Similarities and Differences in the Leadership Styles and ...

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4-1975

Similarities and Differences in the Leadership Styles and Personal Similarities and Differences in the Leadership Styles and Personal

Characteristics of Women in Educational Administration and Characteristics of Women in Educational Administration and

Women in Business Administration Women in Business Administration

Clara R. Benedetti Western Michigan University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Benedetti, Clara R., "Similarities and Differences in the Leadership Styles and Personal Characteristics of Women in Educational Administration and Women in Business Administration" (1975). Dissertations. 2847. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/2847

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SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN THE LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND WOMEN IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

by

Clara R. Benedetti

A D isse rta tio n Submitted to the

Faculty o f The Graduate College in p a r t ia l fu lf i l lm e n t

o f theDegree o f Doctor o f Education

Western Michigan U n ive rs ity Kalamazoo, Michigan

A p ril 1975

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many frie n d s and colleagues have encouraged me in th is venture.

My g ra titu d e goes to a l l o f you. A note to Peg, fo r her constant

reassurance and hours o f proofreading. A special note to Sheila and

Joyce who helped me see the lig h t on even the darkest days.

To Dr. W illiam P. V ia l l , chairman o f the doctoral committee, fo r

h is encouragement, assistance, and fr ie n d sh ip .

To Dr. A. Jack Asher, fo r his inva luab le help w ith the in s tru

mentation and in te rp re ta tio n o f the data.

To Dr. Dorothy B lad t, fo r her encouragement and construc tive

c r it ic is m .

To several members o f the Coloma s ta f f fo r th e ir technical

assistance.

To Lora and V ick i fo r th e ir exce lle n t job o f typ ing the

manuscript.

To my mother, fa th e r and bro ther fo r a llow ing me to break

b a rr ie rs .

Clara Rose Benedetti


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75-18.760

BENEDETTI, Clara R., 1934- SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN THE LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND WOMEN IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION.

Western Michigan U n ive rs ity , Ed.D., 1975 Education, adm in is tra tio n

Xerox University Microfiims, Ann Arbor, n

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... ü

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................. v

LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................v i

CHAPTERI. THE PROBLEM.......................................................................................... 1

Statement o f the Problem .......................................................... 1Rationale fo r the S t u d y .......................................................... 2L im ita tio ns o f the Study .......................................................... 4Research Questions ...................................................................... 4D e fin it io n o f Terms .................................................................. 6Research Methodology .................................................................. 7Overview ........................................................................................... 9

I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............................................................. 10O verv iew ...............................................................................................10Leadership Theories .................................................................. 10

The T ra its A pproach.................................................................. 11The S itu a tio n Approach ...................................................... 13The Leadership S tyles Approach . . . . . ................. 14

Women in Educational Adm in is tra tion ...................................... 24Women in Business A dm in is tra tion ......................................... 34C h ara c te ris tics o f Women Adm in is tra tors ......................... 42S um m ary...........................................................................................46

I I I . DESIGN OF THE STUDY.......................................................................... 48In troductio n .................................................................................. 48Population and Sample .............................................................. 48The Measurements.......................................................................... 49

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire ................................. 49The Biographical Questionnaire ..................................... 52

Research Questions ......................................... ......................... 53Procedures.......................................................................................55

C o n fid e n t ia lity ...................................................................... 55Procedures to Achieve High Response ............................. 55Questionnaire and Cover L e tte r ..................................... 55F o llo w -u p ...................................................................................56

Methods o f Analyzing the D a t a ..............................................56Analysis o f the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire . 55Analysis o f the Biographical Q uestionnaire . . . . 56

S um m ary...........................................................................................57

i i i


REPORT OF THE FINDINGSPage

Analysis o f the D a t a ...................................................................egComposition o f the S t u d y .......................................................... egS ta t is t ic a l Procedures Used .................................................. ggPresentation o f the B iographical Data . . .................

Personal C h a ra c te ris tics .................................................. 53Professional C h a ra c te ris tics ......................................... 77Job O p in io n s .............................................................................. 90

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Data ............................. 97

V. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... lOQ

REFERENCES................................................................................. 121

APPENDIX A: Table 1 . . . . . ..... ................................................................ 131APPENDIX B: Instrum entation ........................................................................ 133APPENDIX C: Communications ............................................................................ 136APPENDIX D: T it le s Recorded fo r Respondents ......................................... 139APPENDIX E: W ritten Comments from Biographical Questionnaire . . 141

Question 23 - P ro b le m s ..................................................... 141Question 24 - In f lu e n t ia l Factors .................................. 142Question 26 - Role C o n f l ic t .............................................143Question 27 - Advantages...... ............................................. 145


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Continuum o f Leader Behavior ............................................................... 16

2 . The Ohio State Leadership Q uadrants............................................... , 19

3. The Managerial Grid Leadership S tyles ........................................... 21

4. 3 - D T h e o ry ...................................................................................................22


LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Responses to the Mail Questionnaire ............................................... 59

2. P ro f ile o f Selected Variables fo r Women A dm in is tra tors . . 62

3. Ages o f Women Adm in is tra tors ........................................................... 62

4. M arita l Status o f Women Adm in istra tors ...................................... 64

5. Length o f Time Married fo r Women Adm in is tra tors . . . . . . 64

6 . Number o f Children o f Women A dm in is tra tors ................................ 66

7. Number o f Brothers o f Women Adm in is tra tors ................................ 66

8 . Number o f S is te rs o f Women Adm in is tra tors .................................. 68

9. S ib lin g Order o f Women Adm in istra tors .......................................... 68

10. Number o f O ldest Females as Women Adm in is tra tors ................... 70

11. Mothers' Level o f Education.................................................................. 70

12. Fathers' Level o f Education.................................................................. 72

13. Mothers' Employed o f Women A dm in is tra tors .................................. 73

14. Level o f Mothers' Employment o f Women Adm in is tra tors . . . 75

15. Level o f Fathers' Employment o f Women A dm in is tra tors . . . 76

16. Parental In fluence o f Women Adm in is tra tors .............................. 78

17. Number o f Feminist Organizations Belonged to by WomenAdm in is tra tors ........................................................................................ 78

18. Level o f Positions o f Women Adm in is tra tors .............................. 80

19. Size o f In s t i tu t io n s and O rg a n iz a t io n s ....................................... 80

20. Salary D is tr ib u tio n o f Women Adm in is tra tors .............................. 82

21. Levels o f Education o f Women Adm in is tra tors .............................. 83

Vi


Table Page

22. Number o f Women Adm in istra tors Pursuing Advanced Degrees . 83

23. Leadership on the J o b ........................................................................ 85

24. Leadership Seminar/Workshop ........................................................... 85

25. Leadership T ra in ing by Formal Degree .......................................... 86

26. Women Adm in istra tors Having Had No Leadership Tra in ing . . 86

27. Number o f Years Spent in Present P os ition .............................. 87

28. Number o f Years Spent in Second Most Current Position . . 87

29. Number o f Years Spent in Third Most Current P osition . . . 87

30. Number o f A r t ic le s Published in Respective F ields o fWomen A d m in is tra to rs ............................................................................ 89

31. Number o f Papers Presented a t Professional Meetings . . . 89

32. Number o f Books Published ............................................................... 89

33. Number o f Pub lica tions Not Related to Profession .................. 91

34. Number o f Professional Organization Memberships .................. 91

35. Number o f C iv ic Organization Memberships .................................. 91

36. Most S ig n ific a n t Problems o f Women in Education ................... 92

37. Most S ig n ific a n t Problems o f Women in Business ...................... 93

38. In flu e n t ia l Factors fo r Placement in Current Positionso f Women in E d u c a t io n ......................................................................... 95

39. In flu e n t ia l Factors fo r Placement in Current Positionso f Women in B u s in e ss ............................................................................. 96

40. Leadership Opinion Questionnaire .................................................. 98

v i i


THE PROBLEM

Statement o f the Problem

The purpose o f th is study is to determine i f there are s im i la r it ie s

or d iffe rences in the leadership s ty le s and personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f

women in educational adm in is tra tio n and in the leadership s ty le s and

personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f women in business adm in is tra tio n .

This study w i l l present fou r aspects o f the problem. The f i r s t

aspect is to study two samples o f women, one from educational adm in istra

t io n , and the o ther from business adm in is tra tio n in order to note the

s im i la r i t ie s and d iffe rences in the leadership s ty les they p resently

e x h ib it .

The second aspect is to compare the leadership s ty les o f these two

groups o f women to the e x is tin g norms reported fo r predominately male

occupational groups.

The th ird aspect is to study the biographical data gathered from

these two groups o f women in order to determine s im i la r it ie s and d i f

ferences in th e ir backgrounds.

The fo u rth , and, f in a l aspect is to study the nature o f the prob

lem i t s e l f ; the possib le reasons why there are so few women in top

leadership pos itions in both education and business, what is presently

being done about the problem, and what the fu tu re holds as to possible

so lu tio n s .

1


2

Rationale fo r the Study

Women have always been a part o f the labor fo rce . As e a rly as the

1890 census, four m il lio n women, or one s ix th o f the work fo rce , were

counted as working outside the home. This number has s te a d ily increased

u n t il in 1973 there were 35 m il lio n women on the labor fo rce . This

represents 39% of the to ta l labor fo rce . These women represent a l l

ages from 16 to 70 or more and are o f every race and co lo r. They

include the married, the s in g le , those widowed, and the divorced or

separated; and they l iv e on farms, in suburbs, and in centra l c it ie s .

Of th is 39%, only 5% are categorized by the U.S. Department o f

Labor as adm in is tra to rs or managers. While these women hold pos itions

labeled as adm in is tra tors or managers, they earn a median wage o f only

$7,306 which represents 53% o f a man's earnings in th is category (U.S.

Women's Bureau, 1973). The a ttitu d e s toward acceptance o f women in top

management pos itions and the question o f economic value has changed

very l i t t l e in the la s t century.

That change is long overdue, is the present cry from the fe m in is t

movement. I t is time th is vast untapped resource be u t i l iz e d . As

Cynthia Epstein noted, "Our best women - those in whom soc ie ty has

invested most heavily - underperforni, underachieve, and underproduce.

We waste them and they waste themselves (1970, p. 4 ) ."

That an in e q u a lity e x is ts is eviden t. The reasons fo r th is

in e q u a lity are not so ev ident, however. Sex d isc rim in a tio n is a simple

(and frequent) answer, but the causes are many and complex. They range

from b io lo g ic a l, so c io lo g ic a l, psychological and educational fa c to rs


3

w ith con tinu ing controversy in each area.

In the f ie ld o f education where women co n s titu te a m a jo rity o f the

teaching fo rce , on ly a small number are in pos itions o f a d m in is tra tive

leadersh ip . A 1973 rep o rt issued by the National Education Association

s tates th a t o f the 13,000 pub lic school superintendents, on ly s ix ty -

f iv e are women. This is less than one-tenth o f one percent. C e rta in ly

pa rt o f the problem is th a t women may not have pursued pos itions o f

leadersh ip . However, the li te ra tu r e suggests th a t much o f the cause is

e ith e r d is c r im in a t io n , the lack o f encouragement, o r the lack o f pre

sent ro le models. Readers o f educational leadership l i te ra tu re w i l l

f in d th a t there are few, i f any, references to women as leaders. In

most cases the authors o f these books are male. Is the im p lica tio n o f

th is th a t women do not make good leaders because they are not capable,

or simply th a t there have been so few women in leadership pos itions

th a t i t has not been possib le to w r ite about them?

The same pau c ity e x is ts in l i te ra tu r e about women adm in is tra to rs

in business. Such authors as Drucker, L e a v it t, Reddin or Hal pin seldom,

i f ever, re fe r to the manager as "she". Although bookkeepers, secre

ta r ie s , bank te l le r s , and ty p is ts are but a few o f the business occupa

tio n s in which women hold a t le as t 50% o f the to ta l jobs (Ly le & Ross,

1973). Women seldom leave these low -s ta tus , low-paying occupations to

r is e to top management le v e ls .

However, there are women who have a tta ined leadership ro le s . They

have demonstrated th e ir a b i l i t ie s and achieved reco g n itio n . These

accomplishments should c le a r ly dispel the notion th a t women are not


able to be adm in is tra tors and managers. The ir voices have been heard

by others who are now pressing fo r change; they are no longer w i l l in g

to accept the myths and o ld patte rns. Change is occuring; laws, execu

t iv e orders, governmental and adm in is tra tive actions a l l po in t toward

th is . This in ve s tig a to r found th a t a tt itu d e s , expectations and a sp ira

tio n s o f males and females have a lso changed, although more slow ly than

many would lik e .

L im ita tio ns o f the Study

This study is intended to determine the nature o f women in leader

ship pos itions in education and business. I t is not intended to present

a to ta l p ic tu re o f the women's lib e ra t io n movement. I t is not intended

to present the on-going controversy o f basic se x -d iffe re n ce s . Neither

is i t intended to present a h is to ry o f leadership theory o r management

theory.

This study w i l l be lim ite d to an examination o f the cu rren t s ta tus

o f women in education and business, the re fo re , the review o f l i te ra tu re

w i l l concentrate on the past three years. Older studies w i l l be u t i l iz e d

where i t is deemed important to make comparisons.

Research Questions

The study was undertaken in an e f fo r t to f in d answers to the f o l

lowing research questions:

1. Do women in educational adm in is tra tion have a leadership s ty le

d if fe re n t than women in business adm in is tra tion?

a. In ta b u la tin g the Leadership Opinion Q uestionnaire, how


5

d id each group o f women score on the dimension o f

Consideration?

b. In tab u la tin g the Leadership Opinion Q uestionnaire, how

did each group o f women score on the dimension o f S tructure?

2. Are these leadership s ty le s consis tent w ith those found in

predominately male groups tested w ith the Leadership Opinion

Questionnaire?

3. Has e ith e r group o f women had more education or leadership

tra in in g ?

4. Do both groups o f women e x h ib it the same variab les in th e ir

fam ily backgrounds?

5. Are these patte rns o f variab les consis tent w ith other studies?

a, b ir th order

b. parental career in fluence

6 . Is one group o f women more mobile than the other?

7. How do the two groups o f women compare as to m arita l and

fam ily status?

8 . Do these women perceive any ro le c o n f lic t?

9. Do any o f the fo llo w in g va riab les a ffe c t the re su lts o f the

responses o f e ith e r group:

age

sa lary

size o f in s t i tu t io n o r organ iza tion

pub lica tions

fe m in is t a f f i l i a t io n


10. Has T i t le V II o f the C iv il Rights Act had an impact on

promotions and job placement?

11. How do these women perceive the problems fo r women in admini

s t ra t iv e positions?

12. What fa c to rs have been most in f lu e n t ia l to these women in ob

ta in in g th e ir cu rren t p o s itio n o f leadership?

13. What do these women be lieve to be the greatest advantage o f

being a female in an adm in is tra tive position?

The answers to these questions may provide in form ation which may

help solve the many complex problems faced by those who w i l l se lec t and

t ra in women fo r pos itions o f leadership .

D e fin it io n o f Terms

In order to provide the reader w ith a precise understanding o f the

nature o f th is study, i t seemed necessary to s t ip u la te ce rta in d e f in i

tio n s o f terms freq uen tly used in th is te x t.

1. a) Leadership s ty le , when i t is used as a general term, is the

consis tent manner in which actions are performed in helping a

group move toward goals acceptable to i t s members (Boles, 1973).

b) Leadership s ty le , when i t is used in s p e c ific instances, is

th a t s ty le which has been measured by the Leadership Opinion

Questionnaire (Fleishman, 1969) and consists o f the fo llo w in g

two im portant dimensions:

Consideration re fle c ts the extent to which an in d iv id u a l is

l ik e ly to have job re la tio n sh ip s w ith his subordinates

characterized by mutual t ru s t , resoect fo r th e ir ideas, con-


7

s id é ra tion o f th e ir fe e lin g s , and a ce rta in warmth between

h im self and them - a high score is in d ic a tiv e o f a c lim ate o f

good rapport and two-way communication. A low score ind ica tes

the in d iv id u a l is l ik e ly to be more im portant in his re la tio n s

w ith group members.

S tructure re fle c ts the extent to which an in d iv id u a l is l i k e ly

to define and s truc tu re his own ro le and those o f h is subor

dinates toward goal atta inm ent. A high score on th is dimension

characterizes in d iv id u a ls who play a very ac tive ro le in

d ire c tin g group a c t iv i t ie s through planning, communicating

in fo rm ation , scheduling, c r i t ic iz in g , try in g out new ideas,

and so fo r th . A low score characterizes in d iv id u a ls who are

l i k e ly to be re la t iv e ly in a c tive in g iv ing d ire c t io n in these

ways.

2. Women in educational adm in is tra tio n re fe rs to women who hold

pos itions in educational in s t i tu t io n s w ith a t i t l e o f p res ident,

v ice -p res iden t, ass is tan t v ice -p re s id e n t, dean, p r in c ip a l,

headmistress, d ire c to r , or o ther corresponding t i t l e .

3. Women in business adm in is tra tio n re fe rs to women who hold

pos itions in business organizations w ith a t i t l e o f owner,

pres ident, v ice -p res iden t, ass is tan t v ice -p re s id e n t, manager,

d ire c to r , e d ito r or o ther corresponding t i t l e .

Research Methodology

Population and Sample

The population fo r th is study consis ts o f women in educational


adm in is tra tion and women in business adm in is tra tio n on a nationwide

basis.

To obta in a sample o f th is population the fo llo w in g procedure was

employed:

Women in educational adm in is tra tion - names o f women f i t t i n g the

d e f in it io n were selected from the category o f Educational Adm in istra tors

from the Index fo r Who's Who in America, 1974 e d it io n . The to ta l number

o f women lis te d in the U.S. was 128. In a d d it io n , names were also

selected from the category o f Educators. Any woman lis te d w ith the

t i t l e o f Dean or above was chosen. This category provided the remaining

22 in the to ta l sample o f 150.

Women in business adm in is tra tion - names o f women f i t t i n g the d e f in it io n

were selected from Who's Who in Trade and In d u s try , 1974 e d itio n . A

random sample o f 150 names were selected. The number in the to ta l

population was not determined.

A ll women described in the sample were sent two questionnaires,

the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire developed by Edwin A. Fleishman,

and a Biographical Questionnaire developed by the in v e s tig a to r , in

a d d itio n , the subjects were sent a le t t e r exp la in ing the study and en

l is t in g th e ir cooperation, as well as a re tu rn envelope, stamped and

self-addressed.

Data Tabulation

The re su lts o f the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire were tabulated

and analyzed fo r each in d iv idua l and fo r each group. The re s u lts o f

the Biographical Questionnaire were tabulated fo r each group and ana

lyzed according to the numerous va riab les .


An Overview o f the Study

This chapter has presented a statement o f the problem, a ra tio n a le

fo r the study, the lim ita tio n s o f the study, the research questions to

be answered, and the research methodology employed. The remainder o f

the study is presented in fou r chapters. Chapter I I presents a review

o f the l i te ra tu re re levan t to each aspect o f the problem. Chapter I I I

presents the design o f the study. Chapter IV presents the fin d in g s o f

the study. Chapter V presents a summary o f the study, conclusions, and

recommendations fo r fu r th e r study.


REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Overview

This study focused on the leadership s ty le s u t i l iz e d by women in

educational adm in is tra tio n and women in business adm in is tra tio n and

the personal c h a ra c te r is t ic s o f these two groups o f women. A review

o f the l i te ra tu r e was conducted in f iv e in te r re la te d areas: 1 ) lead

ership th e o rie s , 2) women in educational a d m in is tra tio n , 3) women in

business a d m in is tra tio n , 4) ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f women ad m in is tra to rs ,

and 5) the possib le reasons fo r the lack o f women adm in is tra to rs in

both these areas, education and business.

Leadership Theories

I t has always been a problem, when try in g to s e le c t, t ra in o r

place a person in a leadership p o s itio n , to determine what co n s titu te s

a leader. This is evidenced by the p lethora o f d e f in it io n s o f "lead

e r" or o f "le ade rsh ip ". A few o f these d e f in it io n s are as fo llo w s :

The leader is one who succeeds in g e ttin g others to fo llo w him. (Crowley, 1938, p. 154.)

Leadership is the process o f in fluenc ing group a c t iv i t ie s toward goal s e ttin g and goal achievement. (S to d g ill, 1948, p. 35.)

Leadership is the process o f in fluenc ing thoughts, behaviors, and fee lings o f others in p u rsu it o f common goals. (Cummings, 1971, p. 184.)

Leadership is a process in which an in d iv id u a l takes in i t ia t iv e to a s s is t a group to move toward production goals th a t are acceptable to m aintain a group, and to dispose o f those needs o f the in d iv id u a ls w ith in the group tha t im pelled them to jo in . (B o les, 1973, p. 3 .)

10


The l i te ra tu r e presents a v a r ie ty o f theories about what a leader is ;

however, leadership i t s e l f continues to be a perplexing phenomenon,

w ith each theory emphasizing a d i f fe re n t aspect. The emphasis in

leadership research has gone from simple explanations o f observable

behaviors to examinations o f complex re la tio n sh ip s .

The T ra its Approach

Early research shows th a t fo r many years the most common approach

to the study o f leadership concentrated on leadership t r a i t s per se,

suggesting th a t there were ce rta in c h a ra c te r is t ic s th a t were essen tia l

fo r e f fe c t iv e leadership . These were genera lly thought o f as being

inherent q u a lit ie s , the re fo re only those who manifested these charac

t e r is t ic s could be considered e l ig ib le to hold leadership p o s itio n s .

This made the se lec tion process a re la t iv e ly simple one. Instruments

were developed to assess those persons who had the necessary charac

te r is t ic s and only they were placed in leadership p o s itio n s .

This approach, however, did not produce equally e f fe c t iv e lead

e rs. L ip p it t (1955) found, in review ing over 160 leadership s tud ies ,

th a t only 5% o f the t r a i t s appeared in fou r or more o f the stud ies.

Jenkins (1947) in review ing the li te ra tu r e dealing w ith leadership

t r a i t s through the 1940's concluded th a t no s ing le t r a i t would be

found th a t would d is tin g u is h a leader from any o f the fo llo w e rs .

S to d g ill (1948) examined 124 studies on the re la tio n s h ip o f

t r a i t s to leadership and summarized the evidence as fo llo w s :

The q u a lit ie s , ch a ra c te r is t ic s and s k i l ls required as a leader are determined to a large extent by the demands o f the s itu a t io n in which he is to func tion as a leader (p. 63).


A person does not become a leader by v ir tu e o f the possession o f some combination o f t r a i t s , but the pa tte rn o f personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f the leader must bear some re le vant re la tio n s h ip to the c h a ra c te r is t ic s , a c t iv i t ie s , and goals o f the fo llow ers (p. 64).

This introduced the idea th a t the s itu a t io n and the fo llow ers

affected the leadership phenomena.

Gibb (1954) suggested tha t the incorpora tion and in te g ra tio n o f

fou r major va riab les were im portant fo r a comprehensive theory o f

leadership . Those were: 1) the pe rso n a lity o f the leader, 2) the

fo llow ers w ith th e ir a tt itu d e s , needs and problems, 3) the group i t

s e l f , in two regards, a) the s tru c tu re o f in terpersona l re la tio n s and

b) the s y n ta li ty c h a ra c te r is t ic s , and 4) the s itu a t io n as determined

by the physical s e tt in g , nature o f task, e tc . (p. 914).

Myers (1954) analyzed over 200 studies o f leadership studies

since 1900. His conclusions concerning the re la tio n sh ip s o f person

a l i t y t r a i t s to leadership were:

1. No physical ch a ra c te r is t ic s are s ig n if ic a n t ly re la ted to leadership .

2. Although leaders tend to be s l ig h t ly higher in in te llig e n c e than the group in which they are members, there is no s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip between superior in te llig e n c e and leadership .

3. Knowledge app licab le to the problems faced by a group c o n t r ibutes s ig n if ic a n t ly to leadership s ta tus .

