SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTROL OF LAMELLAR TEARING OF STEEL ... · ssc-290 final report on project...
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SIGNIFICANCE ANDCONTROL OF LAMELLAR
TEARING OF STEEL PLATEIN THE SHIPBUILDING
INDUSTRY
r.
.+
ThisdocumenthasbeanapprovedfOrpublicreleasaandsala;itsdistributionisunlimitad.
SHIP STRUCTURE COMMITTEE
1979
SSC-290
FINAL REPORT
on
Project SR-1Z50
“Lamel Tar Tearing”
SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTROL OF LAMELLAR
TEARING OF STEEL PLATE IN THE
SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY
by
J. Sommella
Gibbs & Cox, Inc.
under
Department of TransportationU. S. Coast Guard
Contract No. DOT-CG-74355-A
TWS docwwnt has hen approved for publie w lease andsale; its distribution is unlimited.
U. S. Coast Guard Headquarters!Jashington, D.C..
1979
M&r Agenci~:Umtish&CcmtGuwd
Naval% S@emsCommandMilituryS9ditlConmlandAfm”hneA~ffm
unitedsfote3G13&imiSwvwyAmm”wnBurwuoftip~g
Ad&esCormpndenceto:S92retoiy,ShipstructureColmnittesU).CoxtGuadHmdqumtew(G-A4WW&@on,D.C.20599
AnInteragencyAdvisoryCommitkDedicataltoImprovingtheSbuctureofShips
SR-1250JULY1979
TheShipStructureCorrnnitteerecognizedtheneedofevaluatingavailableinformationonpreventinglarellartearinginm3rinestmctures.WhiletheincideneeoflamellartearinginshipstructureshasbeenlW,itismorecommoninmobileandfixedplatformsofthetypeusedintheoffshoremineralekplorationandproductionindustry.Itsoccumen=resultsin03stlyrepairs,and,insomeinstances,fabricationdelays.
Aprojectwasundertakento developaguidedescribingthefactorswhichcontributetoandinfluencelamellartearing,areviewoftheproceduresusedtodeterminesusceptibilitytolamellartearing,andmthodsforpost-weldingdetectionandrepairoflamellartears.Theresultsofthiseffo~tarecontainedinthisreport.AnycommentsOFrequestsforad-ditionalcopiesarewelmne.
~He&&[email protected]
Chairman,Ship?Lructure(hnnittee
.._- -—- .-.. . .—..—. —
I
TechnicalReportDocumentationPoge1.ReportNo.
TV’’””’”’ACCC’S’”’T’”
3. Rectp!ent’sCatalogNo.
SSC-290+--—
~ -– I4. Title apdSubt,tle
—I 5, RtportDo~o I
SIGNIFICANCEANDCONTROLOFLAMELLARTEARINGOFSTEELPLATEINTHESHIPBUILDINGINDUSTRY
k-- ———8. PerformingO,gonizationReportNo.
IJ. SOMMELLA 18521(1-146)———.—
9. PerlormIrBgOrganizottonNomeandAddress 10. werkun,t N6, (T RAIS)
GIBBS& COX,INC.SR-1250
11. ControctorGrantNo.I 40RectorStreet
k ‘“----- -
NewYork,N.Y.10006 13.Type01 ReportandPeriodCovered12. SponsoringAgent Name andAddress
ShipS{ructureCommitteeOfficeofMerchantMarineSafety
I U.S.CoastGuardHeadqua~ters
k
Washington,D.C.”2059015, SupplementaryNot,,
=I I16.Ah.?rac? Lamellartearingisa separationintheparentorbasemetalcausedby
through-thicknessstrains.Thesestrainsareusuallyinducedbywe”ldmetalshrinkageunderconditionsofhighrestraint.ThismanualprovidesspecificrecommendationsforcontrollinglamellartearinginthetypesofsteelsusedintheconstructionofshiFsandoffshoreplatforms.A briefdescriptionofthecharacteristics”andmechanismofIamellartearingshowsthatforIamellartearingtooccurtheremustbea criticalcombinationofmaterialsusceptibility,andweldingproceduresandjointdesignwhichpermitthedevelopmentofhighthrough-thicknessstrains.Tee(T)andcornerjoints,usedextensivelyinshipsandoffshorestructures,arethetwobasicjointconfigurationsmostsusceptibletolamellartearing.However,theincidenceoflamellartearinghasbeenextremelyrareinship-building.TheproblemoflamellartearingisconsiderablymoresignificantinnmbileandfixedoffshoredrillingplatformswhichusethickplatesinhighlyrestrainedT-andcruciformjoints.
