Slides when qc1N < 80
Idriss & Boulanger 2008
80
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Post-Liquefaction Residual Strength is a System Property1971 Lower San Fernando Dam Failure
(from H.B. Seed)
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Seismic Slope Displacement• Slip along a distinct surface
• Distributed shear deformation
• Add volumetric-induced deformation, when appropriate
Newmark-type seismic displacement
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II. Seismic Slope Displacement Analysis
CRITICAL COMPONENTS
a. Dynamic Resistance
b. Earthquake Ground Motion
c. Dynamic Response of Sliding Mass
d. Seismic Displacement Calculation
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a. Dynamic Resistance
Yield Coefficient (ky): seismic coefficient that results in FS=1.0 in pseudostatic stability analysis
ky = 0.105
Use method that satisfies all three conditions of equilibrium and focus on unit weight, water pressures, and soil strength
FS = 1.00
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Peak Dynamic Strength of ClaysChen, Bray, and Seed (2006)
• Sdynamic, peak = Sstatic, peak (Crate) (Ccyc ) (Cprog) (Cdef)
• Rate of loading: Crate > 1
• Number of significant cycles: Ccyc < 1
• Progressive failure: Cprog < 1
• Distributed deformation: Cdef < 1Typical values often lead to:
Sdynamic, peak ≈ Sstatic, peak (1.4) (0.85 ) (0.9) (0.9) ≈ Sstatic, peak
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Dynamic Strength of ClaysChen, Bray, and Seed (2006)
Peak dynamic strength is used for strain-hardening soils or limited displacements
As earthquake-induced strain exceeds failure strain, dynamic strength reduces for strain-softening soils
Thus, ky is also a function of displacement
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 1 2 3 4 5perferential displacement (inches)
Shea
r stre
ngth
(psf
)
Peak Strength
Residual Strength
ky
D
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b. Earthquake Ground Motion:
Acceleration – Time History
acce
lera
tion
(g)
-0.50
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
time (s)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Izmit (180 Comp) 1999 Kocaeli EQ (Mw=7.4) scaled to MHA = 0.30 g
PGA = 0.3 g
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Acceleration Response Spectrum(provides response of SDOF of different periods at 5% damping,i.e., indicates intensity and frequency content of ground motion)
0 1 2 3 4 5Period (s)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5Sp
ectra
l Acc
elerat
ion (g
)
5% Damping
Sa(0.5)
Sa(1.0)
PGA
Sa(0.2)
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Seed and Martin 1966
c. Dynamic Response of Sliding Mass
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Equivalent Acceleration Concept
accounts for cumulative effect of incoherent motion in deformable sliding mass
• Horz. Equiv. Accel.: HEA = (τh/σv) g
• MHEA = max. HEA value
• kmax = MHEA / gH σv
τh
Seed and Martin 1966
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0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0Ts-waste/Tm-eq
0.00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.82.0
MHE
A/(M
HA,ro
ck*N
RF) Rock site median, and 16th and 84th
0.1 1.35 0.2 1.20 0.3 1.09 0.4 1.00 0.5 0.92 0.6 0.87 0.7 0.82 0.8 0.78
MHA,rock (g) NRFprobability of exceedance lines
(Bray & Rathje 1998)
FACTORS AFFECTING MAXIMUM SEISMIC LOADINGk m
ax/ (
MH
Aro
ck* N
RF
/ g)
Ts-sliding mass / Tm-EQ
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kmax depends on stiffness and geometry of the sliding mass (i.e., its fundamental period)
Ts,1-D = 4 H / Vs
Ts, 1-D = Initial Fundamental Period of Sliding Mass
H = Height of Sliding Mass
Vs = Average Shear Wave Velocity of Sliding Mass
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kmax also depends on the length of the sliding mass
CL = 1.0 for L < 60 m & CL = 0.8 for L > 300 m CL = 1.0 – [(L – 60 m) / 1200] for 60 m < L < 300 m