4. The fo llo w in g ch a ra c te r is t ic s co rre la te s ig n if ic a n t ly w ith leadersh ip ; in s ig h t, in i t ia t iv e , coopera tion, o r ig in a l i t y , am bition, persistence, emotional s t a b i l i t y , judgment, popu la r i ty , and communication s k i l ls .

5. . . . the personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f the leaders d i f f e r according to the s itu a t io n . Leaders tend to remain leaders only in s itu a tio n s when the a c t iv i ty is s im ila r . No simple c h a ra c te r is t ic is the possession o f a l l leaders, (pp. 105- 107.)


Mann (1959) concluded th a t a le ade r's a b i l i t ie s , aptitudes and

background tended to be re la ted to those goals set by the group.

The S itu a tio n a l Approach

Stemming from Mann's conclusions, the s itu a tio n a l approach was de

veloped and re fined . The focus in the s itu a tio n a l approach to leader

ship is on observed behavior, not on any hypothetica l inborn or ac

quired a b i l i t y or p o ten tia l fo r leadership . The emphasis is on the

behavior o f leaders and th e ir group members (fo llo w e rs ) and various

s itu a tio n s (Mersey and Blanchard, 1972).

This led to an attempt to analyze leadership behavior in terms o f

the tasks, processes and s k i l ls th a t occur in any leadership s itu a t io n ,

H arris (1963), fo r example, o u tlin e s f iv e processes; planning, organ

iz in g , leading, c o n tro ll in g , and assessing, any or a l l o f which may be

involved in d if fe r in g amounts in leadership e ffec tive ness, depending

on the s itu a t io n .

Katz (1955) proposed the existence o f three classes o f s k i l ls -

human, conceptual and te c h n ic a l.

He defined each o f these classes by suggesting beh av io ra lly des

c r ip t iv e words fo r each s k i l l category:

Human:

empathizing, in te rv ie w in g , observing, leading d iscussions,

p a rt ic ip a tin g in discussions, ro le -p la y in g , and re fle c t in g

fee lings and ideas.

Conceptual :

v is u a liz in g , ana lyzing, diagnosing, synthes iz ing, c r i t ic iz in g


and question ing .

Technical :

speaking, w r i t in g , reading, lis te n in g , o u t lin in g , demonstra

t in g , ch a irin g a meeting, graphing and sketching,

A leader uses these s k i l ls as needs a r ise in each s itu a t io n . L iv

ingston (1971) stated there are three s k i l ls essen tia l fo r leadership :

opportun ity f in d in g , problem fin d in g and problem -solving, each vary

ing w ith the s itu a t io n .

The s itu a tio n a l approach also led to research o f the leadership

phenomena in small groups. Bavelas (1948) found, w h ile developing a

communication paradigm, th a t when people are placed around a ta b le in

small groups, those in the center o f the group tended to be the de

cision-makers o f th a t group.

The notion o f "emergent" leadership was evidenced in work done by

Kahn and Katz (1956). They found when leadership was not provided, by

a foreman in th is case, in form al leaders arose and provided the needed

fu n c tio n s .

The d i f f ic u l t y in studying leaders when using the s itu a t io n a l ap

proach is tha t the determ ining fa c to r o f successful leadership is the

r ig h t s itu a t io n . This approach needs an assessment o f the type o f ex

is t in g s itu a t io n in order th a t a successful leader can be placed or

selected.

The Leadership S tyles Approach

This brought researchers back to examining the leader's behavior.

In essence, leadership involves accomplishing goals w ith and through


people. Therefore, a leader must be concerned w ith both tasks and

human re la tio n sh ip s . In accomplishing th is the leader's behavior is

displayed through leadership acts.

Hemphill (1961) c la s s if ie s these in to three groups: 1) attem pt

ed leadership ac ts , which are attempts to in fluence the behavior o f

others in order to achieve a common goal; 2 ) successful leadership

ac ts , which re s u lt in changing the behaviors o f the group members;

and 3) e ffe c t iv e leadership acts , which lead to the achievement o f the

desired goals. A leader's s ty le , then, is a re fle c t io n o f the in d iv

id u a l's t r a i ts and how these in te ra c t w ith members o f the group.

Some leaders are very demanding in a group. Some a llow group members

to share in decision-m aking, w h ile some make a l l the decisions in d i

vidual l y . Some leaders use a combination o f s ty le s .

One o f the e a r lie s t studies to attempt to define these s ty les was

conducted by Lewin, L ip p it and White (1939). Even though the o r ig in a l

studies were done by observing the behavior o f fou r s im ila r groups o f

ten -year-o ld boys, they have been o ften re p lica te d , in adu lt groups,

w ith s im ila r f in d in g s . The s ty les o f leadership in te ra c tio n were la

beled a u to c ra tic , democratic and la is s e z - fa ire . I t was found tha t the

most favorable re su lts came when a democratic s ty le is used. The

a u to c ra tic s ty le brought resistance and aggression and the la issez -

fa ire s ty le resu lted in fru s tra t io n , lack o f purpose and in decis ion.

Leaders concerned w ith the members o f the group tend to be viewed as

democratic w h ile those dealing w ith a concern fo r tasks tend to be

a u to c ra tic . McGregor (1960) postulated th a t those who operate w ith

a b e lie f th a t the fo llow ers are in na te ly lazy and u n re lia b le f a l l


in to his Theory X category. Those who be lieve th a t people can be

b a s ic a lly s e lf-d ire c t iv e and c rea tive i f p roperly motivated and act

in a democratic manner are a part o f Theory Y.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1957) contend th a t there are a wide var

ie ty o f s ty les o f leader behavior between these two extremes. They

dep ic t these on a continuum, as i l lu s t r a te d in Figure 1.

(A u th o rita r ia n ) <— Task Oriented

--> (Democratic)

IIUse o f A u tho rity _ ... . ..by the Leader

Area o f Freedomfo r Subordinates

- - - - - - - - - - X - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - .. X -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - . - - - - - - - . . .X . . - . . . . . . . . x . _ . . .A B C D E F G

A = Leader makes decision and announces i t

B = Leader "s e l ls " decision

C = Leader presents ideas and in v ite s questions

D = Leader presents te n ta tiv e decis ion subject to change

E = Leader presents problem, gets suggestions, and makes dec is ion

F = Leader defines l im its ; asks group to make decision

G = Leader permits subordinates to func tion w ith in l im its defined by superior

Figure 1*

Continuum o f Leader Behavior

*Source: Mersey, P. and Blanchard, K. Management o f Organizatio n a l Behavior. Englewood C l i f f s , New Jersey: P ren tice -H a l1, Inc.WfT.


Those leaders whose behavior is observed at the a u th o r ita r ia n end

tend to be task-o rien ted and use th e ir power to in fluence th e ir f o l

lowers, w h ile those whose behavior is group-oriented are a t the demo

c ra t ic end, g iv ing th e ir fo llow ers considerable freedom in th e ir work.

This continuum does not include the la is s e z - fa ire aspect since i t im

p lie s a "leave-a lone" a t t i tu d e ; the leader es tab lish ing no p o lic ie s or

procedures. This is f e l t to be an absence o f leadership w ith no lead

e rsh ip behavior being e xh ib ited , consequently not included.

The recogn ition o f two leadership s ty le s , one emphasizing tasks

and the other s tress ing re la tio n sh ip s gave r is e to several subsequent

s tud ies . The U n ive rs ity o f Michigan studies attempted to locate c lu s

te rs o f c h a ra c te r is t ic s tha t seem to be re la ted to each other and to

te s ts o f e ffec tiveness . These studies id e n t if ie d two concepts which

they ca lled employee o r ie n ta tio n and production o r ie n ta tio n . A lead

e r who stresses the re la tio n sh ip s aspects o f the job is described as

employee-centered, w h ile the production-centered leader emphasizes

production and the techn ica l aspects o f the jo b . These two o r ie n ta

tio n s can be viewed as p a ra lle lin g the authorita rian -dem ocra tic con

cepts o f the leader behavior continuum (Mersey and Blanchard, 1972).

Comprehensive studies were also conducted by Halpin (1959) and

others a t Ohio State U n ive rs ity in an attempt to id e n t ify various

dimensions o f leadership behavior. These resu lted in the d e f in it io n

o f two dimensions. Consideration and I n i t ia t in g S truc tu re . Halpin

(1959) defines these as fo llow s :

CONSIDERATION re fe rs to behavior in d ic a tiv e o f fr ie n d sh ip , mutual t r u s t , respect, and warmth in the re la tio n s h ip between the leader and the members o f the group.


18

INITIATING STRUCTURE re fe rs to the leader's behavior in delin e a t in g the re la tio n s h ip between h im self and the members o f his group, and in endeavoring to es tab lish w e ll-de fin ed patte rns o f o rgan iza tion , channels o f communication, and ways o f ge ttin g the job done (p. 2 ) .

In order to gather data about the behavior o f leaders the Ohio

State s ta f f developed the Leader Behavior Descrip tion Questionnaire

(LBDQ). I t is designed to describe how a leader ca rries out a c t iv i

t ie s . The LBDQ contains f if te e n items p e rta in ing to Consideration

and f if te e n fo r In i t ia t in g S tructu re , Respondents, subordinates or

superordinates, judge the frequency w ith which the leader engages in

each form o f behavior by checking one o f f iv e descrip tions - always,

o fte n , occas iona lly , seldom or never - as i t re la tes to each item o f

the LBDQ.

One im portant fa c to r is the aspect th a t these two dimensions. Con

s id e ra tion and In i t ia t in g S truc tu re , are two separate and d is t in c t

dimensions. The behavior o f a leader can be described as any mix o f

both dimensions. I t was during these studies th a t leader behavior

was f i r s t p lo tte d on two separate axes ra th e r than on a simple con

tinuum as i l lu s t r a te d in Figure 2.

Four quadrants were developed to show various combinations o f con

s id e ra tio n (re la tio n s h ip s behavior) and in ia t in g s tru c tu re (task be

ha v io r). Fleishman, e t a l. (1955) found th a t e ffe c t iv e leadership

behavior is characterized by high scores on both dimensions, w h ile

conversely, in e ffe c t iv e , undesirable leadership behavior is marked

by low scores on both dimensions. However, i t was noted th a t a lead

er could be high on one dimension, wh ile low on the other and s t i l l

be an e f fe c t iv e leader, depending on the s itu a t io n .


15 High

Consideration

and

Low

2 S tructure

High

S tructure

and

High

Consideration

1 Low High

S tructure S tructure

and and

Low Low

Consideration Consideration

(Low)<- I n i t ia t in g S tructure • -X H ig h )

Figure 2*

The Ohio State Leadership Quadrants

♦Source: Mersey, P. and Blanchard, K. Management o f Organizat io n a l Behavior. Englewood C l i f f s , New Jersey: PrenticeTHaTl, Inc.

Fleishman devised the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ),

which was used in th is study, based on the LBDQ. The LOQ d if fe rs from

the Leadership Behavior D escription Questionnaire in tha t the respon

dent is the leader, not a subordinate or superordinate. The items and

scoring procedures are s l ig h t ly d i f fe re n t but the outcomes o f measured

behavior o f the leader are in te rp re te d as are the LBDQ; th a t is , an


e ffe c t iv e leader is one who scores high on both dimensions w h ile an

in e ffe c t iv e one genera lly scores low on both consideration and i n i

t ia t in g s tru c tu re .

Blake and Mouton (1964) have used th is same basic task accomp

lishment and personal re la tio n sh ip s concept in the development o f

th e ir Managerial G rid, which they use in organ iza tion and management

development programs. The Managerial Grid u t i l iz e s the two dimensi

ons, tha t o f production (tasks) and concern fo r people (re la tio n s h ip s )

w ith the fou r quadrant aspect as in the Ohio State Studies. I t iden

t i f ie s f iv e d if fe re n t types o f leadership s ty les as i l lu s t r a te d in

Figure 3.

These f iv e s ty les are described by Blake and Mouton (1964) as

fo llow s:

Impoverished (1-1) - Exertion o f minimum e f fo r t to get required work done is appropria te to susta in o rgan iza tion membership.

Country Club (1-9) - Thoughtful a tte n tio n to needs o f people fo r s a t is fy in g re la tio n sh ip s leads to a com fortable, fr ie n d ly organiz a tio n atmosphere a t work tempo.

Task (9-1) - E ffic ie n c y in operations re s u lts from arranging cond itio n s o f work in such a way tha t human elements in te r fe re to a minimum degree.

M iddle-of-the-Road (5-5) - Adequate o rgan iza tion performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work w h ile m aintaining morale o f people a t a s a t is fa c to ry le v e l.

Team (9-9) - Work accomplishment is from committed people; in te r dependence through a "common stake" in organ iza tion purpose leads to re la tio n sh ip s o f t ru s t and respect.


I 'î ®II 7

ro 5

£o 4

1-9(Country Club)

5-

9-9(Team)

5(Middle

(Impoverished)1-1

l^oad)

(Task)9-1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(Low)<--------------- (Concern fo r Production) -------------------- (High)

Figure 3*

The Managerial Grid Leadership Styles

♦Source: Mersey, P. and Blanchard, K. Management o f Organizat io n a l Behavior. Englewood C l i f f s , New Jersey: P re n fice -H a ll, Inc.T972:

Reddin (1970) has added a th ird dimension o f e ffectiveness to th is

same basic model in developing h is 3-D Management S ty le Theory. This

re su lts in an e igh t s ty le model o f management ( leadersh ip) behavior.

These e ig h t s ty le s re s u lt from the e ig h t possible combinations o f

Task O rie n ta tio n , R e la tionsh ip O rie n ta tio n , and Effectiveness as i l lu s tra te d in Figure 4.


V /

Compromi serMissionary

Autocrat

Developer

/

Executive

/

BureaucratBenevolentAutocrat

4 ..............................- ...................... - .............Task O rien ta tion (TQ)

f ig u re 4*

3-D Theory

^^^^*Source: Reddin, W.J. Managerial E ffe c tiveness. McGraw-Hill.


A capsule descrip tion o f each o f these e igh t s ty les taken from

the Manual fo r the Management S ty le Diagnosis Test (1972) fo llo w s :

EXECUTIVE - A manager who is using a high Task O rien ta tion and a high Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behav- iou is appropriate and who is the re fo re m ore -e ffec tive . Seen as a good m otiva tor who sets high standards, who tre a ts everyone somewhat d i f fe re n t ly and who prefers team management.

COMPROMISER - A manager who is using a high Task O rien ta tion and a high Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n th a t requ ires a high o r ie n ta tio n to only one or ne ithe r and who is the re fo re less- e f fe c t iv e . Seen as being a poor decis ion maker and as one who a llows various pressures in the s itu a t io n to in fluence him too much. Seen as m inim izing immediate pressures and problems ra th e r than maximizing long term production.

BENEVOLENT AUTOCRAT - A manager who is using a high Task O rientat io n and a low Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behaviour is appropria te and who is the re fo re m ore -e ffec tive . Seen as knowing what he wants, and knowing how to get i t w ithou t c rea ting resentment.

AUTOCRAT - A manager who is using a high Task O rien ta tion and a low Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behaviour is in appropria te and who is the re fo re le s s -e ffe c tiv e . Seen as having no confidence in o thers, as unpleasant, and as being in te rested only in the immediate job .

DEVELOPER - A manager who is using a high R e lationships O rien ta t io n and a low Task O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behavio u r is appropria te and who is there fore m ore -e ffec tive . Seen as having im p l ic i t t ru s t in people and as being p r im a r ily concerned w ith developing them as in d iv id u a ls .

MISSIONARY - A manager who is using a high Relationships O rien tat io n and a low Task O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behaviour is inappropria te and who is there fore le s s -e ffe c tiv e . Seen as being p r im a r ily in te res ted in harmony.

BUREAUCRAT - A manager who is using a low Task O rien ta tion and a low Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behaviour is appropria te and who is the re fo re m ore -e ffec tive . Seen as being p r im a r ily in te res ted in ru les and procedures fo r th e ir own sake, and as wanting to maintain and contro l the s itu a t io n by th e ir use.

DESERTER - A manager who is using a low Task O rien ta tion and a low Relationships O rien ta tion in a s itu a t io n where such behaviour is


24

inappropria te and who is the re fo re le s s -e ffe c tiv e . Seen as uninvolved and passive.

FOUR MORE-EFFECTIVE STYLES - The fou r m ore -e ffec tive s ty le s may be equa lly e ffe c t iv e depending on the s itu a tio n in which they are used. Some managerial jobs requ ire a l l fou r s ty le s to be used a t tim es, o ther jobs tend to demand only one or two s ty les co n s is te n tly .

The research on leadership s ty les continues to be explored as a t

tempts are made to be more d e f in ite and accurate as leaders are being

se lected, tra ined and placed.

Women in Educational Adm in is tra tion

Moving from the vast body o f l i te ra tu r e on leadersh ip , th is search

focused more c lo se ly on th a t l i te ra tu r e which dea lt s p e c if ic a lly w ith

the leadership s ty le o f women in educational adm in is tra tio n . In none

o f the foregoing discussion on leadership were women discussed, the

leader or manager is always re fe rred to as "he". Only recen tly is i t

th a t studies on women, or inc lud ing women, have been conducted. Most

o f these studies have been doctoral d is s e rta tio n s , which have attem pt

ed to ascerta in in form ation about women in a d m in is tra tive p o s itio n s .

As the need fo r more women in leadership positions continues, i t ap

pears necessary to gather data tha t can a ffe c t the se le c tio n , t r a in

ing and placement o f e ffe c t iv e women leaders.

The problem, however, is as McGannon (1972) stated " . . . there

a re n 't any women in adm in is tra tion . . . hardly any to speak o f , th a t

is (p. 1 ) ." The National Education Association (1973) stated th a t o f

the 13,000 pub lic school superintendents, only s ix ty - f iv e are women;

less than one-tenth o f one percent. In post-secondary, women are even

less v is ib le . Men dominate co llege and u n iv e rs ity a d m in is tra tio n .


25

p a r t ic u la r ly a t the policy-making le ve ls . A 1971-1972 NEA survey of

higher education in s t i tu t io n s found tha t o f 953 presidencies in 4-year

in s t i tu t io n s , women held only 32 positions (USOE, 1972). Sandler

(1972) states " . . . r ig h t now, the best way fo r a woman to become a

co llege president is to get h e rse lf to a nunnery. Were i t not fo r

the Catho lic S is te rs the number o f women college presidents would be

fa r less than the number o f whooping cranes (p. 1 ) ."

A Carnegie Commission on Higher Education repo rt. O pportun ities

fo r Women in Higher Education (1973) s ta te s , " I f women are th in ly re

presented on fa c u lt ie s , e spe c ia lly in t ra d it io n a lly male f ie ld s , they

are so ra re ly represented in top academic adm in is tra tive pos itions as

to be p ra c t ic a l ly nonexistent in the upper echelons (p. 123)."

The possible reasons fo r today's s itu a t io n are many, as w i l l be

explored in-depth la te r , but a look a t the background o f women's edu

cation may provide a basis o f understanding. World Book o f Knowledge

(1969) states tha t schools were set up as an in s t i tu t io n when w r itte n

languages f i r s t appeared. The main purpose o f these schools was

teaching a lim ite d number o f boys to read and w r ite . They learned how

to keep the record o f laws, re lig io u s b e lie fs , w r ite contracts and

business transactions. Attendance a t these schools was re s tr ic te d to

a sm a ll, p r iv ile g e d , and a r is to c ra t ic class o f p r ie s ts or pub lic o f f i

c ia ls . G ir ls did not usua lly go to school (p. 60).

The Greeks thought schools should be fo r the c it iz e n s h ip to be

come well-rounded in d iv id u a ls . The n a rra tion continues, "A youth

went to a grammar school, where he learned to read, w r ite and count.

. . . The Athenian boy developed the in te l le c tu a l , a r t i s t i c and phys


ic a l a b i l i t y o f a free man. He received a lib e ra l education (p. 66 )."

There is no mention o f the Athenian g i r l , there fore the assumption is

th a t they did not attend schools.

The d esc rip tion continues to t e l l the reader about Sparta, Rome,

European Education in the Middle Ages and European Education 1400 to

1900, w ithou t mention o f g i r ls in the educational process. The f i r s t

c ita t io n re fe rr in g to g i r ls comes as the Roman Catho lic Church made an

e f fo r t w ith education to o ffs e t the gains made by the P rotestant coun

t r ie s during the Reformation. As several new teaching orders were es

tab lished "the Ursuline S is te rs established schools to promote the

special education o f g i r ls (p. 6 8 )."

Newcomer (1959) s tates tha t during co lon ia l times in the United

States g i r ls were not included in formal schooling. They were con

sidered in te l le c tu a l ly in fe r io r and too weak to maintain the rig o rs o f

academic l i f e . Schools were o f f i c ia l ly established in the new coun

t ry by the Massachusetts Law o f 1642. I t was not u n t il the eighteenth

century, however, th a t i t was acceptable fo r women to teach in the

dame schools; acceptable, tha t is , only i f they needed the money.

Lee (1959) points out tha t in the nineteenth century female s tu

dents were guided by the "Lady P r in c ip a l" . This p os ition was the

f i r s t a d m in is tra tive po s itio n fo r women in education. T ra d itio n has

i t tha t education is a woman's f ie ld . Although women s ta f f pub lic

school systems in the United States, men run them, says a p os ition

paper issued by the Recruitment Leadership and Tra in ing In s t i tu te

(1974). The paper continues by p o in ting out th a t "women are a major

i t y o f pub lic elementary and secondary teachers, ye t they hold only an


in s ig n if ic a n t percentage o f such key a d m in is tra tive posts as those o f

superintendent, centra l o f f ic e a d m in is tra to r, p rin c ip a l and ass is tan t

p r in c ip a l. Men are predominately a t a l l adm in is tra tive le ve ls and

thus enjoy s ig n if ic a n t ly greater power, status and monetary re tu rn

(p. 2 ) ," The In s t i tu te contends tha t women in education are held at

en try leve l pos itions as they are in business. Table 1 (Appendix A),

c ite d in the Recruitment Leadership and Tra in ing In s t i tu te presents

the nationa l p ic tu re and i l lu s t r a te s the proportions o f male dominance

in a d m in is tra tive positions in 1972-1973 (1974).

The National School Boards Association (1974) in a repo rt given

by the Committee on the Role o f Women in Educational Governance states

th a t in a nationa l survey only 10% o f the school board membership is

held by women. This fig u re has remained more or less constant fo r the

past f i f t y years, w ith 9.7% membership in 1959, 10% in 1946%, 13.7% in

1932, and 10.5% in 1927.

The p ic tu re is as bleak in o ffic e s o f education a t both s ta te and

federa l le v e ls , says Suzanne Taylor (1973). In only two s ta te s , Mon

tana and Wisconsin, were there women Chief O ffice rs in the Department

o f Education. In the U.S. O ffice o f Education, as o f October 1972,

there were fo u r men and no women a t GS Grade 18, and only three women

among the 48 people a t grades 17 and 16 (Tay lo r, 1973).

In schools o f education, the places where adm in is tra tors are

tra in e d , the fig u re s are even worse, only 2% o f a l l professors o f ed

ucational a dm in is tra tio n were women (Lyon and Saario, 1973).

Although undergraduate education is equa lly accessible to men and

women today, the hurdles fo r women become higher as the le ve l o f edu-


28

cation increases. The number o f women re la t iv e to men decreases as

one proceeds from bachelor's to m aste r's , to doc to r's and pro fess ion

a l degrees (Cross, 1974). "Roughly 42 percent o f the bachelor's and

f i r s t professional degrees are earned by women, w h ile 37% o f the mas

te r 's degrees and 13 percent o f the doc to r's degrees go to women

(Cross, 1974, p. 124)."