Thefactorswhichcontributetoandinfluencelamellartearingaregroupedintothree.categories:jointdesignprocedures.
,materialselectionandfabricationForeachparameterrecommendationsarepresentedforreducing
theriskoflamellartearing.Inquiriesmadetothemajorshipclassifica-tionsocietiesindicatethatthemostsuccessfulandcost-effectivemethodofpreventinglamellartearingistheuseofsteelswithimprovedthrough-thickness(Z-direction)propertiesatsusceptibleconnections.Nethodsfortheposr-weldingdetectionandrepairoflamellartearsarereviewedasarethetestproceduresdevelopedtodatefordeterminingthesusceptibilityofsteelplatestola!wllartearing.
17, KeyWords 18. Dlstribu!ionStatement
LAMELLARTEARING SHIPBUILDING DocumentisavailabletothepublicliJELDING ULTRASONICTESTINGthroughtheNationalTechnicalSTEELS (UT) InformationService,Springfield,VA22161
.119. SecurityCIUSSII.(o(thisrepe,!)
.—20. SecurityClasSIl,(ofthispogc)
121.No.of~ages 22. Price
I UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED 70FormDOTF 1700.7[8-72) Reproductionofcomplctcdpogeouthorized
-ii-
TheSHIPprogramtoimprovebyanextensionofconstruction.
RADMH.H.Bell
SHIPSTRUCTURECOMMITTEESTRUCTURECOMMITTEEisconstitutedtoprosecutearesearchthehullstructuresofshipsandothermarinestructuresknowledgepertainingtodesign,materialsandmethodsof
(Chairman) Mr.M.PitkinChief,OfficeofMerchantMarine “AssistantAdministratorforSafety CommercialDevelopment
U.S.CoastGuardHeadquarters MaritimeAdministration
14r.P.M.Palermo Mr.R.B.KzahlAssistantforStructures Chief,BranchofMarineOilandNavalShipEngineeringCenter GasOperationsNavalSeaSystemsCommand U.S.GeologicalSurvey
Mr.W.N.Hannan Mr.C.J.whitestoneVicePresident ChiefEngineerAmericanBureauofShipping MilitarySealiftCommand
LCDRT.H.Robinson,U.S.CoastGuard(Secretary)
SHIPSTRUCTURESUBCOMMITTEETheSHIPSTRUCTURESUBCOMMITTEEactsfortheShipStructure
Committeeontechnicalmattersbyprovidingtechnicalcoordinationforthedeterminationofgoalsandobjectivesoftheprogram,andbyevaluatingandinterpretingtheresultsintermsofstructuraldesign,constructionandoperation.
U.S.COASTGUARDCdr.J.C.CardLcdrS.H.DavisCaptC.B.GlassDr.W.C.Dietz
NAVALSEASYSTEMSCOMMANDMr.R.ChiuMr.R.JohnsonMr.G.SorkinMr.J:B.O’Brien(ContractsAdmin.)