where L = Length of Potential Sliding Mass (m)
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000Length (ft)
Km
ax,2
D /
(1.1
5*K
max
,1D
)
This study (all data)Rathje and Bray (2001)
Note: Rathje and Bray (2001) data do not include the 1.15 factor because their 1D Kmax values represent the mass-weighted average for several 1D columns, which increases the single column Kmax
0100200300400500
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
ROCK
MSW
All units in ft
1.00.8
kmax_2D = CL kmax_1D
Rathje & Bray 2008
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Topographic Amplification of PGA• Steep Slope (>60o): PGAcrest ≈ 1.5 PGA1D
(Ashford and Sitar 2002)
• Moderate Slope: PGAcrest ≈ 1.3 PGA1D(Rathje and Bray 2001)
• Dam Crest: PGAcrest ≈ (0.5(PGA)-0.5 + 1) PGA(Yu et al. 2012)
(Yu et al. 2012)
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Topographic Effects on kmax
• Localized shallow sliding near crest kmax ≈ PGAcrest / g
• Long shallow sliding surface kmax ≈ 0.5 PGAcrest / g
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Norm
alize
d Sl
ope
Cove
r Sl
idin
g M
ass
Leng
th (L
/ L
)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0MHEA / MHA
2
crest
s
LA Landfills (1.9H:1V to 5.5H:1V)
Config. 1 (3H:1V)
Config. 2 (2H:1V)
Config. 3 (2H:1V)
Config. 4 (5H:1V)
Best Fit (R = 0.65)
3.5 4 4.5 5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
Acce
lera
tion
(g)
Crest
Mid Slope
Toe(a)
Time (s)
kmax / PGAcrest
0.5
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d. Seismic Displacement CalculationNewmark (1965) Rigid Sliding Block Analysis
Assumes:– Rigid sliding block – Well-defined slip surface develops– Slip surface is rigid-perfectly plastic– Acceleration-time history defines EQ loading
Key Parameters:• ky - Yield Coefficient (max. dynamic resistance)• kmax - Seismic Coefficient (max. seismic loading)• ky / kmax (if > 1, D = 0; but if < 1, D > 0)
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Rigid SlidingBlock:
uses accel.-time hist.
kmax = PGA/g
Cover
Base
Rock
≈
≠
DeformableSlidingBlock:
uses equiv. accel.-time hist.
kmax = MHEA/g
Mid-Ht
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Limitations of Rigid Sliding Block ModelsRathje and Bray (1999, 2000)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Ky/MHA
-75
-50
-25
0
25
U
-U
(c
m)
Ts/Tm = 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0Ky/MHA
-25
0
25
50
75
100
U
-U
(c
m)
Ts/Tm = 4.0
(c) (d)
Damping 15%Damping 15%
rigid
c
ouple
d
rigid
c
ouple
d
0 1 2 3 4Ts/Tm
0
20
40
60
80
100
Disp
lacem
ent (
cm) Ky=0.1
Mag 8 (MHA=0.4g)
Decoupled
Coupled
Rigid Block
Damping 15%
Drig
id–
Dco
uple
d(c
m)
Drig
id–
Dco
uple
d(c
m)
Unc
onse
rvat
ive
cons
erva
tive
25
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Seismic Displacement Calculation Deformable Sliding Block Analysis
Earth Fill
Potential Slide Plane
Decoupled Analysis
Coupled Analysis
Flexible System
Dynamic Response
Rigid Block
Sliding Response
Flexible SystemFlexible System
Dynamic Response and Sliding Response
Max Force at Base = ky ·W
Calculate D
Calculate HEA-time history
assuming no sliding along base
Double integrate HEA-time
history given kyto calculate D
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Decoupled vs. Coupled Analysis
From Rathje and Bray (2000)
• Insignificant difference for Ddecoupled < 1 cm
• Conservative for Ddecoupled > 1 m
• Between 1 cm and 1 m, could be meaningfully unconservative
0.1 1 10 100 1000U (cm)
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Disp
lacem
ent D
iffer
ence
(cm
):U
-
U
decoupled
deco
upled
co
upled
k = 0.05
k = 0.1
k = 0.2
y
y
y
(b)D
ecou
pled
Con
serv
ativ
e
Dde
coup
led
–D
coup
led
(cm
)
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Calculated Seismic DisplacementExpected ky
See programs such as SLAMMER by Jibson et al. (2013) http://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/12b1/O-F Report 03-005
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SAFE
UNSAFE
?