Feldman (1974) in a Carnegie Commission report concurs w ith

those figu res and also points out th a t women have an e sp e c ia lly high

a t t r i t io n ra t io between bach e lo r's , master's and doc to r's degrees, in

ce rta in f ie ld s . "Women are a t le as t fou r times as l ik e ly to receive

a bachelor's degree in mathematics, computer science, and business

as they are to receive a doctorate in these f ie ld s (p. 6 ) ." This re

p o rt, Escape from D o ll's House, is concluded by Feldman w ith the f o l

lowing statement: "Our data, however, do not substantia te e ith e r the

presence or absence o f d isc rim in a tio n . What has been borne out is

tha t w ith in graduate education there is a great deal o f in e q u a lity

based on sex. But in e q u a lity is not the same th ing as d isc rim in a tio n

(p. 137)."

What are the causes o f th is sexual imbalance? Studies dealing

w ith women in education, both as students and adm in is tra tors suggest

th a t 1) women do not aspire to these p o s itio n s , 2) th a t women fea r

th e ir own success, 3) th a t in s t i tu t io n a l b a rr ie rs keep them ou t, 4)

tha t so c ie ty 's a ttitu d e s and e sp e c ia lly males who h ire , ne ith e r en

courage nor support women fo r these pos itions and 5) th a t women are

not q u a lif ie d . How does the l i te ra tu r e support these conclusions?

In an e x c e lle n t, in -depth review o f the l i te ra tu r e dea ling w ith


29

the b a rr ie rs to women's p a r t ic ip a tio n in post-secondary education,

Ruth Ekstrom (1972) concludes tha t these b a rr ie rs can be summarized

under three themes, 1) in s t i tu t io n a l, 2) s itu a t io n a l, and 3) dispos

it io n a l. In s t i tu t io n a l b a rr ie rs include aspects o f admission prac

t ic e s , fin a n c ia l aid p ra c tice s , in s t i tu t io n a l reg u la tio n s , curricu lum

planning and student personnel serv ices, and fa c u lty and s ta f f a t t i

tudes. S itu a tio n a l b a rr ie rs include fac to rs such as soc io log ica l fa c

to rs , fa m ilia l fa c to rs , f in a n c ia l obstacles, re s id e n tia l fac to rs and

personal fa c to rs . D ispos itiona l b a rr ie rs include women's own a t t i

tudes toward fea r o f f a i lu re , in te l le c tu a l a c t iv i t y , ambivalence about

educational goals, level o f a sp ira tio n , p a s s iv ity , dependence and in

fe r io r i t y fe e lin g s . Ekstrom points out th a t the emphasis o f the study

is upon recent practices and not on those o f the past.

Roby (1973) states "there is no way we can draw up a balance

sheet th a t d is tingu ishes the extent to which d isc rim in a tio n operates

to exclude women from advanced graduate and professional t ra in in g and

the extent to which s e lf-e xc lu s io n from advanced tra in in g re su lts from

the sex-ro le s o c ia liz a tio n th a t in h ib its women's asp ira tions (p. 4 4 )."

"The American Association o f U n ive rs ity Women conclude th a t in

view o f these e x is tin g in e q u itie s there is a need fo r colleges and

u n iv e rs it ie s to remedy in s t i tu t io n a l p o lic ie s th a t con tribu te to the

preservation o f those in e q u itie s (1971)."

Speaking s p e c if ic a lly about women in educational adm in is tra tive

p o s itio n s , Alan P ife r (1971) concludes th a t higher education has been

in s t i tu t io n a liz e d on a male bas is , and the in tro d u c tio n o f women in to

i t s pos itions o f power upsets the system and causes d i f f ic u l t i e s . Ma-


theny (1973) found in her study th a t women in education do not see the

se lec tion process fo r top pos itions open to females. Most o f the res

pondents in her study agreed th a t 1) women must work harder than men

o f s im ila r ta le n t and q u a lif ic a t io n s , 2) men receive more encourage

ment, 3) school boards would p re fe r to h ire a male superintendent, 4)

women are not counseled and encouraged by colleges and u n iv e rs it ie s

to work and prepare fo r adm in is tra tive pos itions and 5) women are now

in a p o s ition to obta in equal pay and job opp o rtu n itie s . Most o f the

respondents in th is same study disagree th a t 1) men are b e tte r su ited

to adm in is tra tive pos itions and 2) women worry over a ttitu d e s and

tra d it io n s .

T aylor, (1971) in surveying the a ttitu d e s o f superintendents and

Board o f Education members in Connecticut found th a t the a ttitu d e s

toward women in adm in is tra tive pos itions c le a r ly represent a negative

b ia s . She also found tha t those men who had prev ious ly worked w ith

women had more favorable a ttitu d e s than those men who had not. A ll

respondents re p lie d th a t there were no w r itte n and very few unw ritten

p o lic ie s which preclude appointing women to adm in is tra tive posts, how

ever.

T ipple (1972) found th a t the s ize o f a d i s t r ic t , urban, suburban

or ru ra l, made no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n ce in the a ttitu d e s o f superin

tendents and board members toward h ir in g women fo r a d m in is tra tive po

s it io n s ; the evidence was tha t d isc rim in a tio n did e x is t equa lly in a l l

areas.

In a study th a t d e a lt w ith the study o f personnel p o lic ie s in

higher education, LaPuma (1972) found evidence o f the presence o f d is


crim ina to ry a ttitu d e s toward women fa c u lty members and women admini

s tra to rs . These were most pronounced in the h ir in g prac tices a t th is

le v e l. In personal in te rv ie w and by le t t e r the author found th a t the

respondents s t i l l be lieve tha t women are less q u a lif ie d and less com

m itted to an academic career.

Other studies th a t make s im ila r conclusions include those by

Crosby (1973, Timmons (1973), and Stevenson (1973), whose study de a lt

w ith the "Big Ten" u n iv e rs it ie s . Seriven (1973) investiga ted admini

s t ra t iv e pos itions in the centra l o ff ic e s o f la rge school d is t r ic t s .

Strong (1972) studies the a ttitu d e s toward the se lec tion o f women

fa c u lty in schools o f business and P f if fn e r (1972) in looking a t C a li

fo rn ia community colleges a l l draw s im ila r conclusions.

Sandler (1972) says th a t since d isc rim in a tio n is immoral, i l le g a l

and c o s t ly , u n iv e rs it ie s and colleges c e r ta in ly need to adhere to the

recent le g is la t io n . She points out th a t the governmental Revised Or

der #4 t e l ls how to set up an a ff irm a tiv e action program to help u n i

v e rs it ie s and colleges meet the requirements. I t includes 1) develop

ing a data base on a l l job c la s s if ic a t io n s , 2) having a p o lic y s ta te

ment which fo rb ids d is c rim in a tio n , 3) appointing a person to be in

charge o f an a ffirm a tiv e action program, 4) examining re c ru it in g ,

h ir in g , promotion p o lic ie s , sa la rie s and other cond itions o f employ

ment, 5) id e n t ify in g areas o f under u t i l iz a t io n o f women s ta f f and

developing a s p e c ific plan to overcome th is under u t i l iz a t io n and 6)

developing goals and tim etables fo r the employment o f women.

At th is tim e, number s ix , th a t o f developing goals and tim etables

is rece iv ing much a tte n tio n w ith o u tc r ie s o f "quotas". Sandler makes


32

the d is t in c t io n th a t these goals and tim etables are not quotas, they

are numerical aims which the in s t i tu t io n w i l l t r y to achieve. I f a

goals is not met, the in s t i tu t io n must show th a t a good fa ith e f fo r t

was made to r e c ru it , h ire and promote women and th a t there is docu

mentation to substantia te th is cla im . In agreement w ith P ife r (1971),

Sandler s tates th a t since u n iv e rs it ie s have never had to specify

c r i t e r ia fo r h ir in g and promotions, these regu la tions indeed upset

the status quo. She concludes her a r t ic le by c it in g some examples o f

the expense involved when women decide to reso rt to court ac tion s ;

nine women a t F lo rida State U n ive rs ity are suing fo r one m il l io n d o l

la rs in back pay and damages naming in d iv id u a l members o f the adminis

t ra t io n as the perpetuators o f the d isc rim in a tio n ; a women s c ie n t is t

a t the U n ive rs ity o f P ittsburg is suing fo r one and one -ha lf m il lio n

d o lla rs ; o ther women are doing likew ise a t the U n ive rs ity o f C a lifo r

nia a t Berkeley, the U n ive rs ity o f Maryland, Texas Technical State

College and others.

In ad d itio n to a ffirm a tiv e action programs there are several

o ther possib le so lu tions o ffe red to overcome the present s itu a t io n .

Fecher (1972) advocates th a t women must be more aggressive in making

known th e ir pos itions and views toward women in a d m in is tra tive pos i

t io n s . She also states th a t women presently holding a d m in is tra tive

p os itions can exert pressures and be leaders in e lim in a tin g the bar

r ie rs .

Lewis (1968) says women must change th e ir own a tt itu d e s . They

must e x h ib it in te re s t in promotion, hold greater expectations o f them

selves, demonstrate th e ir e q u a lity , support other females and "be en


couraged to view themselves as in d iv id u a ls and to make plans in ac

cordance w ith th e ir unique q u a lit ie s (p. 5 ) ." He fu r th e r states

" th a t any dramatic or profound change in s o c ie tie s ' a ttitu d e s w i l l

have to be in s tig a te d by women themselves . . . (p. 10 )."

JoAnn Fley (1972) corroborates th is a t t itu d e by s ta tin g th a t

women must assume more in i t ia t iv e and leadership . She has a s ix -

step campaign to help women gain entry and advancement in higher ed

ucation. This plan includes 1) recreate a strong nationa l and local

informal system. An "o ld g i r l " system is as necessary fo r women as

i t is fo r men. She maintains tha t each woman holding an adm in is tra

t iv e p o s itio n a t present should m aintain a f i l e conta in ing names o f

a) women she knows who are searching fo r p o s itio n s , b) those who hold

key positions in in s t i tu t io n s throughout the coun try, c) those who

head o ffic e s o f women in professional associations and d) those w ith in

th e ir own in s t i tu t io n who should be an in te g ra l pa rt o f the loca l in

formal system; 2) e s tab lish ing a "watchdog" se lec tion committee to

fo llo w the process as soon as a po s itio n is open u n t i l i t is f i l l e d ;

3) communicate in form ation about th a t process to others on campus,

inc lud ing the a ffirm a tiv e action o f f ic e s ; 4) a le r t women in agencies

dealing w ith higher education (but not a part o f i t ) , o f openings and

o f the on-going recru itm ent processes: 5) advise women nearing grad

uation to look a t one-year appointments and non-tenured teaching lines

w ith a cold as tringen t eye; and 6) advise a candidate, a f te r securing

a p o s itio n , to n o t ify a l l those who have helped her (p. 56).

C a rro ll (1972), in essence, agrees w ith these ideas, and o ffe rs

several suggestions to help reverse the present trend. She believes


the most im portant step is fo r women to apply fo r a d m in is tra tive po

s it io n s . She advocates the assertiveness o f women in making th e ir

ta le n ts known and being w i l l in g to help others in th e ir career devel

opment. She cautions women to be prepared to make the commitment to

the rig o rs o f an adm in is tra tive p o s itio n . And f in a l ly , she urges a l l

women to decline any assignments tha t perpetuate a stereotype ro le

fo r women.

Koontz (1972) has a few suggestions o f a w ider nature th a t may

help to a l le v ia te the s itu a t io n . She believes th a t the media must

rev ise th e ir support and perpetuation o f d isc rim in a to ry a tt itu d e s .

She urges in v e s tig a tio n s , o f the thousands o f ways our soc ie ty molds,

re s tr ic ts and perhaps even deforms the growth o f the g i r l c h ild .

Women in Business A dm in is tra tion

The th ird aspect o f th is l i te ra tu re search, women in business ad

m in is tra t io n , involves es tab lish ing a background on women in the labor

fo rce in general. The U.S. Department o f Labor Manpower Repor t to

the President (1973) states tha t the female labor fo rce almost doubled

between 1947 and 1971, increasing from 16.7 m il l io n workers to over

32 m il lio n workers. At the present time the Women's Bureau (1974)

claims there are nearly 35 m il lio n women, or 39%, in the labor fo rce .

I t points out th a t those who work do so fo r the same reasons men do,

b a s ic a lly fo r economic need. Twenty-three percent o f these are s in g le

women and nineteen percent are widowed, divorced, or separated, a l l

needing to support themselves. Of the remaining f i f t y - e ig h t percent,

fo r ty percent have husbands who earn $7,000 and over, seven percent


35

have husbands who earn $5,000 to $6,999, s ix percent have husbands

who earn $3,000 to $4,999 and only f iv e percent have husbands who

earn under $3,000. While they work to con tribu te to the economic

support o f th e ir fa m ilie s or themselves they continue to earn less

than men do. Department o f Labor s ta t is t ic s fo r 1972 show th a t white

males earn a median income o f $10,766, m ino rity males earn $7,548,

wh ile white females earn $6,131 and m in o rity females fa re the worst

by earning $5,320 (1974).

As women move in to a d m in is tra tive positions the p ic tu re is not

much improved. Figures vary regarding the percentage o f women holding

ad m in is tra tive pos itions . Schwartz (1971) claims her study found 10%

women in managerial and professional pos itions in 1968. However she

c ite s a 1965 Fortune study as saying tha t women only con tribu te about

2% o f a l l "rea l execu tives". The U.S. Women’ s Bureau says th a t, based

on 1973 data published by the Bureau o f Labor S ta t is t ic s , women hold

about 19% o f the management pos itions .

Lyle and Ross (1973) po in t out th a t w ith respect to managerial

p o s itio n s , women do not hold a m a jo rity in any o f the 24 non-farm oc

cupations. They contend tha t women account fo r 17% o f the 36 m il lio n

management jobs. These are held in the f ie ld s o f health adm in is tra

t io n , b u ild in g supervisors and managers, general o f f ic e managers, as

sessors, c o n tro lle rs and tre a su re rs , and res ta u ra n t, ca fe te ria and

bar managers.

I t is believed tha t th is discrepancy in numbers occurs due to the

lack o f a s tab le d e f in it io n in each study o f "manager" or "adm in is tra

to r " .


36

Johnston (1974) found th a t o f 305 women MBA graduates from Har

vard, S tanford, the U n ive rs ity o f Pennsylvania and the U n ive rs ity o f

Chicago from 1968-1972, only 10% o f them believed th e ir p o s itio n qua l

i f ie d as a top management p o s itio n . She also found tha t the mean s a l

a ries o f these 305 women were approximately $1,000 less than those

o f males in s im ila r p os itions .

What are reasons put fo rth fo r these meager numbers o f women in

a d m in is tra tive positions? The li te ra tu r e points to several possible

reasons, 1) women do not aspire to these p o s itio n s , 2) they are not

q u a lif ie d , 3) n e ith e r men nor women want to work fo r a woman supe rio r,

4) the a ttitu d e s o f soc ie ty and those doing the h ir in g do not a llow

fo r the se lec tion o f women and 5) the organ iza tion operates on myths

tha t tend to keep women out.

Cussler, in a study done in 1958, in terviewed f i f t y - f i v e women in

top jobs in the Boston and Washington area and found several contra

d ic t in g stereotypes a t work. People who do not employ women do not

do so because women are:

too aggressive o r too y e ild in g

too feminine or too masculine

too emotional or too icy

too r ig id or too indec is ive

too personal or too impersonal

" to the person who fears the executive women the con trad ic tio ns seem

lo g ic a l (p. 3 ) ."

Rosen and Thomas (1974) report the re su lts o f a Harvard Business

Review survey in which 1500 HBR subscribers p a rtic ip a te d . The re su lts


37

suggest " th a t even the best-in ten tione d managers o ften f a l l back on

timeworn ideas o f what is the proper ro le fo r men and women, both in

the home and on the job (p. 4 6 )." I f the survey fin d in g s are in d ic a

t iv e o f what occurs in most American companies, the authors conclude

th a t "many women do not receive the organ iza tiona l support th a t th e ir

male counterparts au tom atica lly experience (p. 58 )." In response to

a questionna ire based on hypo thetica l s itu a tio n s p a rt ic ip a n ts respond

ed as though they were in the ro le o f the executive v ice -p res iden t.

The re su lts showed th a t managers expect male employees to g ive top

p r io r i t y to th e ir jobs when career demands and fa m ily o b lig a tio n s con

f l i c t . In c o n tra s t, they expect female employees to s a c r if ic e th e ir

career to fa m ily . Managers also make greater e f fo r ts to re ta in a

valuable male ra th e r than an equa lly q u a lif ie d female i f the s itu a

t io n s threaten an employee's jo b . The conclusion o f th is survey was

th a t in s e le c tio n , promotion and career-development dec is ions, managers

are biased in favor o f males.

Edith Lynch (1973) in a survey o f 94 women executives explored

the a ttitu d e s o f women toward several myths. In response to the myth

th a t women c a n 't take heavy re s p o n s ib il ity , most re p lie s were negative.

Further say the respondents th a t women have had i t drummed in to them

fo r so long th a t they c a n 't achieve th a t indeed they do not reach top-

le ve l jobs. In responding to the myth th a t women cry too much, the

re p lie s in d ica te th a t emotionalism is no more prevalent in women than

in men. That women ask fo r more special p r iv ile g e s received the re p ly ,

not tru e , unless some consider m ate rn ity a p r iv ile g e . In response

to the myth th a t women make te r r ib le bosses, some respondents agreed


38

th a t men, and some women, do not l ik e to work fo r women. One person

re p lie d th a t "Men do not necessarily hate to work fo r a woman boss.

Some men hate to work fo r anyone (p. 2 2 )." To the myth th a t manage

ment women have lo s t th e ir fe m in in ity the response was th a t the old

version o f management women is gone, women usua lly dress well and

choose apparel appropria te to the jo b , as do men. To the myth th a t

women c a n 't do two jobs w e ll, e ith e r home or career must s u f fe r , re

p lie s were negative. Women are re tu rn ing to the job market u n sk illed

received re p lie s o f both yes and no. The pervading comment was tha t

reen try must be planned fo r by g iv ing t ra in in g and seminars espe c ia lly

geared to women.

Crowley and others (1973) did a national survey o f personal in

terviews w ith 539 working women and 993 working men to in ves tiga te the

a ttitu d e s toward stereotypes o f women who work. In response to the

stereotype th a t women are less concerned in the advancement on th e ir

jo b , i t was found th a t w h ile women might des ire a promotion they did

not expect to achieve one, th e re fo re , "to avoid f ru s t ra t io n , women,

l ik e men in the same s itu a t io n , scale down th e ir ambitions (p. 96 )."

A stereotype th a t is o ften a t work is th a t women do not stay

on the job long enough to warrant top leve l jo bs , however, Lyle and

Ross (1973) found th a t a l l firm s in th e ir study complain o f los ing

b r ig h t young men to other jobs in o ther lo ca tions but they do not use

th a t as a reason fo r not h ir in g men. Johnston (1974) found th a t 1 1 %

o f the respondents to her study f e l t th a t i t was not app licab le to

use the excuse th a t the turnover fo r women was too great.


39

Doll (1965) found in studying 27 matched pa irs o f females and

males in the same company tha t the males did have more education than

the females. Recalling tha t Feldman (1974) pointed out th a t business

was one o f the areas in which women are a t le as t fou r times as l ik e ly

to receive a bache lor's degree as the doc to r's degree, D o ll's f in d in g

comes as no su rp rise .

Other studies tha t have been conducted have resu lted in s im ila r

conclusions (Oppenheimer, 1970; Kreps, 1971; Madden, 1973; and Coover,

1973).

Coser and Rokoff (1971) say th a t as women step out o f the expect

ed normative pa tte rn o f the home and in to the occupational world they

not only cause d is ru p tio n in the work area but they experience per

sonal c o n f l ic t .

Some o f th is d is ru p tio n is spoken to by Touhey (1974) as he ex

plores the e ffe c ts o f add itiona l women in occupations. Touhey's hy

pothesis is th a t increasing proportions o f women pro fessiona ls may re

duce the p res tige and d e s ira b il i ty o f h igh -s ta tus occupations. He

c ite s others who have stated th a t as la rge numbers o f women enter a

pro fess ion , men go elsewhere to seek employment.

What are the possib le so lu tions to equa liz ing the cu rre n t lo p

sided p ic ture? In add ition to those presented fo r women in education,

w r ite rs in business are provid ing several possib le and fe a s ib le a l

te rn a tive s . Schwartz (1974) says new work patte rns are needed. She

advocates fo s te r in g new part-tim e schedules such as: s tra ig h t p a rt-

tim e, any job less than the regu la r e igh t-hour day; s p l it - lo c a t io n ,

which allows a worker to perform his o r her duties p a r t ly a t home and


p a r t ly a t the o f f ic e ; paired/shared, which is one job w ith two people

sharing the du tie s , in some cases both workers doing the same type o f

tasks and in other cases the tasks are d if fe re n tia te d according to

the s k i l ls o f the workers and the needs o f the jo b ; and la s t ly , con

s u lta n t, which employs a worker only when his or her p a r t ic u la r ex

p e rtise is required. According to Schwartz there are many advantages

to part-tim e schedules, 1) they may be u t i l iz e d by both women and men,

2) there is a la rge r recru itm ent pool which w i l l enable an employer to

be more se le c tive , 3) because o f a shortage o f pa rt-tim e jo bs , the

turnover ra te is usua lly lower, 4) time o f f can decrease, workers w i l l

have free time to pursue o ther in te re s ts , and 5) employment can be

ta ilo re d to f i t the jo b , re s u lt in g in a greater u t i l iz a t io n o f work

e rs ' s k i l ls .

M artin (1974) advocates re c ru it in g women through a plan o f f le x

ib le hours. She contends th a t f le x ib le hours e lim ina tes ta rd iness ,

reduces time o f f fo r personal a f fa i r s , permits schedule adjustments

to peak periods, extends the hours the o rgan iza tion is open each day

which re su lts in more e f f ic ie n t u t i l iz a t io n o f b u ild in g s , parking lo ts

and tra n sp o rta tio n . Her a r t ic le agrees w ith those advantages put

fo r th by Schwartz.

Experimentation has been done w ith a four-day work week, in c lu d

ing both women and men. Nord and Costigan (1973) found th a t employees

had co n s is te n tly p o s itive a ttitu d e s toward the four-day week. Women

in th e ir study were able to see the in fluence on home l i f e as more

favorab le . I t gave them a free day to catch up on household chores,

re s u lt in g in a b e tte r a t t i tu d e toward th a t ro le .


Coston (1973) conducted a study o f the e ffe c ts o f a four-day

week on women workers. The study was conducted in two apparel fac

to r ie s w ith both re su lts being s im ila r . Production, absenteeism and

turnover performance was p o s itive . The women's a ttitu d e s were also

studied in one o f the two plants w ith the re s u lt tha t workers re p o rt

ed th a t they were happier even though they had a longer day.

Speaking s p e c if ic a lly about women in management p o s itio n s ,

Schwartz (1971) gives the fo llo w in g recommendations made by the res

pondees in her study:

1) Management should seek out q u a lif ie d women.

2) Women who desire a career should make a l i fe t im e commitment.

3) Management should ignore sex as a c r i t e r ia and adopt a promot io n a l p o licy based on a b i l i t y .

4) Management should provide special management tra in in g fo r women.

5) Management should educate i t s own top management and personnel people concerning the e ffe c t iv e use o f women,

6) Create a professional awareness in women.

7) Encourage women to seek out companies th a t do not d iscrim ina te .

8) Encourage women to throw away fe e lin g s o f male dominance.

9) Let T i t le VII and other legal orders take th e ir course.

In agreement w ith numbers four and f iv e , Jardim and Henni g have

in it ia te d a program a t Simmons College e sp e c ia lly to t ra in women fo r

management p os itions . They w i l l also run seminars to help present

managers, male and female, cope w ith the new ro le o f women in bus i

ness. This same Business Week a r t ic le reports o f a s im ila r program

a l" Pace U n ive rs ity in New York C ity being funded by a grant from the


Mellon Foundation (February 23, 1974).

Xerox, I.B.M . and General E le c tr ic have f in a n c ia l ly backed a

"Think Tank fo r Women". Under the d ire c tio n o f Amatai E tz ion i i t is

designed to act as a ca ta ly s t fo r new th in k in g , developing options

and a lte rn a tiv e s fo r the fu tu re (Management Advisor, J u ly , 1974).