MARITIMEADMINISTRATIONMr.F.J..DashnawMr.N.O.HammerMr.F.SeiboldMr.M.Touma
NATIONALACADEMYOFSCIENCESSHIPRESL4RCHCOMMITTEE
Mr.O.H.Oakley-LiaisonMr.R.W.Rumke-Liaison
SOCIETY0)?NAVALARCHITECTS&MARIKEENGINEERS
Mr.A.B.Stavovy-LiaisonWELDINGRESEARCHCOUNCILMr.K.H.Koopman-Liaison
MILITARYSEALIFTCOh!MANDMr.T.W.ChapmanMr.A.B.StavovyMr.D.SteinMr.J.Torresen
AMERICANBUREAUOFSHIPPINGDr.H.Y,JanMr.D.LiuMr.I.L.SternMr.S.G.Stiansen(Chairman)
U.S.GEOLOGICALSURVEYMr.R.GiangerelliMr.J.Gregory
INTERNATIONALSHIPSTRUCTURESCONGRESSProf.J.H.Evans-Liaison
AMliRICANIRON& STEELINSTITUTEMr.R.H.Sterne-LiaisonSTATEUNIV.OFNEWYORKMARTTTMECOLLEGE~r.W.R.Porter-LiaisonU.S.COASTGUARDACADEMYCaptW.C.Nolan-LiaisonU.S.NAVALACADEMYDr.R.Ba.ttacharyya-Liaison
U.S.NERCHANTMARINEACADEMYDr.Chin-Be.Kim-Liaison
-iii-
METR!CCONVERSIONFACTORS
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WhenYouKnow Multiolyby roFind symboSwlrhalsymbol Whenyouknow Mul!ipl~by ToFind symttol
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LE~GTH nwmlmmkm
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VOLUME
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TEMPERATURE[CXSCI)
Mull,t,1,!,sm,ll,tlh.,s,,,,11,1,0,(sI,wrsIImmk,WSIumrscub,cmewscubicnml=s
ITdII
Im,ll,liw,s U,031,1,,,s 7.11,1,,,s I.(WI,mr, 0.26C,dmc.*1.,5 35Cuticmeters 1.3
.
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321
Celsmstemp-sralum ‘F
‘F 32 98.6 212-40 0 40 80 L20 160 2W
t’; * ,1 1 I 1 1 1’ $ 1 1 1 1 4
–$: -20 D 20 40 60 00 10037 Oc
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SECTION
1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PAGENO.
GLOSSARY vii- ix
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS ix
THEWELDINGINSTITUTEOFGREATBRITAINLETTEROFRELEASE X
AUSTRALIANWELDINGRESEARCHASSOCIATION“ “ “ xiINTRODUCTION
DeSCriptiOnOFLAMELLARTEARING(LT)
2.1 WhatIsLamellarTearing?2.2 WhereDoesLamellarTearingOccur?2.3 WhatIsTheExtentofTearing?2.4 WhatDoesA LamellarTearLookLike?2.5 HowIsLamellarTearingNormallyObserved
OrDetected?
FACTORSCONTRIBUTINGTOLAMELLARTEARING
3.1 UnderWhatConditionsDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
3.2 ByWhatMeansDoesLamellarTearingOccur?3.3 DesignFactors3.4 MaterialFactors3.5 FabricationFactors
OCCURRENCEOFLAMELLARTEARING
4.1 WhatTypesofStructuresAreSusceptibleToLamellarTearing?
4.2 HowOftenDoesLamellarTearingOccur?4.3 WhenDoesLamellarTearingOccur?4.4 WhatTypesOfSteelAreSusceptibleto
LamellarTearing?4.5 WhatSteelThicknessesAreSusceptibleto
LamellarTearing?