Think About It as a “Cliff”Calculated Seismic Displacement is an Index of Performance
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Evaluate Seismic PerformanceGiven seismic displacement estimates:
– Minor (e.g., D < 15 cm)– Major (e.g., D > 1 m)
Evaluate the ability of the earth structure and structures founded on it to accommodate the level of deformation
Consider:
• Consequences of failure and conservatism of hazard assessment and stability analyses
• Defensive measures that provide redundancy, e.g., crack stoppers, filters, and chimney drain for dams, & robust mat foundations, slip layer, and ductile structure
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Makdisi & Seed (1978)
Estimate PGA at crest
MHA at Top vs. Base Rock MHA for Some Solid-Waste Landfills(Bray & Rathje 1998)
PGA,top = ?
III. Simplified Seismic Slope Procedures
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Estimate kmax for sliding mass as f (PGAcrest & y/h)
Kmax varies with Ts
Makdisi & Seed (1978)
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Estimate seismic displacement as f (ky/kmax & Mw)
WARNING: Do not use figure in original
Makdisi & Seed (1978) paper; it is off by an order of magnitude
Makdisi & Seed (1978)
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Limitations“… design curves … are derived from a limited number of cases. These curves should be updated and refined as analytical results for more embankments are obtained.”
Makdisi & Seed (1978)
Limited number of earthquake ground motions used
Estimating PGA at the crest to estimate kmax is difficult
Simple shear slice analysis employed
Decoupled analysis to calculate seismic displacement
Bounds are not true upper and lower bounds
Only a few analyses & no estimate of uncertainty
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Estimate seismic displacement as f (ky, amax & Mw)
Jibson (2007)
Used rigid sliding block model with acceleration-time histories (original Newmark 1965 approach)
Used several hundred EQ records
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Jibson (2007)Jibson (2007) states:
Newmark's method treats a landslide as a rigid-plastic body: the mass does not deform internally ...
Therefore, the proposed models … are most appropriately applied to thinner landslides in morebrittle materials rather than to deeper landslides in softer materials.
Only Models Rigid Sliding Mass (i.e., Ts = 0)
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OPTIMAL INTENSITY MEASURES:
Sa(1.5 Ts) & Mw of outcropping motion below slide
Bray & Travasarou (2007)1. SLOPE MODEL
nonlinear soil responsefully coupled deformable stick-slipstiffness (Ts) & strength (ky)8 Ts values & 10 ky values Ts
kyD2. EARTHQUAKE DATABASE688 records (41 EQs)
Over 55,000 analyses
3. CALIBRATION16 case histories
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PGA SA
SA(1
.3Ts
)SA
(1.5
Ts)
SA(2
.0Ts
)ar
ms
Aria
s IcPG
VEP
V SIPG
D TmD5
_95
Intensity Measure
0
1
2
Stan
dard
Dev
iatio
n
0
1
2St
anda
rd D
evia
tion
ky = 0.10 Ts = 0.5 s
ky = 0.20 Ts = 0.5 s
0
1
2
PGA SA
SA(1
.3Ts
)SA
(1.5
Ts)
SA(2
.0Ts
)ar
ms
Aria
s IcPG
VEP
V SIPG
D TmD5
_95
Intensity Measure
0
1
2 ky = 0.20 Ts = 1.0 s
ky = 0.10 Ts = 1.0 s
STRONGER
MORE FLEXIBLE
EFFICIENCY of Ground Motion Intensity Measures
Sa (1.5Ts) Arias Intensity Housner Spectral Intensity
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1) “Zero” Displacement Estimate
( ) ++−−−= ))5.1(ln()ln(566.0)ln(333.0)ln(83.210.1)ln( 2sayyy TSkkkD
( )))5.1(ln(52.3)ln(484.0)ln(22.376.11)"0"( sasyy TSTkkDP +−−−Φ−==
2) “NonZero” Displacement Estimate
( ) ε±−++− )7(278.050.1))5.1(ln(244.0))5.1(ln(04.3 2 MTTSTS ssasa
Φ is the standard normal cumulative distribution function (NORMSDIST in Excel)
Bray & Travasarou (2007): D = f (ky, Sa(1.5Ts), Ts, Mw)