C h a ra c te ris tics o f Women A dm inistra tors

Since a focus o f th is study deals w ith a comparison o f s im ila r

i t ie s and d iffe rences o f women in educational adm in is tra tio n and wo

men in business a d m in is tra tio n , i t necessitated a li te ra tu r e search

re levant to what is special about those women who have achieved in

the top le ve ls .

In ad d itio n to the m ate ria l prev ious ly presented Doll (1965)

found in studying matched pa irs o f male and female th a t women were

o lder than the men, and were employed in sm aller f irm s . Women a t t r i

buted th e ir success to knowledge and a b i l i t y w h ile men c ite d determin

a tio n and d riv e . Both women and men had a tta ined a higher leve l o f

education than th e ir parents. She found a s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip

between age and sa lary fo r men w h ile fo r women education and salary

were s ig n if ic a n t.

In the study by Lynch (1973) she found the female executives to

be between 23 and the 6 0 's , w ith an approximate average age o f 40.

Sa laries ranged from $18,000 to over $50,000 w ith the biggest c lu s te r

f a l l in g between $22,000 and $33,000. Even though b ir th order is spo

ken to in several s tud ie s , she found no patte rn present among the 94

respondents. With regard to fe m in is t a f f i l i a t io n , some were and some


43

were not. There was no s ig n if ic a n t trend regarding persons who in

fluenced th e ir careers. The respondents f e l t th a t the s k i l l most d i f

f i c u l t to develop was th a t o f the delegation o f re s p o n s ib il ity .

In an in -depth study Hennig (1970) found th a t most o f the women

executives in her study had stayed w ith one or two companies fo r the

dura tion o f th e ir careers. Most o f these women were the e ldes t or

only c h i ld , a l l 25 were the f ir s t-b o rn females. They had a close re

la tio n s h ip w ith th e ir fa the rs and established an ea rly preference fo r

men ra th e r than women.

She also found tha t a l l but three o f the respondents had fa the rs

in the middle-management p o s itio n s , w h ile the mother's primary a c t i

v it y was home and fa m ily . With the exception o f two, mothers had ed

ucation equal to the fa th e rs ; in fa c t, in th ir te e n cases mothers had

a higher education leve l than the fa th e rs . None o f the subjects mar

r ie d before the age o f t h ir t y - f iv e .

With respect to th e ir leadership s ty le s , most o f the women deve l

oped a task-o rien ted s ty le u n t il a period o f the la te 4 0 's o r ea rly

5 0 's , when th e ir s ty les changed to an open, in terpersonal communica

t io n one.

Lyle and Ross (1973) found tha t women in th e ir study had re lie d

on mentors in ob ta in ing th e ir jobs. They found, as did Hennig, th a t

most o f them had ridden on the c o a tta ils o f young executives. With

reference to leadership s ty les they found o n e -th ird o f the respondees

were p roduction -o rien ted , o ne -th ird were operating w ith permissive

philosophy, one -s ix th used a detached or un d e r-co n tro llin g s ty le

w h ile the remaining one-s ix th used e x p lo it iv e ta c t ic s . However, the


44

authors make no c o rre la t io n between age groups and these s ty le s .

Stevenson (1972) found in her study th a t the greatest number o f

adm in is tra to rs were in the fo r ty - f iv e to f i f t y - fo u r year o ld bracket.

Seventy-nine percent o f the respondents, wlio were adm in is tra to rs in

Big Ten u n iv e rs it ie s , held a doc to r's degree w h ile the re s t held mas

te r 's degrees. E ig h ty -fo u r percent ind ica ted they had moved up in

the o rgan iza tion fo r which they c u rre n tly worked.

Schlack (1974) in a study o f upper-management and middle-manage

ment women student personnel adm in is tra to rs found the average age o f

respondents was fo r ty , unmarried, a holder o f a m aster's degree and

was earning approximately $11,000. A great m a jo r ity o f the women

were only ch ild ren o r had only one s ib lin g ; over h a lf in each manage

ment group were the o ldest c h ild .

With regard to leadership s ty le s , Schlack found th a t about h a lf

o f management le ve ls scored high on both dimensions o f the Leadership

Opinion Q uestionnaire.

In a dd ition to the possib le reasons already given, fo r the lack

o f women in a d m in is tra tive pos itions a few a d d itio n a l points are nec

essary. Many w r ite rs be lieve th a t the reason women do not asp ire to

a d m in is tra tive pos itions is due to the a ttitu d e s and expectations held

by soc ie ty and perpetuated by the system o f education, both formal and

in fo rm a l. Harrison (1973) says the messages th a t are given to g i r ls

and boys are d a ily and un rem itting , "they are t r i v i a l , perhaps, in

each instance, but taken cum ula tive ly , they a r t ic u la te a world view;

they t e l l our ch ild re n what i t is to be a male human being, and what

i t is to be a female human being (p. 6 ) ." This conclusion was made


45

a f te r a school committee looked a t school books, physical setups o f

nursery and kindergarten classrooms, the cu rricu lum , and a t parent-

s ta f f re la tio n sh ip s ,

McCune w rites in a National Education Association p ub lica tion

(1973) about the s o c ia liz a tio n process th a t takes place in the schools.

She believes th a t schools provide f iv e basic vehic les which they u t i

l iz e to t e l l boys how to be boys and g i r ls how to be g i r ls . These ve

h ic les are 1) the curricu lum , 2) teacher behavior, 3) physical educa

tio n and health education, 4) counseling and 5) e x tra -c u r r ic u la r ac

t iv i t ie s .

Celeste U lrich w rites in th is same NEA p u b lica tio n th a t the re

search f ind ings o f Rosenkrantz, Broverman, Reisman, G r i f f in , Maccoby,

Horner and others have demonstrated th a t soc ie ty values those a t t r i

butes th a t are reserved fo r males.

Stacey, Bireaud and Daniels (1974) have edited a book o f a r t ic le s

tha t deal p rec ise ly w ith th is issue, sexism in American education.

Janeway (1971) w rites a study in socia l mythology in which the

a ttitu d e s o f soc ie ty are explored. She states in her in tro d u c tio n

tha t "nothing much has happened. Man's w orld, women's place remain,

and our soc ie ty continues to ascribe d if fe re n t psychological a t t r i

butes to each sex, and to assign d if fe re n t duties and ways o f l iv in g

to men and women because i t is assumed th a t they have d i f fe r in g cap

a b i l i t i e s , moral, soc ia l and in te l le c tu a l as we ll as physical . . .

our soc ie ty s t i l l takes fo r granted tha t one (woman's place) not only

does, but should, e x is t (p. 9 ) ."

Lewis (1968) sums up the controversy w ith , "Sex d iffe rences ex


i s t , o f course, and w i l l continue to e x is t, but d iffe rences do not

imply th a t one group is superio r to another. Both men and women have

something worthwhile to con tribu te to so c ie ty , and both should be

given equal opportun ity to make th e ir con tribu tio ns (p. 8 ) ,"

Summary

A v a r ie ty o f sources were examined in order to provide a compre

hensive survey o f leadership theo ries . This survey dea lt w ith : as

pects o f the t r a i t s approach, studies in vo lv ing the s itu a tio n a l ap

proach and a more in-depth look a t the leadership s ty les approach.

The leadership m ateria l was followed by an in ve s tig a tio n o f the

a va ila b le m ate ria l p e rtinen t to women in educational adm in is tra tio n .

I t traced a b r ie f h is to ry o f the place o f women in education, the pre

sent trend o f young women in undergraduate and graduate programs and

the entrance and problems o f women in adm in is tra tive p os itions .

The chapter next dea lt w ith the aspect o f women in business ad

m in is tra t io n . I t set a background o f the present s itu a t io n o f women

in the labor fo rce and looked s p e c if ic a lly a t women in top leve l man

agement p o s itio n s ; th e ir numbers, and th e ir problems.

Another th ru s t o f th is l i te ra tu r e search de a lt w ith the charac

te r is t ic s o f women adm in is tra to rs , e sp e c ia lly those in education and

business in an attempt to discover i f those women who have made i t to

the top are spec ia l, in any way.

The chapter concludes w ith other causes tha t are given fo r the

present s itu a t io n o f so few women in ad m in is tra tive pos itions . These

b a s ic a lly deal w ith the educational and soc ie ta l in fluences tha t are


47

placed on g i r ls and boys.

Chapter I I I w i l l present the design o f th is study.


CHAPTER I I I

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

In troductio n

I t was the purpose o f th is study to discover and report s im ila r

i t ie s and d iffe rences in personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s and leadership

s ty les between women in educational adm in is tra tio n and women in bus i

ness adm in is tra tio n .

Chapter I I I includes: (1) A d esc rip tion o f the population and

sample, (2) The research questions o f the study, (3) The measurements

used to gather data, (4) The procedures used, (5) The methods u t il iz e d

to analyze the data, and (6) A summary.

Population and Sample

The population fo r th is study consists o f women in educational

adm in is tra tio n and women in business adm in is tra tio n on a nationwide

basis. In order to obta in a representa tive sample o f th is population

the cu rren t e d itions o f Who's Who in America and Who's Who in Trade

and Industry were used. Women in education lis te d as pres idents,

v ice -p res iden ts , ass is tan t v ice -p res iden ts , dean, p r in c ip a l, head

m istress, d ire c to r or other corresponding t i t l e were selected from

Who's Who in America. Women in business lis te d as owner, p res iden t,

v ice -p re s id e n t, ass is tan t v ice -p re s id e n t, manager, d ire c to r , e d ito r

o r o ther corresponding t i t l e were selected from Who's Who in Trade

and In d u s try . I t was considered th a t these t i t le s would provide fo r

48


re la t iv e s im i la r i ty in a d m in is tra tive s itu a tio n s in both occupational

groups. A sample group numbering one hundred f i f t y from each cate

gory, women in education and women in business, was deemed app rop ri

ate , and w ith in the fin a n c ia l lim ita tio n s o f th is study.

The Measurements

The data fo r th is study were co lle c te d through questionnaires

mailed to the selected adm in is tra to rs . Two questionnaires were sent

to each woman selected. The in form ation was obtained by a leadership

s ty le questionna ire . The Leadership Opinion Q uestionnaire, (L.G.Q.)

and a B iographical Questionnaire (Appendix B).

The mail questionnaire method was chosen fo r two reasons. F ir s t ,

the f in a n c ia l and time lim ita tio n s o f th is study would not have a l

lowed fo r the personal in te rv ie w o f each o f the selected adm in is tra

to rs because o f the la rge number in the sample and the fa c t tha t i t

was a nationwide sample ( in c lu d in g women from Alaska and Hawaii).

Second, the use o f a w r itte n questionnaire allows the respondent to

understand and give d e libe ra te thought before se lec ting appropria te

responses to each question. Several questions, such as numbers twen

ty -th re e , tw en ty-fou r, tw en ty-s ix and twenty-seven on the Biographical

Questionnaire required adequate time fo r the respondent to re f le c t on

her career and l i f e ro les .

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire

The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (L.O .Q.) was used in an a t

tempt to d iscover the s ty le o f leadership u t i l iz e d by each adminis

t ra to r . This instrument measures two im portant dimensions o f Super


v iso ry leadership - Consideration (C) and S tructu re (5 ), o r ig in a l ly

id e n t if ie d in the Ohio State U n ive rs ity leadership studies (H a lp in ,

1959). "The instrument in i t s present form, is the product o f more

than eighteen years o f research and use in a v a r ie ty o f in d u s tr ia l

and other organ iza tiona l se ttings (Fleishman, 1969)."

This instrument was chosen fo r several reasons: (1) I t is s e l f -

adm in is te ring , (2) Responses are made by the adm in is tra to r selected

fo r the study ra ther than by a subordinate o f th a t person and (3) I t

has been successfu lly adm inistered to other groups and consequently

has an established norms tab le th a t may be u t i l iz e d to es tab lish com

para tive data.

The L.O.Q. gives scores on two dimensions o f leadership - Con

s id e ra tio n (C) and S tructure (S). These two dimensions are defined

as fo llow s :

C onsidera tion re fle c ts the extent to which an in d iv id u a l is l i k e

ly to have job re la tio n sh ip s w ith his subordinates characterized

by mutual t ru s t , respect fo r th e ir ideas, considera tion o f th e ir

fe e lin g s , and a ce rta in warmth between h im self and them. A high

score is in d ic a tiv e o f a c lim ate o f good rapport and two-way com

munication. A low score ind ica tes the in d iv id u a l is l ik e ly to

be more impersonal in h is re la tio n s w ith group members.

S tructure re fle c ts the extent to which an in d iv id u a l is l i k e ly to

define and s tru c tu re his own ro le and those o f his subordinates

toward goal attainm ent. A high score on th is dimension charac

te rize s in d iv id u a ls who play a very a c tive ro le in d ire c tin g

group a c t iv i t ie s through planning, communicating in fo rm ation ,


scheduling, c r i t ic iz in g , try in g out new ideas, and so fo r th . A

low score characterizes in d iv id u a ls who are l ik e ly to be re la

t iv e ly in a c tive in g iv ing d ire c tio n in these ways.

Fleishman makes the po in t th a t i t is im portant to note tha t

these dimensions are independent. This means tha t an adm in is tra to r

can be high on both dimensions, low on both, or high on one dimension

and low on the other. The respondent answers fo r ty items w ith a l te r

natives scored 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, twenty o f which are scored fo r Con-

i?!’. twenty fo r S tructure . Consequently, the maximum pos

s ib le score is e ighty fo r each dimension. I t is noted, however, th a t

scores genera lly range from 30 to 70. In te rna l consistency r e l i a b i l

it ie s fo r the L.O.Q. were obtained by the s p l i t h a lf method (c o rre la

tions fo r odd and even-numbered items w ith in each scale, corrected

fo r f u l l length o f each scale) (see Fleishman, 1969, pg. 1).

The author (Fleishman, 1969) apprizes tfie user o f several fea

tures o f the L.O.Q. which substantia te i t s choice fo r use in th is

study. One such featu re is tha t the tendencies o f the "halo" and

"soc ia l d e s ira b il ity " do not seem to be operating in the L.O.Q.

scales. These are two common biases found in other instruments which

attempt to measure leadership s ty le . Another common fa i l in g o f in

struments in th is area is th e ir high co rre la tio n w ith in te llig e n c e .

The L.O.Q. is not dependent on e ith e r in te llig e n c e or verbal a b i l i t y

o f the adm in is tra to r responding. Ind ica tions are, a lso , tha t the

L.O.Q. measures something other than tha t which is genera lly mea

sured by a p e rsona lity te s t.

Fleishman (1969) designates that construct v a l id i ty was maximized


by each dimension. Consideration and S truc tu re , being developed by

fa c to r-a n a lys is procedures, and item -ana lysis procedures. He urges

th a t em pirica l v a l id i ty studies be ca rried out when re la t in g these

dimensions to independent c r i t e r ia o f e ffec tive ness. Many s ig n i f i

cant v a l id i t ie s have been estab lished, but the patte rn is not un ive r

sa l. However, since no conclusions w i l l be drawn as to the e f fe c t

iveness o f the adm in is tra tors in th is study th is fea tu re was not

viewed as a negative fa c to r . Since the L.O.Q. has been u t il iz e d in a

v a r ie ty o f o rgan iza tiona l se ttings (see Fleishman, 1969) where the

re su lts have been consis tent and have supported the importance o f

these two dimensions as id e n t ify in g leadership s ty le , i t was deemed

an appropria te instrum ent fo r use in th is study.

The Biographical Questionnaire

The b iographical questionnaire was developed s p e c if ic a lly to be

used in th is study. I t was designed to e l i c i t in form ation in three

areas: (1) personal c h a ra c te r is t ic s and background o f each adminis

t ra to r ; (2) professional c h a ra c te r is t ic s o f these women and (3) opin

ions p e rtin e n t to women as adm in is tra to rs .

The questionnaire was based, in p a rt, on items and format sug

gested by s im ila r questionnaires. Each item was evaluated by several

persons, in c lud ing the doctoral committee, women and men in education

al a d m in is tra tio n , and graduate students. Some items were e lim inated

and others were reconstructed.

The ra tio n a le fo r the questions included in th is questionnaire

is given below:


Group I : Personal C h a ra c te ris tics . Question th ree , fo u r, f iv e ,eleven, twelve, th ir te e n , fourteen , f i f te e n , s ix teen , seventeen, and eighteen were designed to gather personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s and background data on each woman and to es tab lish a response patte rn in d ic a tiv e o f each group o f adm in is tra to r.

Group I I : Professional C h a ra c te r is tics . The professional chara c te r is t ic s o f these women were assessed by questions two, s ix , seven, e ig h t, n ine, ten, nineteen, twenty-one, and twenty-two. These questions were expected to co n tr ib u te to the professional descrip tions in d ic a t iv e o f each group o f women adm in is tra to rs .

Group I I I : Opinions. Questions twenty, tw enty-three, twenty-fo u r, tw en ty -s ix , twenty-seven and tw en ty -e igh t were intended to give the adm in is tra tors an opportun ity to express th e ir opinions about th e ir ro les as women in adm in is tra tio n .

The above questions were trea ted s t a t is t ic a l ly and were used to f a c i l

ita te in te rp re ta tio n o f the data.

Research Questions

The in form ation gathered from the responses o f the Leadership

Opinion Questionnaire and the Biographical Questionnaire were approp

r ia te ly compared as they re la ted to the fo llo w in g questions.

1. Do women in educational adm in is tra tio n have a leadership

s ty le d if fe re n t than women in business adm in is tra tion?

a. In ta bu la ting the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire how

did each group o f women score on the dimension o f Con

s idera tion?

b. In ta bu la ting the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire how

did each group o f women score on the dimension o f S truc

ture?

2. Are these leadership s ty les cons is ten t w ith those found in

predominately male groups tested w ith the Leadership Opinion

Questionnaire?


3. Has e ith e r group o f women had more education or leadership

tra in in g ?

4. Do both groups o f women e x h ib it the same variab les in th e ir

fam ily backgrounds?

5. Are there patte rns o f va riab les consis ten t w ith other stud

ies?

a. b ir th order


6. Is one group o f women more mobile than the other?

7. How do the two groups o f women compare as to m arita l and

fam ily status?

8. Do these women perceive any ro le c o n f lic t?

9. Do any o f the fo llow ing variab les a f fe c t the re su lts o f the

responses o f e ith e r group:

age

sa lary

size o f in s t i tu t io n or organ iza tion

pub lica tions

fe m in is t a f f i l i a t io n

10. Has T i t le V II o f the C iv il Rights Act had an impact on pro

motions and job placement?

11. How do these women perceive the problems fo r women in o b ta in

ing th e ir cu rren t p o s itio n o f leadership?

12. What fa c to rs have been most in f lu e n t ia l to these women in

ob ta in ing th e ir cu rren t po s itio n o f leadership?

13. What do these women be lieve to be the greatest advantage o f


being a female in an adm in is tra tive position?

The answers to these questions may provide in form ation which

may help solve the many complex problems faced by those who w i l l

se lec t and t ra in women fo r pos itions o f leadership .

Procedures

C o n fid e n t ia lity

Respondents were assured in the i n i t i a l le t t e r th a t a l l respon

ses would remain c o n f id e n tia l. In order to accomplish th is , names

were deleted from the questionnaires a f te r the responses were record

ed. Names were used only fo r fo llow -up purposes in rep ly to those

adm in is tra tors who requested an abstract o f the study. (This was

tabulated from question tw en ty -five o f the biographical question

n a ire ).

Procedures Used to Achieve a High Response Rate

A frequent c r it ic is m o f mail questionnaires is the low response

ra te they usua lly generate. In a d d itio n , the ch a ra c te r is t ic s o f the

non-respondents may be s ig n if ic a n t ly d if fe re n t from those o f the res

pondents, making i t d i f f i c u l t to genera lize from the returned ques

tionn a ires to the re s t o f the population (K e rlin g e r, 1964).

Consequently, a great e f fo r t was made to achieve a high re tu rn

ra te o f questionnaires. The fo llow ing procedures were used fo r the

m a iling and fo llow -up o f the questionnaires.

Questionnaires and Cover L e tte r . The cover le t t e r was prepared

on le tte rhead paper provided by the Educational Leadership Department

o f Western Michigan U n ive rs ity . I t was a n tic ip a te d th is would estab


l is h c r e d ib i l i t y to the in ve s tig a tio n . The le t t e r s tip u la te d tha t

the study was being carried out under the cooperation o f the Educa

tio n a l Leadership Department. The le t t e r explained the study and i t s

purpose, emphasized c o n f id e n t ia li ty and urged cooperation o f those

rece iv ing i t , (Appendix C). Stamped, self-addressed envelopes were

also included in the m a iling .

Follow-up. Three weeks a f te r the m ailing o f the f i r s t le t te r

and questionna ires, a second le t te r o f reminder was sent to those who

had not ye t responded. A copy o f th is le t t e r is presented in Appen

d ix C.

Methods o f Analyzing the Data

The methods o f analyzing the data were chosen according to the

research question tha t was to be answered.

t he Leadership Dpin_ioin Questjqnnaire

As has been stated p rev io us ly , the L.O.Q. y ie ld s two scores, one

fo r Considerati on (C) and one fo r S tructure (S). Each scale is tab

ulated fo r a composite score, hence each woman has two in d iv id u a l

scores, w ith a p o s s ib il ity o f e ighty fo r each.

The scores fo r each group o f women were then compiled to de te r

mine i f a pa tte rn emerged. These scores were analyzed according to

means and standard devia tions. These are reported in Chapter IV.

Analysis o f the B iographical Qu e s tionna ire

D escrip tive and a n a ly tica l s ta t is t ic s were used to i l lu s t r a te

the data gathered by the Biographical Q uestionnaire. The data were


compiled fo r each group o f women to determine i f a patte rn was pre

sent. Each va riab le was analyzed to compare s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rences

between the two adm in is tra tive groups.

A ll o f the questions were comparatively analyzed except fo r

those questions tha t e l ic ite d opin ions. Of these questions twenty-

three and tw enty-four were summarized and frequencies o f responses

were described. Question tw en ty -five and tw enty-s ix were compiled

and responses were categorized and compared. These are presented in

Chapter IV.

Summary

Chapter I I I contains a discussion o f the methods and procedures

used in th is study. The chapter consists o f a d e f in it io n o f the pop

u la tio n , the method fo r developing the sample, a descrip tion o f the

measurements used, the procedures used to obtain the data, and the

review o f the procedures used fo r analyzing the data.


CHAPTER IV

REPORT OF THE FINDINGS

Analysis o f the Data

I t is the purpose o f Chapter IV to present and analyze the data

gathered to answer the research questions posed by the study. The

chapter is d iv ided in to the fo llo w in g sections: 1) Composition o f

the study, 2) S ta t is t ic a l procedures used, 3) presentation o f the

biographical data, personal and professional ch a ra c te r is t ic s and job

op in ions, 4) Presentation o f the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire

data.

Composition o f the Study

P a rtic ipan ts in th is study were 150 women holding pos itions in

educational leadership , who were selected from the curren t e d itio n

o f Mho's Who in America, and 150 women holding leadership pos itions

in business, who were selected from the current issue o f Who's j h ^

in Trade and Indus t r y . These 300 women were asked to respond, by

m a il, to two questionna ires, a Biographical Questionnaire and a Lead

ersh ip Opinion Q uestionnaire. These two instruments were used to

gather data fo r th is study. Table 1 summarizes the responses to the

mail questionnaire.


Table I

Responses to the Mail Questionnaire

EDUCATION BUSINESS

Biographical L.O.Q. Biographical L.O.Q.