SIGNIFICANCEOFLAMELLARTEARING
5.1 StaticLoadCondition5.2 DynamicLoadCondition5.3 Fatigue
CONTROLOFLAMELLARTEARING
6.1 JointDesign
6.1.1AvoidanceofExcessiveThrough-ThicknessStrains
6.1.2ReductionofJointRestraint6.1.3ReductionofComponentRestraint6.1.4SelectionofWeldMaterial
I-l&1-2
2-1- 2-3
2-12-12-22-2
2-3
3-1- 3-7
3-13-13-23’43-6
4-1- 4-lo
4-14-84-8
4-9
4-10
5-1&5-2
5-15-15-2
6-1- 6-16
6-1
6-16-36-56-6
-v-
SECTION
TABLEOFCONTENTS
TITLE
6.2 MaterialSelection
6.2.1GradeofSteel6.2.2ProductType
6.3 Fabrication
●
7
8
9
10
APPENDICES
A
B
6.3.1 LayoutandFormingComponents
6.3.2WeldingProcess6.3.3JointPreparation,6.3.4WeldingConditions
6.3.4.1Preheat
(Cent’d)
ofSusceptible
Fit-upandJigging
6.3.4.2DepositionRate6.3.4.3InterpassTemperature6.3.4.4WeldSizeandShape
6“.3.5WeldingTechniques
6.3.5.1RunSequence6.3.5.2Buttering6.3.5.3InSituButtering__ —-6.3.5.4Peenlng6.3.5.5WeldingandFabrication
Sequence6.3.5.6IntermediateStressRelief
DETECTIONANDREPAIROFLAMELLARTEARINGAFTERWELDING
7.1 When1s”Non-DestructiveTestingForLamellarTearingRequired?
7.2 WhichNon-DestructiveTestingMethodsAreApplicable?
7.3 UltrasonicTesting(UT)OfWeldedJoints7.4 RepairofLamellarTears
TESTSFORDETERMININGTHESUSCEPTIBILITYOFSTEELPLATESTOLAMELLARTEARING
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MECHANISMOFLAMELLARTEARING
ORIGINSOFINCLUSIONS
PAGENO.
6-7
6-76-10
6-10
6-106-106-116-11
6-116-126-126-12
6-13
6-136-136-156-15
6-156-16
7-1- 7-5
7-1
7-17-17-3
8-1- 8-3
9-1&9-2
1o-1- 10-3
A-1-A77
B-1- B-10
-vi-
GLOSSARY
ANISOTROPIC- notisotropic,i.e.,havingdifferentmechanicalpropertiesindifferentdirections.
BASEMETAL- thebasicmill-rolledmaterialtobewelded.
COMPONENTRESTRAINT- restraintexistingduetorigidityofthevariousele-mentsofajointorconnection.
CONNECTION- completeassemblyconsistingof thevariousjointsmakingupthetotalunit.
CONSUMABLES- thefillermetaladdedinmak’theformofelectrodesorweldingrods.
DECOHESION- separationalongtheinterfaceaninclusion.
nga weldedjoint- usuallyin
betweenthematerialmatrixand
DISCONTINUITIES- lackofhomogeneouscharacteristicscausedbynonmetallicinclusions,cracks,tears,e~c.
DUCTILITY- abilityofamaterialsubjectedtostressto undergopermanentdeformationintheplasticrangepriortorupture.
ELECTRODESTRENGTH- usuallytheminimumtensilestrengthofdepositedweldmaterial.
ELECTRODEMATCHING- thepracticeofprovidingelectrodestrengthequaltothebasemetaltensilestrength.
ELONGATION- percentageelongationmeasuredina standardtensiontestandusedasa measureofductility.
HEAT-AFFECTEDZONE(HAZ)- portionofthebasemetaladjacenttothefusionlineoftheweld,whichisnotmeltedbutisheatedduringweldingto atemperaturehighenoughtomodifythemechanicalpropertiesofmicro-structure.
INTERPASSTEMPERATURE- inmultiple-passwelds,thetemperatureof thedepositedweldmetalbeforethenextpassisstarted.
ISOTROPIC- havingthesamemechanicalpropertiesindifferentdirections.
JOINT- junctionoftwoormorestructuralmemberswhicharetobejoined;asingleelementofa connection.
LAMELLARTEARING- separationinthebasematerialcausedbyinducedstrainsinthethrough-thicknessdirectionduetoweldshrinkage.
LAMINATION- largediscontinuityinrolledsteelproductsresultingfromflatteningandelongatingof inclusionsor voidsduringtherollingprocess- usuallya layerofnonmetallicinclusions.
-vii---
MATRIXMATERIAL- themajorcontinuoussubstanceof a metalasopposedtoinclusionsorparticlesofmaterialshavingdissimilarcharacteris’:lcs.
MECHANICALPROPERTIES- tensilestrength,yieldstress,percentageelonga-tion,reductionofarea,etc.