ε is a normally-distributed random variable with zero mean and standard deviation σ = 0.66
*Replace first term (i.e., -1.10) with -0.22 for cases where Ts < 0.05 s
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Bray & Travasarou (2007): MODEL TRENDS
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
0
0.5
1
SA(1
.5Ts
) (g) 5% damping
Scenario Event:M 7 at 10 km
“Soil” – SS fault
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
P(D=
"0")
ky= 0.3
ky= 0.2
ky= 0.1
ky= 0.05
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
1
10
100
Disp
lace
men
t (cm
) ky= 0.05
ky= 0.1
ky= 0.2
ky= 0.3
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PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
P(D=
"0")
ky= 0.3
ky= 0.2
ky= 0.1
ky= 0.05
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
1
10
100
Disp
lace
men
t (cm
) ky= 0.05
ky= 0.1
ky= 0.2
ky= 0.3
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Ts (s)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
P(D
> 30
cm)
ky= 0.3ky= 0.2ky= 0.1
ky= 0.05
Scenario Event:M 7 at 10 km
“Soil” – SS fault
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Earth Dam or Landfill EQObs.Dmax
(cm)
Bray & Travasarou 2007
P (D = “0”) Est. Disp (cm)
Chabot Dam SF Minor 0.35 0 - 5
Guadalupe LF LP Minor 0.95 0.3 - 1
Pacheco Pass LF LP None 1.0 0 - 0.1
Austrian Dam LP 50 0.0 20 - 70
Lexington Dam LP 15 0.0 15 - 65
Sunshine Canyon LF NR 30 0.0 20- 70
OII Section HH LF NR 15 0.1 4 - 15
La Villita Dam S3 1 0.95 0.3 - 1
La Villita Dam S4 1.4 0.5 1 - 5La Villita Dam S5 4 0.25 3 - 10
Validation of Bray & Travasarou Simplified Procedure
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Example: 57 m-High Earth DamLocated 10 km from M = 7.5 EQ
ssmm
VHT
ss 33.0
/450576.26.2
≈⋅
=⋅
=
No liquefaction or soils that will undergo significant strength loss
Undrained Strength: c = 14 kPa and φ = 21o so ky = 0.14
Triangular Sliding Block with avg. Vs ~ 450 m/s & H = 57 m
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Deterministic Analysis:ky = 0.14; Ts = 0.33 s; & Mw = 7.5 at R = 10 km;
Using 1.5 Ts = 1.5 (0.33 s) = 0.5 s & NGA GMPE for rock with Vs30 = 600 m/s for strike-slip fault: median Sa(0.5 s) = 0.483 g
Probability of “Zero” Displacement (i.e., D < 1 cm):
Nonzero Median Seismic Displacement Estimate (ε = 0):
Design Seismic Displacement Estimate (16% and 84%):D ≈ 0.5 to 2 times median D = 5 cm to 20 cm
( ) 01.0)483.0ln(52.3)33.0)(14.0ln(484.0)14.0ln(22.376.11)"0"( =+−−−Φ−==DP
( ) ++−−−= )483.0ln()14.0ln(566.0)14.0ln(333.0)14.0ln(83.210.1)ln( 2D
( ) 0)75.7(278.0)33.0(50.1)483.0ln(244.0)483.0ln(04.3 2 ±−++−
cmDD 10)28.2exp())exp(ln( ≈==
For fully probabilistic implementation see Travasarou et al. 2004
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Pseudostatic Slope Stability Analysis
1. k = seismic coefficient; represents earthquake loading
2. S = dynamic material strengths
3. FS = factor of safety
Selection of acceptable combination of k, S, & FS requires calibration through case histories or consistency with more advanced analyses
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A Prevalent Pseudostatic Method
Seed (1979)– “appropriate” dynamic strengths– k = 0.15 – FS > 1.15
FS > 1.15 does not mean the system is safe!
BUT this method was calibrated for cases where 1 m of displacement was judged to be acceptable
WHAT about other levels of acceptable displacement?
IS k = 0.15 reasonable for all sites regardless of M & R?
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Seismic Coefficientk should depend on level of shaking, i.e., R, M, & dynamic response of earth structure
k should also depend on criticality of structure and acceptable level of seismic performance, i.e., amount of allowable seismic displacement
How does one then select k?