F % F % F % F %

Complete 71 47.3 70 46.6 62 41.4 60 40.0

Incomplete 0 0.0 1 0.0 0 0.0 2 1.4

Retirees 13 8.7 13 8.7 0 0.0 0 0.0

Returned U n fille d or Unusable 7 4.6 7 4.6 18 12.0 18 12.0

Undelivered 21 14.0 21 14.0 14 9.3 14 9.3

NotReturned 38 25.4 38 25.3 56 37.3 56 37.3

TOTAL 150 100 150 100 150 100 150 100

There were th ir te e n women educators who responded tha t had re

cen tly re t ire d . They f i l l e d both questionnaires out on the basis o f

th e ir in form ation and opinions w h ile being an adm in is tra to r. These

responses were analyzed on a f i r s t - r u n and found to co rre la te qu ite

c lo se ly to the group o f educators. The decis ion was there fore made

to e lim ina te repo rting the re su lts fo r th is group. This made the

two remaining groups more equal in s ize and did not change the over

a l l character o f the re su lts .


Several questionnaires in each group, seven in education and 18

in business were returned by the respondents, or another employee,

u n f il le d w ith notes o f explanation . Reasons fo r not f i l l i n g the

questionnaire included: no tim e, no longer an ad m in is tra to r, never

had been an adm in is tra to r, person deceased, and, two o f the group

were male and, the re fo re , returned.

A la rge number, twenty-one in education and fourteen in business,

were returned by the postal service marked; moved, le f t no address;

moved, not forwardable; and address unknown. This was thought to be

due to two reasons; one, the lack o f updating addresses in the e d i

tions o f Who 's Who, and two, the lack o f r e l ia b i l i t y o f the postal

se rv ice , which was ind ica ted by several second-mailings being re

turned, but f ir s t-m a il in g s to the same address were not returned.

Another in d ica tio n o f poor postal service was ind ica ted by the range

in length o f time fo r le t te rs to be returned, anywhere from two days

to f iv e weeks. Also, several respondents, who received the second

m a ilin g , but not the f i r s t m a ilin g , took the time to w r ite a le t t e r

o f explanation.

S ta t is t ic a l Procedures Used

The s ta t is t ic a l procedures used in th is study were the ^ - te s t an

a ly s is and the Chi-square (X^) ana lys is . The ;t- te s t ana lysis was

used to determine any mean d iffe rences in scores on the Leadership

Opinion Questionnaire (L.O.Q.) between the two sample groups. This

was done fo r each dimension. Consideration and S truc tu re , o f the

Leadership Opinion Q uestionnaire. The t - t e s t ana lysis was also used


to determine any mean d iffe rences in responses to the fo llo w in g ques

tio n s : 1) Question 19 v/hich ascertained the length o f time respon

dents held th e ir past professional p os itions . This was used to an

swer Research Question //6, which dea lt w ith m o b ility ra te , 2) Ques

tio n 21 which e l ic ite d in form ation about the pub lish ing record o f the

respondents. This was used to answer Research Question 9, which

deals w ith the a f fe c t o f d if fe re n t variab les on the response ra te o f

each group, and 3) Question 22 which gathered in form ation about the

respondents' membership in various categories o f o rgan iza tions. This

was a lso used to answer Research Question 9.

The Chi-Square ana lysis was used fo r a l l other remaining ques

tio n s to ascerta in re la tio nsh ip s between the two sample groups.

D escrip tive techniques were also used to determine answers fo r

research questions re la t in g to: Question 26, which de a lt w ith the

respondents' perception o f ro le c o n f l ic t , and Question 27, which

dea lt w ith the opinions o f the respondents as to advantages o f a fe

male in an ad m in is tra tive p o s itio n .

P resentation o f the B iographical Data

Table 2 presents a b r ie f s ta t is t ic a l descrip tion o f each group o f

women in the study. The number o f respondents (denoted by N in the

ta b le ) fo r each va riab le was d if fe re n t since not a l l respondents

chose to answer a l l questions.

The average woman adm in is tra to r in education was 50 years old

and, i f m arried, had been married fo r an average o f 6.2 years; 31 per

cent o f the education women were married. The average number o f c h i l-


Table 2

P r o f i le o f S e lec ted V a ria b le s f o r Women A d m in is t ra to rs

Education Business

N X N X

Age 71 50 62 47

Years Married 16 6.2 33 more than 10

// o f Children 22 .7 41 .9

Size o f In s t i tu t io n 71 1,850 61 under 250

Salary 68 $23,300 58 $22,400

Table 3

Ages o f Women Adm in istra tors

Ages Education Business Chi Square Value

Age F 1 F 7o

Under 30 0 0 0 0

30-44 7 9.8 8 12.9

45-54 20 28.2 25 40.3

Over 54 44 62.0 29 46.8

TOTAL 71 100.0 62 100.0 3.11*

* not s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL ,05 (df=3) = 5.99


63

dren she had was .7. The u n iv e rs ity in which she was employed had an

average o f 1,850 employees. Her sa la ry was an average o f $23,300.

The average woman adm in is tra to r in business was 47 years o f age

and, i f m arried, had been so fo r over 10 years; 76 percent o f the

business woman were m arried. The average number o f ch ild ren she had

was .9. The o rgan iza tion fo r which she was employed had under 250

employees. Her sa la ry was an average o f $22,400,

Personal Data

There appear to be d iffe rences in the age groups o f these two

groups o f women ad m in is tra to rs , as shown in Table 3. A substan tia l

m a jo r ity , about 62 percent, o f women in education were recorded in

the over 54 age category. Women in business, however, recorded about

40.3 percent in the category o f 45-54 years o f age, and about 46.8

percent were in Lhe over 54 age group. However, the chi square value

o f 3.11 shows there was no s ig n if ic a n t age d iffe re n ce between the

two a d m in is tra tive groups.

The la rge s t percentage o f the women adm in is tra to rs in education

were not married as il lu s t r a te d in Table 4. Adding to th is f ig u re

tha t an a d d itiona l seven percent o f these women are separated or d i

vorced and s ix percent have been widowed, the to ta l fo r th is group

being s ing le a t th is time becomes 82 percent. (Of those th a t are

m arried f if te e n percent are married fo r the f i r s t time and only three

percent are in a second m arriage.)

The group composed o f women in business were more evenly d i s t r i

buted as to m arita l s ta tu s . A to ta l o f 47 percent are a t th is time


Tab le 4

M a r ita l S ta tu s o f Women A d m in is tra to rs

Education Business

* s ig n if ic a n t , a t pL .05 (df=4) = 9 .4 9

Chi Square Value

M arita l Status F % F %

Single 49 69 15 24

Married 1s t time 11 15 22 35

Remarried 2 3 11 18

Separated/Divorced 5 7 5 8

Widowed 4 6 9 15

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 29.41*

Table 5

Length o f Time Married fo r Women A dm inistra tors

Education BusinessChi Square

ValueLength o f time

Married F % F %

Less than 4 y rs . 4 25 2 6

5-10 y rs . 3 19 3 9

more than 10 y rs . 9 56 28 85

TOTAL 16 100 33 100 20.31*

♦ s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=4) = 9.49


s in g le , w ith 24 percent never having been m arried, e ig h t percent sep

arated or divorced and 15 percent th a t have been widowed. Those in

th e ir f i r s t marriage number 35 percent w h ile the percentages o f re

marriages is also higher fo r th is group than those in education, be

ing 18 percent. When the data were s t a t is t ic a l ly analyzed the chi

square value o f 29.41 was very s ig n if ic a n t to the p value o f 9.49.

The tab u la tio n in Table 5 reports the length o f time the women

in each group have been married. In both groups, marriages o f over

ten years are the most common, w ith women in business in d ic a tin g 85

percent and women in education having 56 percent. Women in education

tend to have the marriages o f the shortest du ra tion , w ith th e ir to ta l

in th is category being 25 percent. In th is same category women in

business only report s ix percent. The remaining 19 percent o f women

in education have been married 5-10 years while 9 percent o f the wo

men in business have been married th is length o f time. The c h i-

square value o f 20.31 is very s ig n if ic a n t compared to the p value o f

9.49.

Table 6 summarizes the data in regard to the number o f ch ild re n

had by each group o f married women adm in is tra to rs . I t is apparent

th a t in both groups o f women almost 75 percent in each group have

two o r less c h ild re n ; 27 percent o f the women in education have no

c h ild re n , w h ile 31 percent o f the business group have none; 9 percent

o f the education group have one c h ild , w ith women in business having

one c h ild , is reported a t 28 percent. Those reported having 3 o r 4

ch ild ren are as fo llow s : women in education, 23 percent and 21 per-


Ta b le 6

Number o f C h ild re n o f Women A d m in is tra to rs


Value

# o f Children F % F %

None 6 27 6 13

One 2 9 13 28

Two 8 36 15 32

3 or 4 5 23 10 21

5 o r more 1 5 3 6

TOTAL 22 100 47 100 4.34*

*no t s ig n if ic a n t. a t pL .05 (df=4) = 9.49

Table 7

Number o f Brothers o f Women Adm inistra tors


Value

# o f Brothers F % F %

None 24 34 21 34

One 22 31 23 37

Two 11 15 7 11

Three 7 10 5 8

4 or more 7 10 6 10

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 .92*

*no t s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=4) = 9.49


cent o f the women in business. Only a to ta l o f 11 percent, 5 percent

in education and 6 percent in business, in d ica te f iv e or more c h ild

ren. The chi square value o f 4.34 is not s ig n if ic a n t. Tables 7 and

8 conta in a d escrip tion o f the s ib lin g s fo r each group. Ne ither chi

square value show a s ig n ifica n ce ; .92 value fo r number o f brothers

and .67 fo r the number o f s is te rs . The o ve ra ll numbers in d ica te near

the same make-up o f fam ilies fo r each group. S p e c if ic a lly , both

groups show 34 percent having no b ro thers , w h ile 41 percent education

women had no s is te rs and 40 percent o f the business women had no

s is te rs . Women in education report 31 percent have one b ro ther,

w h ile th is was true fo r 37 percent o f the women in business. T h ir ty -

e ig h t percent o f the women in education have one s is te r and 39 per

cent o f the women in business are in th is category. Both groups re

po rt 11 percent having two bro thers, w h ile 12.5 percent o f the edu

ca tion women and 10 percent o f the business women have two s is te rs .

The percentages decrease to 10 percent fo r women in education w ith

three brothers and 8 percent fo r women in business. Only 5.5 percent

o f the women in education report three s is te rs as do 6 percent o f the

women in business. Both groups show 10 percent having four or more

b ro thers , w h ile 4 o r more s is te rs is noted by 3 percent o f the women

in education and 5 percent fo r the women in business.

Table 9 disp lays the response to the question, which c h ild are

you? I t appears th a t the fam ily backgrounds o f these two groups are

f a i r ly s im ila r . As only ch ild re n , 11 percent o f the women in educa

t io n responded a f f irm a t iv e ly , w h ile 13 percent o f the women in bus i

ness d id so. Women in education in d ica te 25% o f them were youngest


Tab le 8

Number o f S is te rs o f Women A d m in is tra to rs

Education Business

*not s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=4) = 9.49

Table 9

S ib lin g Order o f Women A dm inistra tors

*no t s ig n if ic a n t , a t pL .05 (df=3) = 7.82

Chi Square

# o f S is te rs F % F %

None 29 41 25 40

One 27 38 24 39

Two 9 12.5 6 10

Three 4 5.5 4 6

4 or more 2 3 3 5

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 .67*


Value

S ib lin g Order F % F %

Only 8 11 8 13

Youngest 18 25 14 23

Oldest 26 37 25 41

Middle 19 27 14 23

TOTAL 71 100 61 100 .97*


69

ch ild re n and 23 percent o f the women in business are. As o ldest

c h i ld , 27 percent o f the educators respond yes, w h ile the women in

business achieved s l ig h t ly higher w ith 41 percent. Reported as mid

dle ch ild ren were 27 percent o f the educators and 23 percent o f the

business women. The chi square value o f .97 is not s ig n if ic a n t. In

a d d it io n . Table 10 shows the numbers o f each group th a t were o ldest

female c h ild . Both groups in d ica te 13 percent. In order to d e te r

mine what percentage o f tliese women are the only or o ldes t female a

combined to ta l was ca lcu la ted . The re s u lt shows 61 percent o f the

women in education are , w ith 66 percent o f those in business being

in th is category.

Table 11 reports the leve l o f education reached by the mothers

o f each group o f women. Very few repo rt mothers who had a graduate

o r professional degree, 6 percent o f the educators and 8 percent o f

the women in business. Having a co llege degree is reported by near

ly the same fo r both groups, 15.5 percent fo r educators and 15 per

cent fo r business. Some college or o ther school is reported by near

ly the same numbers a lso , 24 percent educators and 23 percent bus i

ness. There is a d iffe rence in the number reported as high school

graduates, 21 percent fo r educators and 32 percent fo r business.

Having some high school is reported as 15.5 percent fo r educators

and 6 percent fo r business. A grammar school leve l was reached by

17 percent o f the educators' mothers and 13 percent o f the business

mothers. The chi square value o f 5.13 ind ica tes there is no s ig n if

ica n t re la tio n sh ip .

Fathers' level o f education is displayed in Table 12. A la rg e r


70

Table 10

Number o f O ld e s t Females as Women A d m in is tra to rs

Education Business

F % F %

Oldest Female 9 13 8 13

Table 11

Mothers' Level o f Education

BusinessChi Square

Value

Levels o f Ed. F % F %

Grammar 12 17 8 13

Some high school 11 15.5 4 6

High school grad. 15 21 20 32

Some co llege o r other 17 24 14 23

College grad. 11 15.5 9 15

Grad, or p ro f. degree 4 6 5 8

Blank 1 1 2 3

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 5.13*

*not s ig n if ic a n t. a t pL .05 (df=6) = 12.59


number o f fa the rs had graduate o r professional degrees in both groups,

25 percent in education and 21 percent in business. As co llege grad

uates, 12 percent are reported fo r the educators and 16 percent fo r

the business women. Some co llege or o ther school has 19 percent fo r

educators and 23 percent fo r those in business. Both groups report

10 percent o f th e ir fa the rs as a high school graduate, A grammar

school leve l was reached by 20 percent fo r educators and 19 percent

fo r business. The chi square value o f 1.216 ind ica tes there is no

s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip .

Moving to the data on parents' employment, Table 13 shows the

number o f mothers who were employed w h ile these women were ch ild re n .

More than h a lf o f each group in d ica tes th e ir mother did not work a t

a l l ; 66 percent o f the women in education and 55% o f the women in

business. Mothers working f u l l time account fo r 7.5 percent o f the

women in education and 10 percent fo r those in business. Mothers who

worked p a rt-t im e , f u l l time on and o f f , were recorded as 8.5 percent

fo r women in education and 8 percent fo r women in business. Those

who did not work w h ile th e ir ch ild ren were young but then worked f u l l

time received 6 percent fo r women in education and 11 percent fo r

women in business. Those who did not work w h ile th e ir ch ild ren were

young and then worked part time is a t 10 percent fo r both groups. One

percent o f the women in education had a mother not a t home w h ile s ix

percent o f those in business were w ithout a mother a t home. One wo

man educator d id not respond to th is question. The chi square value

o f 5.38 shows th is was not s ig n if ic a n t.

The leve l o f employment o f mothers fo r women adm in is tra to rs is


72

Table 12

Fathers' Level o f Education

Education

*not s ig n if ic a n t, X a t pL .05 (df=6) = 12.59

Chi Square Value

Levels o f Ed. F % F %

Grammar 14 20 12 19

Some high school 8 11 5 8

High school grad. 7 10 6 10

Some co llege or o ther 13 19 14 23

College grad. 9 12 10 16

Grad, o r p ro f. degree 18 25 13 21

Blank 2 3 2 3

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 1.216*


Tab le 13

Mothers Employed o f Women A d m in is t ra to rs

Chi SquareEducation__________Business______________ Value

Mothers' Employment F % F %

Worked f u l l time 5 7.5 6 10

Worked part time on and o f f 6 8.5 5 8

Did not work w h ile ch ild ren were young - f u l l time 4 6 7 11

Did not work w h ile ch ild ren were young - pa rt time 7 10 6 10

Did not work a t a l l 47 66 34 55

Mother not a t home 1 1 4 6

Blank 1 1

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 5.38*



74

displayed in Table 14. I t is apparent tha t the m a jo r ity o f mothers

o f both groups o f adm in is tra tors worked as housewives; 70 percent

fo r women in education and 68 percent fo r business women. Of those

who had mothers working the la rge s t numbers were in professional and

business/managerial. Women in education had 13 percent in pro fession

al and 6 percent in business/managerial, w h ile women in business had

9.5 percent in each category. S k ille d workers are reported fo r 6

percent o f the mothers o f women in education and 8.5 percent fo r

those in business. Unskilled and s e m i-sk ille d have the sm allest per

centages w ith 3 percent u n sk ille d and 1 percent se m i-sk ille d fo r wo

men in education and 1.5 percent in each category fo r women in bus i

ness. The chi square value o f 1.54 ind ica tes th is was not s ig n i f i

cant.

The s ta t is t ic s fo r the employment le ve ls o f the fa the rs o f each

group is presented in Table 15. H a lf o f the fa the rs in each group

worked a t t'le business o r managerial le v e l; 54 percent o f the fa thers

o f the women in education and 50 percent o f those in business. Pro

fess iona l le ve ls were held by 23 percent o f the fa the rs o f the women

in education and 10 percent o f the fa the rs o f women in business. At

u n -s k il le d , s e m i-sk ille d or s k il le d leve ls were 13 percent o f those

fa the rs o f women in education and 18 percent o f those o f women in

business. Farmers and service occupations held 11 percent fo r women

in education and 23 percent fo r women in business. The chi square

value o f 8.37 shows a s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip o f the fa th e rs ' leve l

o f employment to the daughters' ad m in is tra tive le v e l.

Table 16 reports the responses o f each group o f women as to


75

Table 14

Level o f Mothers' Employment o f Women Adm in istra tors

SquareEducation__________Business______________ Value

Level o f Employment F % F %

U nskilled 2 3 1 1.5

S em i-sk illed 1 1 1 1.5

S k ille d 4 6 5 8.5

Professional 9 13 6 9.5

Business/managerial 4 6 6 9.5

Homemaker 50 70 42 68

Blank 1 1 1 1.5

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 1.54*

*no t s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=6) = 12.59


76

Table 15

Level o f Fathers' Employment o f Women Adm inistra tors


ValueLevel o f Employment F % F %

U n sk illed , semis k il le d and s k il le d 9 13 11 18

Farmer/service 8 11 14 22

Business/managerial 38 54 31 50

Professional 16 22 6 10

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 8.37*

♦ s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=3) =7.82


which parent had the greater in fluence on them. A large percentage

in e ith e r group said both had equa lly in fluenced them, 52 percent

o f the women in education and 37 percent in business. Influences

from ne ith e r parent were reported by 11% o f the women in education

and by 19 percent o f those in business. Mothers in fluenced 20 per

cent o f the women in education and 18 percent o f the women in bus i

ness, and fa thers in fluenced 14 percent o f those in education and 26%

o f women in business. Two o f the women in education chose not to

answer th is question. The chi square value o f 7.24 ind ica tes th is

is not s ig n if ic a n t.

Question 22, which asked the respondents to in d ica te the number

o f organizations to which they belonged was used to gather data fo r

Table 17. I t reports the mean number o f fem in is t o rganizations be

longed to by both groups o f women. Women in education hold an ave

rage o f 1.24 memberships in fem in is t o rgan izations. A t - va lue o f

1.16 ind ica tes th is was not s ig n if ic a n t a t .05 leve l o f s ig n ifica n ce .

Professional Chara c te r is t ic s

Table 18 presents a summary o f the le ve ls o f pos itions held by

the women adm in is tra tors who responded to th is study. The t i t l e s

(complete l i s t may be found in Appendix 0) have been grouped in to

three le v e ls ; f i r s t , second and th ird leve l a d m in is tra to rs . In edu

ca tio n , those women who held t i t le s o f president and v ice -p res iden t

are considered f i r s t le v e l, they represent 23.5 percent o f the to ta l

group. Women in business a t the f i r s t leve l are those women who hold

t i t le s o f p res ident, owner or e d ito r . They represent 48 percent o f


78

Tab le 16

P a re n ta l In flu e n c e o f Women A d m in is t ra to rs

BusinessChi Square

ValueParentalInfluence F % F %

Neither 8 11 12 19

Mother 14 20 11 18

Father 10 14 16 26

Both, equally 37 52 23 37

Blank 2 3 0 0

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 7.24*


Table 17

Number o f Feminist Organizations Belonged to by Women Adm in is tra tors

N X SD

Education 71 .35 6.41

Business 62 1.24 .74

t = 1.161, not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05


79

the to ta l . Second leve l adm in is tra to rs in education, those who hold

s ta f f pos itions such as Dean o f a co lle g e . Dean o f students or D irec

to r and Associate D irec to rs , represent 45.5 percent o f the to ta l .

Second leve l adm in is tra to rs in business, those w ith t i t le s o f v ice -

p res iden t, partner or secretary trea su re r, represent 34 percent o f

the to ta l . Th ird leve l adm in is tra to rs in education, those who hold

t i t le s o f academic deans, represent 31 percent o f the group, w h ile in

business, th ird leve l adm in is tra to rs , d ire c to r , managers represent

18 percent. I t becomes apparent tha t the women in business in th is

sample held higher le ve ls o f p o s itio n than did those in education.

The chi square value o f 8.61 is s ig n if ic a n t.

The size o f the in s t i tu t io n or organ iza tion employing these wo

men adm in is tra to rs is presented in Table 19. I t is apparent tha t wo

men in business are employed by sm aller o rgan iza tions , under 999,

than women in education, 84 percent as compared to 42 percent. Wo

men in education who work at in s t i tu t io n s employing 1,000 to 5,000

represent 30 percent o f th is sample, w h ile women in business a t the

same size is a t 6 percent. The la rge organ ization o f 5,000 or over

employs 28 percent o f the women in education and 10 percent o f the

women in business. The chi square value o f 29.58 d isp lays a very

s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip being present.

The sa la ry d is tr ib u t io n fo r each group o f women is displayed in

Table 20. The m a jo rity o f women in education earn between $20,000

and $30,000, w ith 39 percent in the category o f $20,000 to $29,999

and 31 percent in the category $30,000 to $40,000, w h ile women in

business are unevenly d is tr ib u te d . In the category o f $20,000 to


Table 18

Level o f P o s it io n s o f Women A d m in is tra to rs


Value

Level F % F %

Administra tors 1s t leve l 17 23.5 30 48

Adm in is tra tors 2nd leve l 33 45.5 21 34

Adm in istra tors 3rd leve l 22 31 11 18

TOTAL 72 100 62 100 8.61^

♦ s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (df=2) = 5.99

Table 19

Size o f In s t i tu t io n s and Organizations


ValueSize o f In s t./O rq . F % F %

Under 999 30 42 52 84

1,000 to 5,000 21 30 4 6

5,000 o r over 20 28 6 10

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 29.58^

♦ s ig n if ic a n t, X a t pL .05 (df=2) = 5.99


$29,999 there are 31 percent reported and 8 percent in the category

$30,000 to $40,000. Only 3 percent o f the women in education earn

under $15,000 but 13 percent o f the women in business do. Earning

between $15,000 to $19,999 is nearly equal in both groups, w ith 13

percent o f the women in education and 15 percent to those in bus i

ness. More women in business earn over $40,000, 27 percent, w h ile

over 10 percent o f those in education earn in th is category. Four

educators and three women in business chose not to answer th is ques

t io n . The chi square value o f 19.82 shows th is is a s ig n if ic a n t

re la tio n s h ip .

The leve ls o f education reached by both groups is displayed in

Table 21. I t is apparent tha t the women in education hold a higher

leve l o f education, w ith 75 percent holding the doctoral degree and

only 5 percent o f the women in business w ith th is degree. The la r

gest group o f women in business repo rt having some co llege , 45 per

cent, w h ile only 3 percent o f the educators report th is le v e l. As a

co llege graduate 21 percent o f the women in business responded, and

only 4 percent o f those in education did so. Holding a master's or

professional degree is reported by 18 percent o f those in education

and 29 percent o f those in business. The large chi square value o f

72.33 ind ica tes th is is c le a rly a s ig n if ic a n t, re la t io n s h ip .