MEMBERRESTRAINT- restraintinclosurememberwhereinherentrigidityrequiresweldshrinkagetobeabsorbedbythebasemetal.
MULTI-PASSWELDS- weldsrequiringmorethanonepasstocompletedepositionofrequiredweldmaterial.
NONMETALLICINCLUSIONS-microscopicparticlesofcompoundsinsteelmatrix;principallysulfides,silicatesandaluminumoxides.
PARENTMETAL- thebasicmill-rolledmaterialtobewelded.
PEENING- themechanicalworkingoftheweldbeadsbymeansoflightimpactblowstotheweldsurfacetoreduceresidualstress.
PLANARDISCONTINUITIES- discontinuitieshavingmajordimensionsof lengthandbreadthina plane,i.e.,likea flatplate.
PREHEATING- theapplicationofheattothebasemetalimmediatelybeforewelding.
PREPARATION- geometryof a jointdetailincludingtheedgebevelirootopening,andbackup.
REDUCTIONOFAREA(RA)- themaximumpercentagereductionincross-sectionalareameasuredina standardtensiontestatthepointofruptureandusedasameasureofductility.
RESTRAINT- resistanceofthejointorconnectiontomovementofanykind.
ROLLING(orX)DIRECTION- directionthathotrolledstructuralmaterialtravelsthroughtheformingrolls- ortheprincipalrollingdirectionforcrossrolledmaterial.
Rolling(X)Direction
/
,1 Through-Transverse Thictiess(Y)Direction
!(~)Direction
-viii-.-
STRAIN- deformationperunitoforiginallengthcausedby changesinap-pliedforces.
STRESS- forceperunitofcross-sectionalarea.
THROUGH-THICKNESS(orZ) DIRECTION- perpendicularto theplaneof therolledsurface.
TRANSVERSE(orY)DIRECTION- perpendiculartotherollingdirectionintheplaneofthematerial.
WELDINGPROCEDURE- thedetailedelementsofwelding(u’,iuallya writtenpro-cedure)whichdefinetheprocess,voltage,current,speed,electrodetypeandsize,position,edgepreparation,preheat,sequenceandanyotherrelatedfactorsrequiredforanacceptableweld.
WELDINGSEQUENCE- theorderinwhichweldsaremadein a particularweld-menttominimizedistortion,to compensateforshrinkageandto reduceinternalstresses.
ULTIMATESTRESS- maximumstressattainedbeforeruptureofthematerial.
UTMATERIAL-materialultrasonicallyinspectedin itsentiretypriortofabrication.
YIELDPOINT- thepointona stress-straincurvewhereelongationoccurswithverylittleincreaseinstress.
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS
HAZ - heat-affectedzone
LT - lamellartearing
RAz - percentagereductionofareaintheZ direction
UT - ultrasonictesting
-ix-
THE WELDING INSTITUTEPLEASEREPLYTO RESEARCHLABORATORY AEINGTON HALL ABINGTON CAMBRIDGE CB1 6AL
TelephoneCAMBRIDGE0223 891162 TelegramsWELDASERCHCAMBRIDGETelex81183
LONDONOFFICE 54 PRINCESGATE EXHIBITION ROAD LONDONSW72PGTelephone01-5848556 TelegramsWELDINSTLONDONS.W.7
Ourref: TGD/wH/50 9thJanuary,“1.979.
Mr.J.Sommella,GibbsandCoxInc.,40RectorStreet,NewYork10006,USA.
DearMr.SOmJElla,
Dr.Dolbyhasaskedmetoreplytoconcerningthereport“Significanceand
yourletterControlof
LamellarTearingofSteelPlatein theShipbuildingIndustry.”Wefeelyoushouldbecongratulatedonhavingdrawnthepublishedmaterialtogetherverywellandproduceda readabledocumentwhichclearsupanumberofcommonmisunderstandings(e.g.thedistinctionbetweena laminationanda lamell.artear),andgivessoundadviceonavoidanceandrepairsoflamellartearing.Wethushavenoobjectiontoyouruseofsomeofourmaterialinyourmanualinitspresentform.