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Ts= 0.2s
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2Sa(@1.5Ts) (g)
Seis
mic
Coe
ffici
ent
5 cm15 cm
30 cm
M=7.5 M=6
Seismic Coefficient from Allowable DisplacementBray &Travasarou (2009)
Instead, calculate k as function of Da, Sa, Ts, Mw, & ε
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1. Can materials lose significant strength? If so, use post-shaking reduced strengths. Otherwise, use strain-compatible dynamic strengths.
2. Select allowable displacement: Da and select exceedance probability (e.g., use ε = 0.66 for 84%)
3. Estimate initial period of sliding mass: Ts
4. Characterize seismic demand: Sa(1.5Ts) & Mw
5. Calculate seismic coefficient: k = f (Da, Sa, Ts, Mw & ε) & perform pseudostatic analysis using k. If FS ≥ 1, then Dcalc < Da at selected exceedance level
Pseudostatic Slope Stability Procedure
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IV. Conclusions• First question: will materials lose strength?
• If not, evaluate seismic slope stability in terms of seismic displacements
• Bray & Travasarou (2007) approach with deformable sliding mass captures:a. Dynamic resistance of slope - ky
b. Earthquake shaking - Sa(1.5 Ts) & Mw
c. Dynamic response of sliding mass - Tsd. Coupled seismic displacement - D
“Earthquake and material characterizationare most important”
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Ashford, S.A. and Sitar, N. (2002) “Simplified Method for Evaluating Seismic Stability of Steep Slopes,” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering; 128(2): 119-128.
Bray, J.D. “Chapter 14: Simplified Seismic Slope Displacement Procedures,” Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, 4th ICEGE - Invited Lectures, in Geotechnical, Geological, and Earthquake Engineering Series, Vol. 6, Pitilakis, Kyriazis D., Ed., Springer, pp. 327-353, 2007.
Bray, J.D. and Rathje, E.R. “Earthquake-Induced Displacements of Solid-Waste Landfills,” Journal of Geotech. & Geoenv. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 3, pp. 242-253, 1998.
Bray, J.D. and Travasarou, T., “Simplified Procedure for Estimating Earthquake-Induced Deviatoric Slope Displacements,” J. of Geotech. & Geoenv. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 133, No. 4, April 2007, pp. 381-392.
Bray, J.D. and Travasarou, T., “Pseudostatic Coefficient for Use in Simplified Seismic Slope Stability Evaluation,” J. of Geotechnical and Geoenv. Engineering, ASCE, 135(9), 2009, 1336-1340.
Chen, W.Y., Bray, J.D., and Seed, R.B. “Shaking Table Model Experiments to Assess Seismic Slope Deformation Analysis Procedures,” Proc. 8th US Nat. Conf. EQ Engrg., 100th Anniversary Earthquake Conf. Commemorating the 1906 San Francisco EQ, EERI, April 2006, Paper 1322.
Harder, L.F., Bray, J.D., Volpe, R.L., and Rodda, K.V., "Performance of Earth Dams During the Loma PrietaEarthquake," The Loma Prieta, California, Earthquake of October 17, 1989- Earth Structures and Engineering Characterization of Ground Motion, Performance of the Built Environment, Holzer, T.L., Coord., U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 1552-D, U.S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1998, pp. D3-D26.
Makdisi F, and Seed H. (1978) “Simplified procedure for estimating dam and embankment earthquake-induced deformations.” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering; 104(7): 849-867.
Newmark, N. M. (1965) “Effects of earthquakes on dams and embankments,” Geotechnique, London, 15(2), 139-160.
Rathje, E. M., and Bray, J.D. (2001) “One- and Two-Dimensional Seismic Analysis of Solid-Waste Landfills,” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 850-862.
Seed, H.B. (1979) “Considerations in the Earthquake-Resistant Design of Earth and Rockfill Dams,” Geotechnique, V. 29(3), pp. 215-263.
Travasarou, T., Bray, J.D., and Der Kiureghian, A.D. “A Probabilistic Methodology for Assessing Seismic Slope Displacements,” 13th WCEE, Vancouver, Canada, Paper No. 2326, Aug 1-6, 2004.
Yu, L., Kong, X., and Xu, B. “Seismic Response Characteristics of Earth and Rockfill Dams,” 15th WCEE, Lisbon, Portugal, Paper No.2563, Sept, 2012.
References