Table 22 dep icts the number o f women in both groups pursuing an

advanced degree. The no response is reported by a large number in

both groups, 94.5 o f those in education, which is expected from the

number holding doctora l degrees, and 95 percent by those in business.

Only 4.5 percent o f those in education and 5 percent o f those in bus-


82

Table 20

Salary D is tr ib u tio n o f Women Adm inistra tors

Chi SquareEducation Business______________Value

Salary Range F % F %

Under $15,000 2 3 8 13

$15,000-$19,999 9 13 9 15

$20,000-$29,999 28 39 19 31

$30,000-$40,000 22 31 5 8

Over $40,000 7 10 17 27

Blank 3 4 4 6

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 19.82*

* s ig n if ic a n t , a t pL .05 (df=5) = 11.07


Table 21

Le ve ls o f E duca tion o f Women A d m in is tra to rs

Chi Square Value

Level o f Ed. F % F %

Some co llege 2 3 28 45

College grad. 3 4 13 21

M asters/Prof. 13 18 18 29

Doctoral 53 75 3 5

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 72.33*

^ s ig n if ic a n t , a t pL .05 (df=3) = 7.81

Table 22

Number o f Women A dm in is tra tors Pursuing Advance Degrees


Value

Pursuing Degree F % F %

Yes 3 4.5 3 5

No 67 95.5 59 95

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 .90*

*Not s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL .05 (d f= l) = 5.99


84

iness are pursuing degrees. The chi square value o f only .90 in d i

cates there is no s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip present.

Tables 23, 24, 25 and 26 present the responses to the numbers

o f women having had any leadership tra in in g . In response to the

question respondents could check more than one choice, the re fo re ,

the percentages do not to ta l 100. I t is apparent very few women in

e ith e r group has had a formal degree program o f leadership , w ith only

10 percent o f each group responding yes to th is type. Of the women

in education, 45% in d ica te they have had leadership tra in in g on the

jo b , w h ile an almost equal number, 48% o f those in business so in d i

cate. Many have had leadership tra in in g in seminars and workshops,

45 percent o f those in education and 60 percent o f those in business.

However, an almost equal number in d ica te they have had no leadership

tra in in g o f any type. 70 percent o f the educators and 69 percent

o f those in business. None o f the re la tio n sh ip s in d ica te any s ta t

is t ic a l s ig n ifica n ce .

In order to determine i f e ith e r group demonstrates more m o b ility

than the o the r, the average length o f time spent on each job was de

termined and compared. Tables 27, 28 and 29 dep ic t th is in fo rm ation .

The respondents were asked to re la te in form ation as to th e ir past

three p o s itio n s . A s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip can be seen in Table 27.

The women in education have spent an average o f 7.31 years in th e ir

present job w h ile women in business spent nearly double th a t amount,

14.79. The second most current job is not s ig n if ic a n t w ith 6.65 the

average number o f years spent by women in education and 4.76 years

by those in business. Table 29 shows the th ird most cu rren t p o s itio n


85

Table 23

Leadership on Job


ValueLeadership on job F % F %

Yes 32 45 30 48

No 39 55 32 52

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 .15*

*no t s ig n if ic a n t, a t pL (d f= l) = 3.84

Table 24

Leadership Seminar/Workshop


ValueLeadershipSeminar/Workshop F % F %

Yes 32 45 37 60

No 39 55 25 40

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 2.83*

*no t s ig n ig ic a n t, a t pL ( d f= l) = 3.84


Tab le 25

Leadership T ra in ing by Formal Degree


ValueLeadership by Formal Degree F % F %

Yes 10 14 6 10

No 61 86 56 90

TOTAL 71 100 62 100 1.61*

*no t s ig n if ic a n t. a t pL .05 (d f= l) = 3.84

Table 26

Women Adm in is tra tors Having Had No Leadership Tra in ing

Education Business

F % F %

No Tra in ing 50 70 43 69


Tab le 27

Number o f Years Spent in P resent P o s it io n

Years in Position N

87

Education

Business

71

62

7.31

14.79

15.07

6.98

t = 3 .7 , s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05

Table 28

Number o f Years Spent in Second Most Current Position

Years in Position N SD

Education

Business

71

62

6.65

4.76

4.96

6.25

t = -1 .9 , not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05

Number o f Years Spent in Third Most Current Position

Years in Position N X SD

Education 71 5.39 5.81

Business 62 3.50 5.20

-1 .97 , not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05


has been held fo r 5.39 years by women in education and 3.50 years by

those in business.

In response to the question as to the e f fe c t T i t le V II has had

the respondents were asked i f they believed th e ir la s t p o s itio n was

secured due to the recent le g is la t io n . The response to th is was no,

by every woman except one.

The pub lish ing records o f the women adm in is tra to rs were de te r

mined by comparing the average number types o f pub lica tions fo r each

group. This in form ation is presented in Tables 30, 31, 32 and 33.

Women in education have published an average o f 9.59 a r t ic le s w ith in

th e ir f ie ld w h ile women in business have published an average o f 11.77.

The women in education have presented tw ice as many pub lica tions a t

p rofessional meetings, w ith an average o f 13.9 as opposed to 6.8 fo r

women in business. This is the only type o f pu b lica tio n record tha t

dep icts a s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip . Ne ither group has published many

books, educators reporting .89 and women in business, .45. Women in

education repo rt having published an average o f 4.35 pub lica tions not

re la ted to th e ir profession w h ile women in business report 3.23 fo r

th is category.

Tables 34 and 35 report the average number o f o rganizations to

which women adm in is tra to rs belong. The average number o f memberships

in professional o rganizations held by women in education is 5.39 w ith

an almost equal number held by women in business, 5.16, the re fo re ,

there is no s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip . There is also no s ig n if ic a n t

re la tio n s h ip w ith the numbers o f c iv ic organizations belonged to ;

women in education hold an average o f 3.09 and women in business hold


89

Table 30

Number o f A r t ic le s P ub lished in R e spec tive F ie ld so f Women A d m in is tra to rs

Number o f A r t ic le s

Education 71 9.59 12.33

Business 62 11.77 26.11

t = .63, not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05

Table 31

Number o f Papers Presented a t Professional Meetings

Number o f Papers N X SD


Business 62 6.8 20.0

t = -2 .1 5 , s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05

Table 32

Number o f Books Published

Number o f Books N X SD

Education 71 .89 1.37

Business 62 .45 1.86

t = -1 .5 , not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05


an average o f 4 .3 7 .

Job Opinions

Question 23 o f the Biographical Questionnaire asked respondents

to check what they perceived as th e ir top three problems experienced

as a woman adm in is tra to r. Tables 36 and 37 present the re su lts o f

th is question. The two highest rankings are the same fo r both groups,

number one being the problem o f equal sa lary fo r equal work and num

ber two being able to m aintain a p r iva te l i f e . Being the only female

a t th is leve l ranked high by both groups as did the fe e lin g o f being

alone. Having s u f f ic ie n t energy fo r both ro les was ranked 4th by

educators and 7th by those in business. Advancement opp o rtun ities

was more o f a problem to women in business, 5th , than to educators

who ranked i t 7th. Being perceived as a woman f i r s t and an adminis

t ra to r second was ranked 6th by education women and 9th by women in

business. Being accepted as an equal appears more o f a problem fo r

women in business, who rank i t th ir d , than fo r those in education,

who rank i t 8th. Providing leadership d ire c tio n s to male subordinates

is ranked by educators 9th w h ile women in business rank i t 11th.

Being a woman (your sex) was ranked 10th by women in business but

only 14th by women in education. Tasks assigned have lim ite d res

p o n s ib i l ity was ranked la s t by educators and 12th by women in bus i

ness. Women in business rank not being taken se riou s ly as an admin

is t r a to r la s t w h ile women in education rank i t 10th. Acceptance in to

in form al clubs has been more o f a problem to women in education (7th )

than to women in business (13 th ). S e tting p r io r it ie s as adm in is tra-


Table 33

Number o f P u b lic a tio n s Not R e lated to P ro fe ss io n

Number o f P ublications

Education

Business

71

62

4.35

3.23

14.47

13.17


Table 34

Number o f Professional O rganizational Memberships

Number o f Organizations N X SD


Business 62 5.16 9.42


Table 35

Number o f C iv ic O rganizational Memberships

Number o f Organizations N

Education

Business

71

62

3.09

4.37

5.83

4.32

t = 1.44, not s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05


Tab le 36

Most S ig n i f ic a n t Problems o f Women in Education

ItemNumber

Equal sa lary fo r equal work 6 24

M ainta in ing p r iva te l i f e 3 23

Feeling o f being alone 7 15

S u ff ic ie n t energy fo r dual ro les 9 13

Being only female a t th is le ve l 8 11

Perceived as woman f i r s t , a dm in is tra to r second 15 11

Advancement opp o rtun ities 2 10

Accepted as equal 4 10

Providing leadership d ire c t io n to male subordinates 10 7

Not being taken se riou s ly as adm in is tra to r 14 7

Acceptance in to inform al clubs 13 6

Lacked experience and background fo r pos ition 11 5

S e tting p r io r i t ie s as a d m in is tra to r, w ife and mother 12 5

Your sex 1 4

Tasks assigned have lim ite d re s p o n s ib il ity 5 3


93

Tab le 37

Most S ig n i f ic a n t Problems o f Women in Business

RankItem

Number

Equal sa la ry fo r equal work 6 32

M ainta in ing p r iva te l i f e 3 15

Accepted as an equal by male co-workers 4 15

Being the only female a t th is leve l 8 12

Advancement opp o rtun ities 2 10

Feeling o f being alone 7 10

S u ff ic ie n t energy fo r dual ro les 9 aS e tting p r io r i t ie s as a d m in is tra to r, w ife and mother 12 8

Perceived as woman f i r s t , adm in is tra to r second 15 8

Your sex 1 7

Providing leadership d ire c t io n to male subordinates 10 7

Tasks assigned have lim ite d re s p o n s ib il ity 5 4

Lacked experience and background fo r p o s itio n 11 2

Acceptance in to inform al clubs 13 2

Not being taken se riou s ly as adm in is tra to r 14 1


to r vs. w ife and mother was more o f a problem to women in business,

who were more o ften married and rank i t 8 th , w h ile fo r women in edu

ca tio n , who were mostly s ing le i t was ranked 13th. Both groups ranked

lacked experience and background fo r the p o s itio n about the same, 12th

by educators, and 13th by women in business.

Tables 38 and 39 d isp lay the re su lts o f the rankings o f the most

in f lu e n t ia l fac to rs fo r in d iv id u a ls being in th e ir present p o s itio n .

These are much more s im ila r than the problems faced by each group.

The top three fac to rs are the same fo r both groups in s l ig h t ly d i f

fe re n t o rder, demonstrated leadership a b i l i t y as f i r s t fo r educators

and second fo r business. Demonstrated professional expertise is

f i r s t fo r business and second fo r educators, w h ile both groups rank

experience as th ird . The next three fac to rs are also c lo se ly ranked

by both groups, being in the r ig h t place a t the r ig h t time is f i f t h

fo r educators and fou rth fo r business. Worked up through the organ

iz a tio n is s ix th fo r educators and f i f t h fo r business. Having th e ir

degree is fo u rth fo r educators w h ile s ix th fo r business. Being a

woman and knowing someone in the organ iza tion is seventh and eighth

fo r both groups in t ie d order. No one considered h e rse lf to be the

only candidate a va ilab le .

Both o f these opinion questions had an op tion fo r o thers, those

can be found in Appendix E.

Respondents were also asked th e ir opin ion about th e ir perception

o f ro le c o n f l ic t they have experienced. Over h a lf , 56 percent, o f

the women in education and 61 percent o f those in business ind ica ted

a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd no. Those th a t elaborated gave responses around


In f lu e n t ia l Factors fo r Placement in Current Position o f Women in Education

Rank f

Demonstrated leadership a b i l i t y 4 47

Demonstrated professional expe rtise 3 45

Experience 2 39

Degree 1 33

Being in the r ig h t place a t the r ig h t time 6 31

Worked up through the organization 8 8

Being a woman 5 6

Knowing someone o f in fluence in the organ iza tion 7 6

No o ther candidate ava ilab le 9 0


96

In f lu e n t ia l Factors fo r Placement in Current Position o f Women in Business

Rank

Demonstrated professional expertise 3 41

Demonstrated leadership a b i l i t y 4 37

Experience 2 31

Being in the r ig h t place a t the r ig h t time 6 19

Worked up through the organ iza tion 8 11

Degree 1 9

Knowing someone o f in fluence in the organ ization 7 3

Being a woman 5 3

No o ther candidate a va ila b le 9 0


97

three general trends: one, not now th a t my ch ild re n are grown; two,

c o n f l ic t in time demands and s e ttin g p r io r i t ie s , and th ree , lack o f

energy to f u l f i l l a l l ro les . One woman in business stated trave l was

d i f f i c u l t on her ch ild re n . Several women responded th a t i t could be

a problem but i t is a m atter o f s e ttin g p r io r i t ie s . A complete l i s t

o f responses can be viewed in Appendix E,

In response to the question o f what was believed to be the

g reatest advantage o f being a female in an a d m in is tra tive p o s itio n ,

a few women answered none, 11 percent o f educators and 16 percent o f

those in business, but those who elaborated made remarks around sev

e ra l themes. A complete l i s t o f responses can be found in Appendix E,

but several o f those themes w i l l be reported here: the a b i l i t y to

express the woman's op in ion, which is not always the same as the male;

being able to be a ro le model fo r o ther women; provides an opportun ity

to co rre c t soc ie ta l cond itions and a t t itu d e s ; and provide a dimension

o f compassion and organiz ing s k i l l . Many women f e l t the advantage

was not in being female but in being an a d m in is tra to r, expressed in

such views as; a fe e lin g o f s a t is fa c tio n , apprec ia tion o f my work,

being e f f ic ie n t , and helping people.

Several women took time to make a d d itio n a l comments, which can

be seen in Appendix D, but b a s ic a lly they focused on extensions o f

the question as to the advantage o f being a female.

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Data

The re su lts o f response to the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire

are present in Table 40. The re su lts are h igh ly s ig n if ic a n t on both


Tab le 40

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire

Education Business

Dimension N X SD N X SD

Consideration 70 60.13 5.85 60 56.77 6.90*

S tructure 70 42.85 5.78 60 48.2 7.86*

*1 t value 3.007, s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05

*2 t value 4.45, s ig n if ic a n t a t pL .05


99

dimensions o f the L.O.Q. The women in education score 60.13 on Con

s id e ra tio n w h ile women in business score 56.77 on th is va riab le . On

the dimension o f S tructure the s ig n ifican ce is in the other d ire c t io n .

The women in business score 48.2 wh ile women in education score 42,85.


CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

I t is the purpose o f Chapter V to summarize the study, draw con

c lu s ions , and make recommendations.

Summary

I t was the purpose o f th is study to discover and report s im i la r i

t ie s and d iffe rences in personal ch a ra c te r is t ic s and leadership s ty les

o f women in educational adm in is tra tion and women in business adminis

t ra t io n . To accomplish th is , fou r steps were taken. F irs t , a sample

o f 150 women in educational adm in is tra tion were selected from the cu r

ren t e d itio n o f Who's Who in America, and a sample o f 150 women in

business were selected from the current e d itio n o f Who's Who in Trade

and In d u s try . Second, p e rtin e n t biographical data and leadership

s ty le data were gathered from th is sample through a mail questionnaire.

Th ird , a l i te ra tu r e search was made in the areas o f leadership behav

io rs and women in education and business in order to trace the major

trends in these areas. Fourth, the data gathered were analyzed to

determine i f there were s im i la r it ie s and d iffe rences between these two

groups o f women.

Many sources were examined to produce a comprehensive summary o f

leadership behavior s tud ies . These sources in d ica te tha t leadership

theories have evolved from simple explanations o f observable behaviors

to complicated, de ta ile d analyses o f complex re la tio n sh ip s . Early


101

research, stress ing the t r a i t s theory, delineated s p e c ific t r a i t s

th a t could be found in leaders th a t would d is tin g u ish the leader from

o ther in d iv id u a ls . This made se lec tion o f leaders a r e la t iv e ly simple

m atter. However, when the e ffectiveness o f leaders was not consistent

and research could not adequately support the t r a i t theory, th e o ris ts

introduced the s itu a tio n a l approach.

The s itu a tio n a l approach concluded tha t the leader's e f fe c t iv e

ness depended on the a b i l i t ie s , aptitudes and background o f the leader

as w ell as on those fac to rs operating in the s itu a t io n . Such fa c to rs ,

as the a b i l i t ie s , a p titudes , backgrounds and goals o f the group mem

bers, then could determine i f a leader was to be successful. This

approach made the se lec tion o f leaders more d i f f i c u l t than the t r a i t s

approach had been. I t im plied th a t a co rre c t assessment o f the s itu a

t io n had to be made before the proper person could be id e n t if ie d to be

i t s leader. This brought researchers back to the study o f how leaders

operate in a s itu a t io n .

The leader's behavior was then spoken in terms o f a s ty le o f

in te ra c tio n w ith group members. Researchers began to speak in terms

o f a leader being o rien ted toward the accomplishment o f tasks or the

s tress ing of-’ human re la tio n sh ip s . Several studies were c ite d tha t

focused on these two dimensions (Hem phill, 1966; Tannenbaum and

Schmidt, 19b/; Hal p in , 1959; Blake and Mouton, 1964 and Reddin, 1972).

A review o f the li te ra tu re revealed few references, other than

doctora l d is s e rta tio n s , concerning the emergence o f women in educa

t io n a l leadership p o s itio n s . The review o f the l i te ra tu r e traced a

b r ie f h is to ry o f the place o f women in education, the present trend


102

o f young women in undergraduate and graduate programs, and the bar

r ie rs and problems facing women in a d m in is tra tive programs. Several

studies were c ite d to give substance to these b a rr ie rs (Feldman, 1974;

Ekstrom, 1972; Taylor, 1972; Matheny, 1973; LaPama, 1972; and Steven

son, 1973). Suggestions were made by several authors fo r change to

a l le v ia te present a ttitu d e s (Fecher, 1972; F ley, 1972; C a rro ll , 1972;

and Koontz, 1972).

The background on women in business was introduced w ith the pre

sent s itu a tio n o f women in the labor fo rce . Studies done by Schwartz,

1972; Lyle and Ross, 1973; and Johnston, 1974 were used to substan tia te

and expand figu res presented by the U.S. Women' s Bureau, in d ic a tin g

the lack o f women in adm in is tra tive p o s itio n s . Several studies were

reviewed th a t explained causes fo r these small numbers and the reasons

behind them (Cussler, 1958; Rosen and Thomas, 1974; Lynch, 1973; D o ll,

1965; and Lyle and Ross, 1973). A lte rn a tiv e so lu tions were provided

by Schwartz (1974) and M artin (1974) th a t focus on re s tru c tu r in g pre

sent work s itu a tio n s . Nord and Costigan (1973) and Coston (1973) both

re la te p o s itive a ttitu d e s from experiments w ith a four-day work week,

which is seen as a possible so lu tio n .

Data were gathered fo r th is study using a standardized instrum ent,

the Leadership Opinion Q uestionnaire, developed by Fleischman out o f

the Ohio State Leadership Studies, and a Biographical Questionnaire

designed by the in ve s tig a to r . These two instruments were used to

gather data to answer th ir te e n research questions. Discussion o f the

comparative f ind ings has been organized around these th ir te e n ques

tio n s . These questions can only be answered in terms o f the women who


103

p a rtic ip a te d in th is study. However, the re su lts may provide in fo r

mation about leadership s ty les and personal c h a ra c te r is t ic s o f women

in the general population in these two areas.

1. Do women in educational adm in is tra tio n have a leadership s ty led i f fe re n t than women in business adm in is tra tion?

a. In tabu la ting the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire how dideach group o f women score on the dimension o f consideration?

b. In tabu la ting the L.O.Q. how did each group o f women score onthe dimension o f s tructu re?

The L.O.Q. data in d ica te there is a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n ce in

leadership s ty le s . On the dimension o f C onsideration, which empha

sizes the human re la tio n s aspect, women in education scored s ig n i f i

ca n tly higher than women in business. The mean scores o f 60.13 fo r

women in education and 56.77 fo r women in business in d ica te th a t women

in education place more emphasis on human re la tio n s aspects o f th e ir

pos itions than do women in business.

On the dimension o f S truc tu re , however, the reverse is tru e ,

women in business scored s ig n if ic a n t ly higher than women in education.

The mean scores o f 48.20 fo r women in business and 42.85 fo r women in

education in d ica te th a t women in business are more task-o rien ted than

women in education.

Schlack (1974), in a study comparing upper management and middle

management student personnel adm in is tra to rs , found when using the

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire, mean scores o f 59.70 and 59.93 re

sp e c tive ly on the dimension o f Consideration. The women educational

adm in is tra to rs in th is study, some o f whom were in student personnel

p o s itio n s , scored s l ig h t ly higher reaching 60.13. On the dimension o f


104

S truc tu re , Schlack (1974) found scores o f 43.17 fo r upper-management

and 44.50 fo r middle-management personnel. The women in th is study

scored s l ig h t ly lower, 42.85, than e ith e r o f the student personnel

ca tegories.

Hennig (1970) found in her study th a t executive women reported a

change in th e ir leadership s ty le a t about age 40. They reported a

change from a closed, task-o rien ted s ty le to one th a t was a more open,

f r ie n d ly , human-relations orien ted . The business women in th is study

do not appear to have made th a t t ra n s it io n . This is not conclusive ,

however, since there is no data to in d ica te what th e ir s ty le was a t an

e a r lie r age.

2. Are these leadership s ty le s consis tent w ith groups predominately o f males who have been tested w ith the L.O.Q.?

Fleischman (1969) does not pub lish mean scores s p e c if ic a lly fo r

educational adm in is tra to rs . He does, however, pub lish means fo r Hos

p i ta l A dm in is tra tors who would appear to be c lo se ly aligned w ith

educational supervisors, in th a t they deal w ith a service as opposed to

a product. The mean given fo r th is group are, 56.0 fo r Consideration

and 43.0 fo r S truc tu re . In comparing the two scores fo r educators in

th is stuoy, 50.13 fo r Consideration and 42.85 fo r S tru c tu re , i t is

apparent th a t they compare favorab ly . Scores fo r women are much higher

on the dimension o f Consideration but s l ig h t ly lower on S tructure .

Fleishman (1969) presents a category o f Educational Supervisors

in the Norms Table (p. 13). A score o f 60.13 fo r Consideration is in

a low-average range, w h ile a 42.85 is in a middle-average range.

From th is data i t can be concluded th a t women educational adminis-


105

tra to rs are consis tent w ith s im ila r groups o f predominately males.

With regard to women in business, Fleishman (1969) presents

scores, as well as norms, fo r executives. The mean given o f 55.3 fo r

Consideration ind ica tes th a t the women in th is study, in business,

score s l ig h t ly higher w ith a mean o f 56.77, For the dimension o f

S truc tu re , the women in business in th is study scored 48.2 w h ile the

mean given by Fleishman is 50.6, in d ica tin g the women score lower on

S truc tu re . In reference to the Norms Table, the women in business in

th is study f a l l in the range o f high-average fo r Consideration and low-

average fo r S tructu re .

I t can be concluded th a t women in business are consis ten t w ith

s im ila r groups o f predominately males on the dimension o f Considera

t io n , and not cons is te n t, in th a t they are lower, on the dimension o f

S truc tu re .

3. Has e ith e r group o f women had more education o r leadership t r a in ing?

The data in d ica te a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence in the leve l o f educa

t io n o f these two groups o f women. Of the women in education, 75%

held the doctorate degree w ith only 5% doing so in business. The

la rg e s t number, 45% o f women in business ind ica ted some co llege w h ile

21 percent were co llege graduates and 29 percent held the masters or

professional degree. Only 18 percent o f those in education held a

masters degree and only 3 percent in d ica ted they had had some co llege .