Yourssincerely,
T.G.DAVEYMaterialsDepartment.
-x-
~
+.$lffll+’,
.. I!USTXALIM WELIMG HESEARCH”ANOCIATION-,—,.. . 118AL F~EO STREET, VI L50NSP0 INT, r ~,W.206i,? .,, TELEPHONE: 922-3711.,,-,,... . .,,
AV:pd397/62
8thDecember,1978
MrJ.SonunellaGibbsG CoxInc.40RectorStreetNEWYORKN.Y. 10006
DearMrSommella18521- SignificanceandControlofLamellarTearing
ofSteelPlatesintheShipbuildingIndustry-SSCProjectNo.SR-250
ThankyouforthecopyoftheabovedocumentwhichI perusedwithinterest.I amhappytogiveyouformalauthorisztionto includethematerialreproducedfromAWRATechnicalNote610nbe~alf?of theAssociation.
Yourssincerely,
/:- .L x“%+
DrA.VettersDIRECTOR
-xi-
i
zo4mWY
r-
1. INTRODUCTION
Lamellartearingisa separationintheparentorbasemetalcausedbythrough-thicknessstrains.Suchstrainsareinducedprimarilybyweldmetalshrinkageunderconditionsofhighrestraint.Whilethelamellartearingphenomenonhasbeenrecognizedbyweldingexpertsforoverthirtyyears,theincidenceoflamellartearinginshipbuildinghasbeenextremelyrareforshipsunderconstructionorinservice.Thelowrateof occurrenceshouldnotbeliethefactthatlamellartearingcanbe a potentiallysignificantproblemwhenitoccursincriticalconnections.Theincidenceof lamellartearingisconsiderablymoresignificantinmobileandfixedoffshoredrill-ingplatforms.ThesearecomplexstructureswhichusethickplatesinhighlyrestrainedT andcruciformjoints.
Wheredetected,lamellartearingcanresultinoftendifficultandcostlyrepairsandsubsequentconstructiondelays.Withtheproperselec-tionofjointdesigns,materials,andweldingprocedures,theoccurrenceoflamellartearingcanbeminimizedandcontrolled.Theintentofthismanualistoprovidetheengineerordesignerwithspecificrecommendationsforcontrollinglamellartearinginthetypesofsteelsusedintheconstructionofshipsandoffshoreplatforms.A briefdescriptionofthecharacteristicsandmechanismoflamellartearingisprovidedtogivea basicunderstandingofthecomplexitiesof theproblemandtherationaleforthesubsequentrecommendationsforitsprevention.Methodsof detectingandrepairinglamellartearsafterweldingarealsopresented.
Thefollowingorganizationshavegenerouslyprovideddataon theirexperiencewithlamellartearingandmethodsforitscontrol:
* AmericanBureauofShipping
o BureauVeritas
● DetNorskeVeritas
@ GermanisherLloyd
s Lloyd’sRegisterofShipping
@ NipponKajiKyokai
● AvondaleShipyards,Inc.
● ContinentalOilCompany
● LukensSteelCompany
1-1
Mostof thepublishedliteratureon lamellartearingaddressesindetailthefactorsandmechanismswhichcontributetolamellartearingwhilereviewingcontrolprocedures,particularlyweldingtechniques,ina morecursorymanner.Theprimaryexceptionstothisgeneralizationare“Techni-cal Note6 - ControlofLamellarTearing”publishedbytheAustralianWeld-ingResearchAssociationand“LamellarTearinginWeldedSteelFabrication”publishedbyTheWeldingInstitute.Withtheirpermissionportionsoftheirpreviouslypublishedmaterialhasbeenincorporatedinthismanualandtheexcellenceoftheirworkandtheirgenerosityinpermittingitsuseisac-knowledged.Specialthanksis alsoduetheAustralianWeldingResearchAssociationforpermittingthereproductioninthismanualofAppendicesAandB oftheirTechnicalNote6.