Stevenson (1972) found the la rg e s t percentage, 79 percent, o f

the women adm in is tra to rs in Big Ten U n ive rs itie s a lso held the doc

to ra te .


106

Schlack (1974), however, found th a t women in general in student

personnel, a t both the upper and middle-management le v e l, held the

masters' degree.

Neither group was pursuing advanced degrees in any great number;

94.5 percent o f the educators and 95 percent o f the women in business

indicated they were not w h ile only 4.5 percent and 5 percent, respec

t iv e ly , ind ica ted they were.

There were no s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n sh ip s shown by the data w ith

regard to leadership tra in in g . In response to whether o r not they had

had leadership tra in in g on the jo b , 45 percent o f the educators and 48

percent o f those in business responded a f f irm a t iv e ly . A s l ig h t ly

higher percent, 60 percent o f those women in business, re p lie d th a t

they had leadership tra in in g in a seminar or workshop, compared to 45

percent fo r those in education. Only 14 percent o f those in education

and 10 percent o f those in business ind ica ted having had a formal degree

tra in in g in leadership. As to having had no tra in in g in leadership the

response was nearly equal, 70 percent fo r educators and 69 percent fo r

business. Several women in both groups ind ica ted they had more than

one type o f t ra in in g , consequently the numbers do not to ta l 100 per

cent.

In conclusion, the women in business in d ica te a s l ig h t ly higher

percentage o f seminar or workshop t ra in in g , w h ile women in education

in d ica te a s l ig h t ly higher percentage having had formal degree pro

grams.

4. Do both groups o f women e x h ib it the same variab les in th e ir fa m ily backgrounds?


107

To answer th is question data w i l l be examined re la t iv e to the

employment and educational le ve ls o f the parents and the number o f

s ib lin g s fo r each group. Other aspects o f fam ily background w i l l be

discussed la te r .

Responses from both groups o f women in d ica te tha t many mothers

d id not work a t a l l , 66 percent o f those in education and 55 percent

o f those in business. An equal number, 10 percent, ind icated th e ir

mothers did not work w h ile the ch ild ren were young and then worked

p a rt-tim e , w h ile 6 percent o f those in education and 11 percent o f

those in business had mothers who did not work w h ile the ch ild ren were

young and then worked fu l l - t im e . Women in education in d ica te th a t 7.5

percent had mothers who worked fu l l - t im e as did 10 percent o f those in

business. Mothers who worked p a rt-tim e , on and o f f , were reported by

8.5 percent o f those women in education and 8 percent o f those in

business.

The leve l a t which mothers worked also did not d isp lay any s ig n i f i

cant d iffe re n ce . The la rg e s t percentage in e ith e r group o f those whose

mothers worked were educators who in d ica te 13 percent a t the profes

sional le v e l; th is compared to 9.5 percent fo r women in business. Women

in business had a s l ig h t ly higher number o f mothers (9.5%) a t the busi

ness/managerial leve l than educators, who repo rt 6 percent. At the

s k il le d le v e l, 6 percent are reported by the women in education and 8.5

percent by women in business. S em i-sk illed and un sk ille d have small

numbers reported; a to ta l o f 4 percent fo r women in education and 3

percent fo r women in business.


108

The data fo r fa th e rs ' leve l o f employment ind ica tes there is a

s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n ce between the two groups. Women in education

have a greater percent, 76 percent, o f fa the rs employed a t the pro

fessional or business/managerial leve l than women in business, who

in d ica te a 60 percent to ta l . Women in business have a la rg e r percent

age a t the farm and service le v e l, 23 percent compared to 11 percent

fo r those in education. Women in business also have a la rge r percent

age, 18 percent, a t the u n s k ille d , se m i-sk illed and s k il le d leve l than

do women in education who in d ica te only 13 percent a t th is le v e l.

Schlack (1974) also found tha t most o f the fa the rs o f the student

personnel women were employed a t the professional o r business/mana

g e ria l le ve ls .

The data fo r the mothers' leve l o f education ind ica tes there is

no s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n ce between the two group o f women. Both groups

in d ica te a small number o f th e ir mothers had graduate or professional

degrees, 6 percent o f the mothers o f educators and 8 percent o f those

in business. As co llege graduates, women in education repo rt 15.5

percent and women in business report 15 percent. Some co llege or

other school was reported by 24 percent o f those in education and 23

percent o f those in business. As high school graduates, women in

education report 21 percent fo r th e ir mothers w h ile 32 percent o f

those in business. A grammar school education was reported by 17

percent o f the educators and 13 percent o f the women in business.

Neither group o f s ib lin g s , brothers o r s is te rs , show any s ig n i f i

cant d iffe rences . Both groups appear to have nearly the same fam ily

s ize . Only 10 percent o f both groups in d ica te they had more than fou r


109

brothers and only 3 percent o f the educators and 5 percent o f the

women in business report more than fou r s is te rs . The la rg e s t numbers,

between 30 and 40 percent, fo r e ith e r group appear fo r one bro ther and

one s is te r .

In conclusion, there appears to be l i t t l e d iffe rence in the

fa m ily background o f these two groups o f women, w ith the exception o f

fa th e rs ' employment le v e l.

5. Are there patterns o f va riab les consistent w ith o ther studies?

a. b ir th order


Several studies th a t focus on leaders ascerta in th a t the only or

e ldes t c h ild 1 earn to be leaders. In th is study i t was found th a t 61

percent o f the women in education and 66 percent o f those in business

were on ly , o ldes t or o ldest female in th e ir fam ily . Hennig (1970)

found th is to be true fo r a l l 25 executives she in terviewed. Schlack

(1974) also found th a t among the women student personnel adm in is tra

to rs in her study, 75 percent were the o ldest female c h ild .

The women in th is study did not repo rt e ith e r parent to have had

a greater in fluence on them. Both groups reported la rge percentages

fo r both parents equally having in fluenced them, 52 percent fo r women

educators and 37 percent fo r business women. Those th a t did choose,

show fa the rs in fluenced 14 percent o f the women in education and 26

percent o f the women in business, and mothers in fluenced 20 percent

and 18 percent respec tive ly .

Hennig (1970) found the women executives had had greater fa th e r

in fluence , w h ile Schlack (1974) found the reverse, student personnel


n o

women had been genera lly in fluenced by mothers.

From th is data i t may be concluded th a t the women in th is study

are consis tent w ith other studies w ith respect to b ir th order but

show no d e f in ite trend toward parental in fluence .

6 . Is one group o f women more mobile than the other?

Both groups have been a t th e ir present job fo r a r e la t iv e ly long

period o f tim e, but women in business have been a t th is jo b tw ice as

long as women in education, the average number o f years being 7 fo r

women educators and approximately 15 fo r business women. In the two

previous jobs there is l i t t l e d iffe re n ce , women educators were on the

job approximately 7 years and businesswomen 5 years. The th ird job

reported also was not much d if fe re n t , 5 years fo r women educators and

approximately fou r years fo r businesswomen.

In conclusion, w ith respect to the p os ition c u rre n tly being held,

women educators appear to be more mobile than businesswomen.

7. How do the two groups o f women compare as to m arita l and fam ily status?

These two groups o f women e x h ib it basic d iffe rences in terms o f

m arita l status and the size o f th e ir fa m ilie s . Approximately three-

fou rths o f the women in education reported being s in g le , whereas only

one-fourth o f those in business are. Of those educators who were

m arried, most o f them were in th e ir f i r s t marriage. Of the women in

business one -th ird are in th e ir f i r s t marriage, about 20 percent in a

second marriage and 15 percent have been widowed. The number o f sepa

ra tio n s o r divorces is less than 10 percent fo r both groups. Schlack

(1974) found the same to be tru e fo r women in student personnel, two-


n i

th ird s were unmarried. Gardner (1966) concluded th a t o f the women

a dm in is tra to rs in I l l i n o i s , s in g le women a tta ined adm in is tra tive

pos itions easier than did married women.

In both groups those who are married have been married fo r a

r e la t iv e ly long period o f time. Women in businees, however, have

been married s ig n if ic a n t ly longer, 85 percent o f these women have

been married 10 years o r more as compared to 56 percent o f those in

education.

There is l i t t l e d iffe re n ce in the number o f ch ild ren each group

have. Many repo rt no ch ild re n , 27 percent o f the educators and 13

percent o f the business women. Approximately one -ha lf o f each group

have one or two ch ild ren and about o n e -th ird have 3 or more.

The basic d iffe re n c e , then, in these two groups is th e ir m arita l

s ta tu s ; women in educational adm in is tra tio n are more o ften s ing le than

women in business.

General population s ta t is t ic s reported in the 1974 S ta t is t ic a l

Abstract show th a t women in the age group o f 45-54 in d ica te 4,7 per

cent being s in g le w h ile 86,1 percent are m arried. In the 55-65 age

group 5,4 percent are s in g le w h ile 69 percent are married. This

ind ica tes th a t the women in business are genera lly consis ten t w ith the

general population but the women in education are not,

8 , Do these women perceive any ro le c o n f lic t?

Even though most o f the women in business were married and had

ch ild re n the responses to perceiv ing ro le c o n f l ic t were mostly nega

t iv e . The comments made were w ith respect to c o n f lic ts in managing

time and s e ttin g p r io r i t ie s . The women educators responded like w ise .


112

The conclusion based on the data provided by the businesswomen

and a small percentage o f the women educators in th is study, i t is

possib le to have a career, a marriage and a fam ily and be successful

a t a l l th ree , but i t does take s k i l l in being able to manage one's

time.

Based on the data provided in th is study and s im ila r data from

the studies done by Schlack (1974) and Gardner (1966) i t appears th a t

women in educational adm in is tra tio n have chosen not to combine mar

ria g e , fam ily w ith a career. This has perhaps been the case since

education, being a woman's f ie ld has not provided ample opportun ity

fo r mate se le c tio n . Consequently those women in education who have

not married e a rly in th e ir career have had the time and energy to

continue th e ir education to become e l ig ib le fo r adm in is tra tive posi

tio n s . Another possib le explanation o f th is phenomena is th a t those

needs th a t are f u l f i l l e d through marriage and a fam ily are also f u l

f i l l e d through working w ith young people as students in education,

the re fo re women educators have not f e l t the need to be married. I t

must also be remembered th a t when women began to teach they were

required to remain s in g le or they lo s t th e ir p o s itio n , so i t has been

tra d it io n a l th a t women in education were s in g le .

9. Do any o f the fo llo w in g va riab les a f fe c t the re su lts o f the responses o f e ith e r group:

age

sa la ry

s ize o f in s t i tu t io n or organ iza tion

p ub lica tions


113

fe m in is t a f f i l i a t i o n

A. Age - the women in both groups were evenly d is tr ib u te d .

Approximately 90 percent o f both groups were 45 o r over.

Stevenson (1971) found the women in her study were also in

th is age group. Schlack (1973) found the average age o f the

student personnel women to be 40.

B. Salary - the women in education in th is study were rece iv ing

approximately one thousand d o lla rs more, on the average,

than women in business, $23,300 compared to $22,400. This

did in d ica te a s ig n if ic a n t d iffe re n ce . This is to be ex

pected in terms o f the le ve l o f education reached by the

educators. However, more women in business were earning

over fo r ty thousand d o lla rs .

C. Size o f in s t i tu t io n or o rgan iza tion - there was a s ig n i f i

cant d if fe re n t in the employing agent. Approximately fo u r-

f i f t h s o f the women in business work fo r firm s under a

thousand employees. The women in education had about one-

th ird o f i ts group in each category.

This may be an in d ica tio n th a t women in business have

more o f an opportun ity to reach adm in is tra tive pos itions w ith

a small f irm , w h ile in education the size o f the in s t i tu t io n

is not a determining fa c to r .

D. Pub lica tions - the only type o f p u b lica tion th a t reached a

s ig n if ic a n t d iffe rence is papers presented a t professional

meetings. Women in education have published tw ice as many

as those in business. However, the other types o f pub lica -


114

tio n s are nearly the same. Both groups have published books,

a r t ic le s in th e ir f ie ld and a r t ic le s outside th e ir f ie ld .

E. Feminist a f f i l i a t io n - n e ith e r group reported being very

a c tive in fe m in is t o rgan izations. With respect to the

average age o f both groups o f women, th is is to be expected.

10. Has T i t le V II o f the C iv il Rights Act had an impact on promotions and job placement?

Only one women in e ith e r group ind ica ted th a t her cu rren t job

had been secured due to recent le g is la t io n . Since most o f the women

in business have been in th e ir present p o s itio n almost f if te e n years

th is is not s u rp ris in g . Even though women in education have been a t

th e ir present job fo r approximately seven years, they also were too

e a rly fo r le g is la t iv e impact.

This top ic needs to be assessed w ith a group o f younger women

who have secured th e ir cu rren t pos itions w ith in the la s t three or

fou r years.

11. How do these women perceive the problems fo r women in administ ra t iv e positions?

The la rge s t number in both groups see the problem o f equal sa lary

fo r equal work as the greatest problem. M aintaining a p r iva te l i f e

was also expressed by many as a problem. The fe e lin g o f being alone

and being the only female a t th a t leve l were reported as problems by

many in both groups. Advancement o p p o rtun ities and being accepted

as an equal by male co-workers was a lso a problem to a few.

Many women in education responded th a t being in a ty p ic a l woman's

f ie ld they experienced no problems.

Lynch (1973) found th a t the s k i l l most d i f f i c u l t to develop was


115

th a t o f de legation o f a u th o r ity , which in th is study was on ly a

problem to less than ten percent o f e ith e r group.

12. What fa c to rs have been most in f lu e n t ia l to these women in obta in ing th e ir cu rren t p o s itio n o f leadership?

The most in f lu e n t ia l fa c to rs , reported by both groups are the

fo llo w in g :

Demonstrated professional expe rtise

Demonstrated leadership a b i l i t y

Experience

Being in the r ig h t place a t the r ig h t time

Worked up through the organ iza tion

Degree, fo r those in education

13. What do these women be lieve to be the greatest advantage o f being a female in an a d m in is tra tive pos ition?

Several women in both groups f e l t there were no advantages, but

those th a t did f e l t th a t b a s ic a lly i t was serving as a ro le model fo r

o ther women, helping o ther women, and helping people. Many f e l t th a t

the advantages were not p a r t ic u la r to women but in being an admini

s tra to r .

As a re s u lt o f fu r th e r s ta t is t ic a l ana lys is , the data from the

Leadership Opinion Questionnaire suggested th a t there were d iffe rences

between women in educational adm in is tra tio n and women in business

adm in is tra tio n . Ten o f these observations reached s ta t is t ic a l s ig n i f i -

1. More s in g le women were found in the group o f women in educatio n .

2. Of those women who were m arried, women in business tended to be married fo r a longer period o f time.


3. More women in education had fa the rs who were employed a t the professional le v e l.

4. Women in business were employed by sm aller organizations than women in education.

5. Women in education were rece iv ing a higher average sa la ry .

6 . Women in education had achieved higher academic degrees.

7. Women in business had been a t th e ir present p o s itio n fo r alonger period o f time.

8. Women in education had published more papers fo r professional meetings.

9. Women in education scored higher on the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire on the dimension o f Consideration.

10. Women in business scored higher on Lhe Leadership OpinionQuestionnaire on the dimension o f S truc tu re .

To summarize these d iffe re n ce s , the women in education are s in g le ,

they more o ften have fa the rs a t the professional le v e l, they genera lly

work fo r a la rge u n iv e rs ity , earn a higher sa la ry than those women in

business, present more published papers a t p rofessional meetings and

score higher on Consideration in th e ir leadership s ty le . These d e f i

n i te ly emphasize the aspect th a t women in education are ca reer-o rien ted .

Women in business, however, are m arried, have been fo r a re la t iv e ly

longer period , are employed by a small f irm , have been w ith th is firm

fo r a long time and score higher than education women on S tructure in

th e ir leadership s ty le . These emphasis an element o f s t a b i l i t y in

both career and fam ily .

These s ig n if ic a n t fin d in g s , together w ith those prev ious ly men

tioned should in d ica te th a t the myth o f "woman's place is in the home"

is purely th a t, myth. I t also ind ica tes th a t women are capable o f

holding to p -le ve l p o s itio n s . I t assumes th a t they are being e ffe c t iv e


117

or they, most l i k e ly , would not have remained in th e ir pos itions fo r

such a long period o f tim e. These f in d in g s , and o thers, should be a

c le a r in d ica tio n th a t i f d isc rim in a tio n towards women as adm in is tra

to rs is taking place, i t is not v a lid .

The find ings in d ica te th a t both groups o f women could p r o f i t from

leadership tra in in g to balance th e ir leadership s ty le s . This has im

p lic a tio n s fo r those who aspire to leadership pos itions in the fu tu re ;

th is aspect can be planned fo r in advance.

I t should be noted tha t these f in d in g s , even though they may be

s ig n if ic a n t, should not be used as a c r it e r ia to se lec t women fo r

a d m in is tra tive p o s itio n s . More women need to be in a dm in is tra tive

pos itions and fu r th e r research needs to be conducted before se lec tion

c r i t e r ia can be sp ec ified .

Concluding Remarks

The focus o f th is study was to determine i f there were s im i la r i

t ie s o r d iffe rences in two groups o f women adm in is tra to rs , those in

education and those in business.

I t appears th a t three basic d iffe rences stand out. F irs t , the

leadership s ty les o f these groups are very d i f fe re n t. Women in educa

t io n have an emphasis on the human re la tio n s aspect w h ile women in

business are o rien ted toward task re la t io n s . This is to be expected

since each group has a d if fe re n t emphasis in th e ir work. Women in

education deal more w ith people as a service w h ile those in business

are more concerned w ith production and p r o f i t and loss. The im p lica

tions o f th is are th a t each group could b e n e fit by some tra in in g in


118

the area in which they are low. Women educators may b e n e fit by

add itiona l tra in in g to give greater s tress to task o r ie n ta t io n . There

c e r ta in ly are tasks th a t need to be accomplished in any a d m in is tra tive

p o s itio n . A dd itiona l tra in in g may improve e ffectiveness in th is area

and give a be tte r balance to th e ir ove ra ll s ty le . Women in business

d e f in ite ly need to deal w ith people to accomplish th e ir goals o f

p roduction; t ra in in g th a t would increase e ffectiveness in the area o f

improved human re la tio n s may also tend to increase production. I t

would also lead to a more balanced s ty le fo r the women in business.

Second, the d iffe re n ce in m arita l status is astounding. Both

groups o f women s ta rted th e ir careers long before i t was fashionable

fo r women to work, however, more women in business had a career and a

fa m ily . Neither group cla im to have had a serious problem w ith ro le

c o n f l ic t as is o ften reported in the fe m in is t l i te ra tu re .

T h ird , the educational leve l has been o f much greater importance

to be able to reach an a d m in is tra tive leve l in education than i t is

in business. I t re s u lts in more money, however, fo r those in educa

t io n .

Consequently, i t appears, based on data in th is study, th a t i t

has been easier to reach an a d m in is tra tive leve l in business than i t

has been in education.

Suggestions fo r Further Study

The procedures and re su lts obtained in th is study were f e l t to

be adequate fo r a p re lim inary study. However, several improvements

would be advisable fo r any subsequent study. The use o f the Leader-


119

ship Opinion Questionnaire is not advised. Many women expressed

fru s tra t io n and d is s a tis fa c tio n w ith i t s questions. Many f e l t i t was

o ld-fash ioned. Some women f e l t the author manipulated th e ir responses

by se lec tion o f choices. The B iographical Questionnaire could have

e l ic ite d more s p e c ific in form ation re la ted to career o r ie n ta tio n . The

use o f Who's Who as a source is not advisable. I t was found th a t

pos itions and addresses were not cu rre n t.

Therefore, several suggestions fo r fu rth e r study can be recom

mended. Among these are:

1. An assessment o f leadership s ty les needs to be co rre la ted

w ith an assessment o f e ffec tiveness. Further study is

needed to determine i f people, female and male, who hold

a d m in is tra tive positions are successful and why. This could

be done by a survey o f superiors , e ith e r in an in te rv ie w or

w ith the use o f an assessment to o l.

2. S im ila r research needs to be ca rried out w ith younger women,

to determine i f the d iffe rences th a t e x is t in th is study

both personal and professional are cons is ten t. This could be

fa c i l i ta te d by using another source from which to draw the

sample.

3. Research is needed to determine the number o f women who are

in te res ted in becoming adm in is tra to rs but who d o n 't make i t .

The reasons why they d id n 't make i t need to be explored.

This could be fa c i l i ta te d by surveying women graduates in

several areas to f in d i f th e ir in te re s ts have been thwarted.


120

4. Educational p ractices and p o lic ie s a t the elementary and

secondary leve l need to be researched to determine where

and i f women are in s t i l le d w ith a "fe a r o f success", a lso ,

where by omission, women are not encouraged to aspire to

h igh -leve l p os itions .

5. Further research is needed to compare women in educational

leadership w ith women in other leadership pos itions to

determine i f the re s u lts are consis tent w ith those in th is

study.


121

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APPENDIX A

TABLE 1


TABLE 1

Estimated Number and Percent D is tr ib u tio n o f F u ll- tim e Public School Employees, 1972-73, by Sex

Position 1INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF Teachers

Number o f Persons Total Men Women

2____________3___________4

Percentage D is tr ib u tio n Total Men Women

5_________6________7___

2,110,368 709,084 1 ,401 ,284 100.0 33.5 66.4

P rin c ipa lsElementary ( in c lu d in g teach

ing p r in c ip a ls )Junior High Senior High

Total p r in c ip a ls

A ss is tan t p r in c ip a ls Elementary Jun ior High Senior High

Total ass is tan t p r in c ip a ls

Other in s tru c tio n a l s ta f f School 1ib ra r icn s Counselors School nurses Other (a)

Total o ther in s tru c tio n a l s ta f f Total in s tru c tio n a l s ta f f

48,196 38,750 9,446 100.0 80.4 19.6

9,374 9,102 272 100.0 97.1 2.915,827 15,605 222 100.0 98.6 1.4

73,397 63,457 9,940 100.0 86.5 13.5

6,483 4,486 1,997 100.0 69.2 30.87,817 7,223 594 100.0 92.4 7.6

13,289 12,439 850 100.0 93.6 6.4

27,589 24,148 3,441 100.0 87.5 12.5

40,540 3,324 37,216 100.0 8.2 91.849,770 26,378 23,392 100.0 53.0 47.017,074 239 16,835 100.0 1.4 98.633,691 16,812 16,879 100.0 49.9 50.1

141,075 46,753 94,322 100.0 33.1 66.9,352,429 843,442 1 ,508,987 100.0 35.9 64.1

(CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE)

P o s it io n T o ta lNumber o f Persons

Men WomenPercentage D is tr ib u tio nT o ta l Men Women

1 2 3 4 5 6 7C e n tra l-O ffice Adm in is tra torsSuperintendents 13,037 12,972 65 100.0 99.9 0.1Deputy and associate superin 853 800 53 100.0 93.8 6.2

tendentsA ss is tan t superintendents 5,337 5,054 283 100.0 94.7 5.3Other c e n tra l-o f f ic e adminis 48,488 31,614 16,874 100.0 65.0 35.0

tra to rs (b)

Total c e n tra l-o f f ic e adminis 67,715 50,440 17,275 100.0 74.4 25.6tra to rs

Total Full-T im e Professional 2,420,144 893,882 1,526,262 100.0 37.2 62.8Employees

(a) includes heads o f departments, soc ia l workers, v is i t in g teachers, psycho log ists, and psychometrists

(b) includes centra l o f f ic e adm in is tra tors fo r General A d m in is tra tion , Finance and School P lan t, Pupil Personnel Services, In s tru c tio n - A d m in is tra tion , and Special areas.

BIOGRAPHICAL QUESTIONNAIRE

2. T i t le

What is your age? ( ) 30 or under ( ) 30-44 ( ) 45-54 ( ) over 54

( ) Three or fou r

4. What is your m arita l status?) S ingle ( ) M arried, f i r s t time ( ) Remarried) Separated, Divorced ( ) Widowed

f m arried, how long? ( ) Less than fou r years) For 5-10 years ( ) More than 10 years

How many ch ild ren do you have?‘ ) None ( ) One ( ) Two

) Five or more

What leve l o f education have you completed?) High School ( ) Some co llege ( ) College graduate) M aster's or p rofessional degree ( ) Doctoral degree

7. Are you now working on an advanced degree? ( ) Yes ( ) No

8 . Have you had any type o f leadership tra in in g ? ( ) Yes, onthe jo b ( ) Yes, Seminar, workshop, e tc . ( ) Yes, formaldegree program ( ) No

9. What is your sa lary range? ( ) Under $15,000' ) $15,000 to $19,999 ( ) $20,000 to $29,999

) $30,000 to $40,000 ( ) Over $40,000

What is the s ize o f the in s t i tu t io n or organ iza tion in which you are employed, in terms o f employees?' ) Under 250 ( ) 250 to 999 ( ) 1,000 to 2,499

) 2,500 to 4,999 ( ) 5,000 or over

Did your fa the r work w h ile you were growing up?) Worked f u l l time throughout my childhood ) Worked part tim e, or f u l l time on and o f f throughout

my childhood ) Did not work a t a l l ) Father not a t home, deceased, separated

12. Your fa th e r 's p r in c ip a l occupation w h ile you were growing up. ) U nskilled ( ) S em i-sk illed ( ) S k ille d) Farmer ( ) Service occupations; p o lic e , f i r e , e tc .) Business or managerial


14.

Did your mother work when you were growing up?) Worked f u l l time throughout my childhood) Worked pa rt tim e, f u l l time on and o f f , through my

childhood) Did not work w h ile her ch ild ren were very young, then

worked f u l l time ) Did not work w h ile her ch ild ren were very young, then

worked pa rt time ) Did not work a t a l l ) Mother not a t home, deceased, separated

Your mother's p r in c ip a l occupation w h ile you were growing up. ( ) U nskilled ( ) S em i-sk illed ( ) S k ille d( ) Professional ( ) Business or managerial( ) Homemaker

15. What is the highest le ve l o f education obtained by your parents or guardians? (C irc le one fo r each parent or g ua rd ian .)

Father123456

Mother12345

GrammarSome high school High school graduate Some co llege o r other school College graduate Graduate degree or professional

16. Which parent do you be lieve had the greatest in fluence on your career asp ira tions?( ) Neither ( ) Mother ( ) Father ( ) Both, equa lly

17. Which c h ild are you?( ) Only ( ) Youngest ( ) Oldest ( ) Middle c h ild

18. How many brothers and s is te rs did you have w h ile growing up? (C irc le one fo r each group.)

Brothers1234 or more

S iste rs1234 or more

19. L is t , in chronological o rder, beginning w ith the present, the la s t three p ro fess ion a l, f u l l time pos itions you have held:

T i t le Type o f Organization Dates Held


T i t l e Type o f O rg a n iz a tio n

20. Do you have reason to believe your la s t promotion or job was secured due to compliance w ith recent le g is la t io n on women's r igh ts?( ) Yes ( ) No

21. Have you published? ( I f so, enter the number)

Number o f a r t ic le s w ith in your f ie ld _____Number o f papers presented in professional meetings, otherthan above _____Number o f books _____Number o f pub lica tions not re la ted to your profession _____

22. Ind ica te the number o f any o f the fo llow ing organ iza tions in which you cu rre n tly hold membership. Professional organizations Feminist organizations C iv ic , church o r other organizations

23.

24.

What have you experienced to be your most s ig n if ic a n t problems as a woman adm in istra tor? (Check the top th re e .)

) Your sex) Advancement opp ortun ities ) M aintaining a p riva te l i f e ) Accepted as an equal by male co-workers ) Tasks assigned have re s tr ic te d scope o f re s p o n s ib il ity ) Equal sa la ry fo r equal work ) Feeling o f being alone ) Being the only female a t th is level ) S u ff ic ie n t energy fo r fam ily and professional ro les ) Providing leadership d ire c tio n s to male subordinates ) Lacked essen tia l experience and background fo r pos ition ) Se tting p r io r it ie s as adm in is tra to r vs. w ife and mother ) Acceptance in to the informal c lubs, meetings, luncheons,

e tc.) Not being taken se riou s ly as an adm in is tra to r ) Perceived as a woman f i r s t and an adm in is tra to r second ) Other, please specify : ______________________________

n your judgment, what do you consider to be the most in f lu e n t ia l fa c to rs th a t caused you to be in your cu rren t p o s itio n o f leadership? (Check the top th re e .)

) Degree ) Experience) Demonstrated professional expe rtise


( ) Demonstrated leadership a b i l i t y( ) Being a woman( ) Being in the r ig h t place a t the r ig h t time( ) Knowing someone o f in fluence in the o rgan iza tion( ) Worked up through the organ iza tion( ) No other candidate a va ila b le( ) Other, exp la in : _________________________________

25. Would you l ik e a copy o f the abs trac t fo r th is study?( ) Yes ( ) No I f yes, in d ica te address where i t isto be sent:

26. Do you perceive any c o n f l ic t concerning your fam ily ro le , your ro le as a woman and your ro le as an adm in is tra tor?

27. What do you perceive to be the greatest advantage o f being a female in an adm in is tra tive position? __________________

28. Any a dd itiona l comments:


APPENDIX B

INSTRUMENTATION


136WISTSRN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY 'CÔÎUOE OF EDUCATION

It of Educational Uadonhtp

J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 9 7 5

I h a v e s e l e c t e d y o u r n a m e a s a n e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r f r o m t h e 1 9 ? 4 e d i t i o n o f W h o ' s Who i n A m e r i c a . As p a r t o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L e a d e r s h i p a t W e s t e r n M i c h i g a n U n i v e r s i t y , I am c o m p l e t i n g a s t u d y on t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s a n d p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f wo me n i n e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d wo me n i n b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

I t h i n k y o u w i l l a g r e e , t h a t t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w wo me n i n t o p l e v e l p o s i t i o n s i n e i t h e r e d u c a t i o n o r b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e r e a r e e v e n f e w e r i n - d e p t h s t u d i e s t h a t d e a l w i t h t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s o r p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e p r e s e n t l e a d e r s , I am a t t e m p t i n g t o a d d t o t h e s e s t u d i e s w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h . W i t h y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n I b e l i e v e t h i s i s p o s s i b l e .

T h e r e a r e t wo q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o b e c o m p l e t e d : T h e L e a d e r s h i p O p i n i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , w h i c h e l i c i t s y o u r o p i n i o n . W i t h t h i s i n s t r u m e n t I h o p e t o e s t a b l i s h a p a t t e r n o f r e s p o n s e s o f s u c c e s s f u l wo me n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o p u b l i s h e d m a l e n o r m s . T h e s e c o n d i n s t r u m e n t i s a b a s i c b i o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h i s w i l l b e u s e d t o g a t h e r b a s i c d a t a a n d p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o s u b s t a n t i a t e o r r e f u t e m a n y o f t h e m y t h s o f " w o m a n ' s p l a c e " , I b e l i e v e b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d t a k e a m i n i m u m o f f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . I t i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u m a k e a r e s p o n s e t o a l 1 o f t h e q u e s t i o n s on b o t h q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,

I am a w a r e t h a t y o u a r e v e r y b u s y a t t h i s t i m e o f t h e y e a r , b u t I am c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e t i m e s p e n t w i l l b e w e l l w o r t h t h e r e s u l t s ; w i t h y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n I b e l i e v e I c a n i n s u r e a s t u d y t h a t w i l l p r o v i d e a n i m p a c t i n t h i s a r e a . A l l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l a n d u n i d e n t i f i a b l e .

E n c l o s e d i s a r e t u r n , s t a m p e d , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d e n v e l o p e f o r y o u r c o n v e n i e n c e , I f y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e on t h e B i o g r a p h i c a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( Q u e s t i o n ^ 2 5 ) ,

P l e a s e r e t u r n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e . T h a n k y o u i n a d v a n c e f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n .

S i n c e r e l y ,

C l a r a R , B e n e d e t t i


w n w m i M i < H I O * l l M M I V I M I T T ____________ ,37

COUIOI Of BOUCATION I 1C A I AM A I O O, M I C H I 0AM«I MwoMwml WwkmMp ■

J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 9 7 5

D e a r Ms ,

I h a v e s e l e c t e d y o u r n a m e a s a wo ma n i n b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f r o m t h e 1 9 7 ^ e d i t i o n o f W h o ' s Who i n F i n a n c e a n d I n d u s t r i e s , As p a r t o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f L e a d e r s h i p a t W e s t e r n M i c h i g a n U n i v e r s i t y , I am c o m p l e t i n g a s t u d y o n t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s a n d p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f wo me n i n e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d wo me n i n b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

I t h i n k y o u w i l l a g r e e , t h a t t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w wo me n i n t o p l e v e l p o s i t i o n s i n e i t h e r e d u c a t i o n o r b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e r e a r e e v e n f e w e r i n - d e p t h s t u d i e s t h a t d e a l w i t h t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s o r p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e p r e s e n t l e a d e r s , I am a t t e m p t i n g t o a d d t o t h e s e s t u d i e s w i t h t h i s r e s e a r c h . W i t h y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n I b e l i e v e t h i s i s p o s s i b l e .

T h e r e a r e t w o q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t o b e c o m p l e t e d ; T h e L e a d e r s h i p O p i n i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , w h i c h e l i c i t s y o u r o p i n i o n . W i t h t h i s i n s t r u m e n t I h o p e t o e s t a b l i s h a p a t t e r n Of r e s p o n s e s o f s u c c e s s f u l wo me n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y a r e c o m p a r a b l e t o p u b l i s h e d m a l e n o r m s . T h e s e c o n d i n s t r u m e n t i s a b a s i c b i o g r a p h i c a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h i s w i l l b e u s e d t o g a t h e r b a s i c d a t a a n d p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o s u b s t a n t i a t e o r r e f u t e m a n y o f t h e m y t h s o f " w o m a n ' s p l a c e " , I b e l i e v e b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d t a k e a m i n i m u m o f f o r t y - f i v e m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . I t i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h a t y o u m a k e a r e s p o n s e t o a l l o f t h e q u e s t i o n s o n b o t h q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,

I am a w a r e t h a t y o u a r e v e r y b u s y a t t h i s t i m e o f t h e y e a r , b u t I am c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e t i m e s p e n t w i l l b e w e l l w o r t h t h e r e s u l t s ; w i t h y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n I b e l i e v e I c a n i n s u r e a s t u d y t h a t w i l l p r o v i d e a n i m p a c t i n t h i s a r e a . A l l i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l r e m a i n c o n f i d e n t i a l a n d u n i d e n t i f i a b l e .

E n c l o s e d i s a r e t u r n , s t a m p e d , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d e n v e l o p e f o r y o u r c o n v e n i e n c e . I f y o u a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e o n t h e B i o g r a p h i c a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( Q u e s t i o n # 2 5 ) ,

P l e a s e r e t u r n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e , T h a n k y o u i n a d v a n c e f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n .

S i n c e r e l y ,

C l a r a R , B e n e d e t t i


APPENDIX C

COMMUNICATION


WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY ICOIUOI OF EDUCATION Dapmtmant of Educational Uadtnhip

January 31, 1975

Dear A dm in is tra to r,

I recen tly mailed to you m ate ria ls p e rtinen t to my study on women adm in is tra tors in business and education.

I know you have a very busy schedule and a mountain o f paperwork, but there are so few women l ik e you in responsible a d m in is tra tive p o s itio n s , I r e a lly need your cooperation.

I f you have already returned the m a te ria l, I thank you.

S incere ly ,

Clara R. Benedetti


APPENDIX D

TITLES RECORDED FOR RESPONDENTS


Women in E d u ca tio n a l A d m in is t ra t io n

President 12 17

V ice-President 5 7

Dean o f the College 11 16

Dean o f Students 6 8

Associate Dean o f Students 3 4

D irec to r 5 7

Associate D irec to r 5 7

A ss is tan t D irec to r 2 3

Dean o f Nursing 11 16

Dean o f Home Economics 7 10

Dean o f L ib ra ry Science 3 4

Dean o f Law School 1 1

TOTAL 71 100


140

Women in Business A d m in is t ra t io n

President 16 26

Owner 11 18

E d ito r 3 5

V ice-President 12 19

Secretary/Treasurer 3 5

Partner 6 9.5

D irec to r 5 8

Manager 3 5

A dm in is tra tor 2 3

Executive 1 1.5

TOTAL 62 100


APPENDIX E

W ritten Comments on Questions 23, 24, 26

and 27 from The B iographical Questionnaire


A d d it io n a l problems experienced by women a d m in is t ra to rs . Q uestion 2 3 .

Women in education :

being involved in decision-making

t ry in g to be honest in a r ip - o f f world

need to demonstrate competence before accepted by males, th e ir

am a member o f <i re lig io u s order and there fore have had no problem-I have always been competent and hope th a t I have accepted fo r i t

learn ing the job

Women in business:

no opportun ity to serve in high positions in s ta te or national o rganizations

hard work

men attempted to take the business through devious court action

keeping a husband happy w hile working


142

A d d it io n a l i n f lu e n t ia l f a c to r s , Q uestion 24.

Women in education :

iny husband'd assistance

Women in b t^ ir ie ss :

w i l l in g to work to succeed regardless o f hours, i t was my own money

hard work

damn hard work

d rive to succeed in the e f fo r t

born leader

hard work and long hours

I had to make money

w il l in g to r is k owning my own company

took over a f te r death o f my husband


W rit te n comments to Q uestion 26.

Ques tio n : Do you perceive andy c o n f l ic t concerning your fam ilyro le , your ro le as a woman and your ro le as an adiiiin- i s tra to r?

Comments: Women in educational adm in is tra tion

not much

many d i f f i c u l t decisions and p r io r it ie s to es tab lish

occasional time c o n f l ic t , but my husband is very supportive

ra re ly

not now th a t ch ild re n are grown

c o n f lic ts in time demands

m aintaining p r iva te l i f e and having enough energy fo r both

time problems, s e ttin g p r io r it ie s

yes

yes, time a llo c a t io n , work and fam ily leave no time fo r "me"

not pe rsona lly , but time c o n f lic ts are present

time c o n f lic ts

none except time and energy

takes s k i l l in organiz ing

some

not now, ch ild re n are grown

no, there are needs fo r e s tab lish ing p r io r it ie s

none, my husband shares

increased a d m in is tra tive re s p o n s ib il it ie s make i t d i f f i c u l t to maintain a p r iva te l i f e


144

when my ch ild ren were young

problem o f time and energy

CMniients: Women in business:

no, but takes thought, planning and understanding

yes, when I was younger

yes

yes, men are uncomfortable w ith women who are more successful

yes, due to not enough hours in a day--women executives need old fashioned wives at home

not now, but had g u i l t fee lings when my ch ild ren were small

mainly fam ily c o n f lic ts

i t ' s a d i f f i c u l t adjustment fo r my husband because I earn more than he does

no, I am in business w ith my husband and have no problem

po te n tia l is there-a matter o f se ttin g p r io r it ie s

no, but my housekeeping is not the best

not a t the moment, but in the past yes, m ainly time

yes, my husband was not in te res ted in my working and i t was d i f f i c u l t when the ch ild ren were young

not necessarily

some

no, 1 can assign p r io r it ie s as must any person who wants to succeed


145

W rit te n comments to Q uestion 27.

Question: What do you perceive to be the greatest advantage o f beinga female in an adm in is tra tive position?

Comments: Women in educational adm in is tra tio n .

i f you 're good, y o u 'r good and more v is ib le

a b i l i t y to express concern fo r women, not always id e n tic a l tothose o f men

w ith equal a b i l i t y a female can "expect" personal behavior to be more appropria te

s ty le range is broader than conventional male, less career, ego, id e n t ity id e n t if ic a t io n

opportun ity to in fluence important events

no p a r t ic u la r advantage, the advantage is a competent person who is a woman

able to fee l sense o f accomplishment in competent performance

perhaps women posess more emphathic understanding

ne ith e r an advantage or disadvantage

women have more c o n c ilia to ry approach to problem-solving

none a t present

none

provides me w ith an understanding, empathy, genuine womanly concern fo r those whom I serve

none, I d o n 't th in k in terms o f sex, but character

helping other females f u l f i l l asp ira tions

helping other women in the fu tu re

lo g ic a l to be Dean o f Students in a women's in s t i tu t io n


146

ad m in is tra tive p os ition makes i t possible to invo lve what one believes in , as a person though

no special advantage

enjoyable

g e ttin g the job done

not aware o f any

sca rc ity

co rre c t soc ie ta l cond itions

ro le model fo r o ther women

opportun ity to e f fe c t changes to represent women, to take action in beha lf o f womens' problems

brings p restige and recogn ition to other women too

adding a new dimension in decision-making

bring a dimension o f compassion and s k i l l

having enough crea tive energy to deal w ith i t

w ider perspective , id e n t ify w ith m in o rity groups

d iv e rs ity o f s k i l ls in o rgan iza tion and dealing w ith c o n f l ic t

the opportun ity fo r professional growth and development

none, unless humanistic in te rp re ta tio n

a b i l i t y to l is te n and be emphatic, but not necessarily female c h a ra c te r is t ic s

sex has nothing to do w ith adm in is tra tion

one can mix both ro les

there are not many others

b e tte r able to understand the problems o f women colleagues

I l ik e adm in is tra tio n

nothing special


147

can advance e q u a lity fo r women and demonstrate th a t women can succeed

pioneer o f s o r ts , i t w i l l make i t easier fo r the next generation

the advantage lie s in being a good, we ll prepared woman, i t sometimes surprises men

I can be myself

none, I had to work harder than a man would

being a ro le model, opportun ity to be vocal on beha lf o f o ther women and adm in is tra tors

possessing s e n s it iv ity o f a woman

males do help and advise

do not th in k people should accept advantage because o f sex

in pu t in p o lic y th a t presents a d if fe re n t view

I have been trea ted as equal, not as a female

achievement is more unusual

uniqueness

everyone knows you

Comments: Women in business

possib ly good understanding o f those working under me

opened doors in business w orld, received more respect and accept- tance from males

respect and courtesy shown by males th a t they d o n 't show one another

enjoy the work

have been the only female a t meetings, conventions, e t c . , the re fo re i f a b i l i t y and expe rtise are outstanding i t was easy to remember me and I advanced fa s te r

fe e lin g o f s a tis fa c tio n

proving to males th a t a female can do as we ll o r b e tte r as they


148

being a female places one in a com petition w ith males, which presents a greater challenge

none, women d o n 't count here

personal s a t is fa c tio n and success f in a n c ia l ly

freedom o f movement and c re a tive th in k in g

none, unless a fe e lin g o f s e n s it iv ity fo r subordinates

people are n ice r and more considerate than to a male

uneasiness by men a t f i r s t encounter

love people and have a b i l i t y to sense th e ir needs and o f fe r assistance on both emotional and business leve l

being underestimated, e sp e c ia lly in t r i a l work

perceptions are not clouded by usual male biases, competitiveness

a b i l i t y to be judged on m erit and re su lts ra ther than as a woman

men are more cautious in d iscussions, t re a t me w ith ce rta in re spect fo r being a jobber

opportun ity is un lim ited

advantage is in being an a dm in is tra to r not p a r t ic u la r ly a woman

can be your own boss w ith your own business

being in a po s itio n to s tim u la te , m otivate and advance other women in the business world

being good

being a good lis te n e r , d e ta iled in my work and compassionate fo r those I am in contact w ith

doing a good job in a man's world

w ith cu rren t emphasis on percentages o f women a female has a chance fo r due consideration

some s itu a tio n s can be handled more e a s ily as men tend to be he lp fu l

the time is r ig h t


149

people l is te n b e tte r since a woman is a r a r i t y

app rec ia tion o f my work

greater w illin g n e ss to put fo r th tru e e f fo r t in to work and re la tio n sh ip s than men

ju s t a fe e lin g o f w e ll-be ing

being ju s t human

regardless o f sex, people l is te n i f you are sincere

many doors open to me because I am a female (which some men f in d d i f f i c u l t to pass through)

never considered the thought

i f you have e ff ic ie n c y you need no o ther advantage

to demonstrate th a t a female can handle i t as w e ll o r b e tte r than males

men l ik e to help

p r iv ile g e and honor o f helping o ther women, re a liz e i t is nec- cessary to use c re a tive ta le n ts to know fu l f i l lm e n t

females u su a lly have mere empathy and can grasp human side o f dealings very q u ick ly

more respect and courtesy than would be extended to a man

d if fe re n t viewpoints in a man's business w orld , compliments the male view

being a leader fo r o ther women who have goals fo r advancement

no d isc rim in a tio n in sa la ry or commission

money and personal s a tis fa c tio n

a b i l i t y to get along w ith people

more freedom, less re s p o n s ib il ity


150

A d d it io n a l comments made by women a d m in is t ra to rs .

Education women

Comments :

opp o rtun ities fo r "achievers" should be the emphasis, not male, female, b lack, w h ite , e tc .

s ing le sex co llege im portant in decision o f career or homemaker choice

began in a t ra d it io n a l woman's ro le the re fo re in a non-threatn ing ro le

t ra d it io n a l woman's f ie ld the re fo re had fewer problems

in a woman's f ie ld , there fore f e l t no d isc rim in a tio n u n t ilfe m in is t movement, recen tly fe e lin g d isc rim in a tio n in sa la ry and p o lic y there fore leaving th is p os ition

many va riab les to the above questions, one x does not t e l l the whole s to ry

do not be lieve in quotas due to past in e q u itie s

real problem to decide what to do out o f a l l th a t I wanted to do

woman needs w ife a t home to do the 1000 l i t t l e personal tasks th a t a w ife does fo r a husband

have had no problems perhaps because I am in a woman's f ie ld

no time fo r "me"

counteracting my own and others t ra d it io n a l expectation o f what is r ig h t fo r women

c a p a b ility , competence, prepara tion , leadership p o te n tia l are essen tia l c r i t e r ia not sex

in a typ ica l woman's f ie ld

best chance women have had to d isp lay ta le n ts but w ith ou t a sense o f humor would not survive s lin g s and arrows o f men


Women in business

Comments;

I be lieve anyone can succeed i f they t r y hard and prepare themselves

I have taken a leadership ro le in the community which has been o f tremendous value to my business re la tio n s

worked while my friends did only soc ia l th ing s , I was not popular as I would be today

had some d i f f i c u l t y in e a rly career w ith acceptance to c lubs, meetings, e t c . , I s t i l l do w ith a few insecure male egos

I am aware tha t being a female has cost me money and promotions

I have a great respect fo r our adm in is tra to rs but management in general do not believe in women adm in is tra tors

need a w ife a t home

biggest professional problem is male idea th a t women d o n 't know anything about, and c a n 't cope w ith , p r o f i t and lo ss , always in troduced as a speaker w ith a funny remark about not being fooled by my looks

constant challenge since the markets I serve are a l l male

pressures fo r women's movement have changed c lim ate fo r females favorab ly in the past decade

fa m ily woman must have cooperation and understanding and mutual love o f a l l members to succeed

always have been lib e ra te d , my fam ily never bound me to a ro le , the re fo re I am able to do anyth ing, fee l much has been wasted w ith women my age, I am glad i t is changing

being y o u rs e lf, regardless o f man or woman is greater than any formal tra in in g , too many go by the book

rea l estate is a natura l f ie ld fo r a woman, I have a daughter who is a stockbroker and finds i t d i f f i c u l t to be allowed to compete or earn equal money fo r equal work

fo r both adm in is tra tio n and homemaker, the challenge is to l iv e and achieve a l l I can


a female adm in is tra to r w i l l expend energy even to minor d e ta ils where a male might hand them to an ass is tan t

sex has nothing to w ith c a p a b ility , n e ith e r does s tu p id ity

as more women perform success fu lly soc ie ty w i l l re a liz e tha t one's bra in and a b i l i t y need not be in fe r io r due to sex, race, c o lo r, e tc .


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