1-2
2. DESCRIPTIONOFLAMELLARTEARING(LT)
2.1 WhatIsLamellarTearing?
Lamellartearinginsteelfab-ricationsistheseparationofparentorbasemetal,primarilyinplanesparalleltotheroll-
Z ingplaneof theplate,duetohighthrough-thicknessstrains.Thehighstrainsinthethrough-thicknessdirectionareusuallyinducedbylocalizedweldmetalshrinkageathicihlyrestrained. .
TNOTE
Lamellartearing“laminations”wh”
shouldnotbeconfusedwithcharediscontinuitiesinro”led
steelproductsresultingfromflatteningandelongatingofinclusionsorvoidsduringtherollingprocess.
2.2 WhereDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
II
RemoteionLine
UnderbeLTNear
.HAZIIIIH-H--RootLT‘-w-
Thetearingalwayslieswithinthebasemetal,usuallyjustoutsidethe visibleheat-affectedzone (HAZ),and isgenerallyparallelto theweldfusionboundary.ThelocationmayvaryfromwithinthelowerHAZtowellintothebasemetalthickness.Thetearingmaybecompletelysubsurfaceanddif-ficultto detector readilyvisibleonexposedplateedgesor atthetoeandrootof theweld.
lNumbersinbracketsdesignateReferencesinSection9.
2-1
2.3 WhatIsTheExtentofTearing?
Lamellartearsmayvaryinlengthfromametersandhavea widthapproximatelyweld.Thethicknessofthefracturemayto approximately1 mm.
2.4 WhatDoesA LamellarTearLookLike?
fZ Direction
/1
//1/
i1
t
NOTE
Lamel
fewmillimeterstoseveralequalto thesizeof thevaryfroma hairlinecrack .
lartearsexhibituniqueappearancecharacteristicswhichenablethemtobedistinguishedfromotherformsof cracking,includingcracksin the HAZcausedbyhydrogen.Whena tearreaches a surface or issectioned,itgenerallyappearsasa straightlineinthebasemetalparalleltothedirectionofrollingoftheplate.
Thecross-sectionisstep-likewithlongitudinalterracesthataresubstantiallylongerthanthetransversedepth.
Thefracturesurfaceisfibrousor woodyin appearancewithlittleorno discolorationun-lesstheteariscorrodedorhasbeensubjectto hightempera-tures.Theflatfibrouster-raceslieparalleltotheplatesurface,withstepsor shearwallsbetweenterracesapproxi-matelynormalto the platesurface.
Thecharacteristicfibrousorwoodyappearanceofthefracturesurfacetogetherwiththeterracedprofileandlocationwithinthebasematerialdistinguishesa lamellartearfromotherformsofcracking.
2-2
2.5 HowIsLamellarTearingNormallyObservedOrDetected?
Lamellartearswhichpropagatetothesurfacecanbe detectedbyvisual,dyepenetrationandmagneticparticleinspectiontech-niques.However,sincemostlamellartearsarecompletelysub-surface,thesedetectionmethodsareoflimitedusefulness.Ultra-sonictestinghasbeenfoundto bethemosteffectivemethodofdetectingsub-surfacetears.A moredetaileddiscussionof thedetectionandrepairoflamellartearingispresentedinSection7.
2-3
3. FACTORSCONTRIBUTINGTOLAMELLARTEARING
3.1 UnderWhatConditionsDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
For.lamellartearingtooccurthefollowingthreeessentialcondi-tionsmustbesatisifed:
o Thematerialmustbe susceptibleto tearing.Thatis,thebasematerialIntheregionofthejointmusthavepoorduc-tilityintheZ-(through-thickness)direction.
● Theweldingproceduresmustproducestrainswhichactthroughthejointacrosstheplatethickness,thatis,through-thick-nessstrains.Sucha conditionexistswhentheweldfusionboundaryisroughlyparalleltothesurfaceofthebaseplate.
@ Thejointdesignmustpermitthedevelopmentofhighthrough-thicknessstrains.Thesestrainsusuallyresultfromweldmetalshrinkageinthejointbutcanbeincreasedby strainsdevelopedfromreactionwithotherjointsinrestrainedstruc-tures.
NOTE
Forlamellartearingtooccurtheremustbea criticalcombinationofmaterialsusceptibility,andweldingproceduresandjointdesignwhichpermitthedevelopmentofhighthrough-thicknessstrains.
3.2 ByWhatMeansDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
Lamellartearingisgenerallybelievedtooccurinthreedistinctphases.Duringthefirstphasevoidsareformedusuallyby deco-hesionorfractureofsingleelongatednonmetallicinclusionsorgroupsofinclusionslyingparallelto therollingplaneoftheplate.Althoughadditionalvoidinitiationmechanismshavebeenreported,thedecohesionofmicroscopicinclusionsisconsideredtheprimaryinitiationmechanism.Thefirstphaseprobablytakesplaceintheelasticrangewherethestressrequiredfor theinitialdecohesionwillbedependentonthetype,shapeanddistri-butionofinclusionsandthepropertiesofthematerialmatrix.
3-1
zi Terrace
“-”s
ShearWall
DecohesionatInclusions
Inthesecondphasetheinitiatedvoidsortearsonthesameplaneextendandjoinbymeansof neckingormicrovoiclcoalescencetoformterraces.Theelongationandlinkupof adjacentinclusionsiscausedbyincreasedstrainsduetocoolingofpreviouslydeposi-tedweldrunsand/orthedepositingofadditionalweldmetal,Asthestrainsincreasetheligamentsofmatrixmaterialbetweentheinclusionsbecomefullyplasticandthevoidsincreaseinsizebyductiletearing.
Furtherstraininginthethirdandfinalphaseconnectstheter-racesondifferentlevelsbyductileshearingoftheverticalwallsbetweentheterraces.Theformationoftheshearwallscreatesthecharacteristicstep-likeappearanceofthecompletedlamellartear.Additionalinformationonthemechanismoflamellartearingispre-sentedinAppendixA. Thefactorswhichcontributeto andinflu-encelamellartearingmaybe groupedintothreecategories:design,materialandfabrication.
3.3 DesignFactors
Thesusceptibilityofa structuralcomponentorjointto lamellartearingisaffectedbythosedesignfactorswhichdeterminethein-ternalresistanceofthejointandtheresultingaccumulationofweldmetalshrinkagestraininthethrough-thicknessdirection.Theprincipaldesignfactorswhichinfluencetheriskoflamellartear-ingare:
3-2
A,........-;-.,..,...’ ‘“~-.. .,;,~:.,.,.,:,,,:.:
* WeldOrientation.Jointcon-figurationswhichorienttheweldfusionboundaryparalleltothedirectionof rollingofthebasemetalpromotethedevelopmentofthrough-thick-nessstrains.Tee (T)andcornerjoints,theprimaryexamplesofsuchjoints,areusedextensivelyinshipsandoffshorestructures,
o JointRestraint.Thelevelofjointrestraintisan importantfactorindeterminingtheamountandconcentrationof strainattheconnectionandis influencedby thesize,balance,anddistributionof theweld. Weldswhicharelargerthanthoserequiredtoaccommodatethedesignloadsunnecessarilyincreasetheweldshrinkagestrainsasdo theunwarranteduseof widegrooveanglesandfullpenetrationweldsinplaceof properlysizedfilletwelds.Inmultipasswelds,thesizeoftheweldbeaddeterminesthenumberofpassesrequiredtofillthejoint.Thesmallerthebeadsize,thegreaterthenumberofrequiredpassesandthehighertheweldshrinkagestrains.
Jointdesignswithlargesingle-sidedweldscauseunsymmetricstrainsto concentrateon thesideoftheweld. Double-sidedweldsreduceand balancetheshrinkagestrainswitha result-
I > ant decreasein the risk oflamellartearing.
FlangedGussetPlate7 @ ComponentRestraint.Struc-turalcomponentsfabricatedofthickand/orcurvedplates,and stiffenedwith heavybracketsor gussetshavein-herentlymorerestraintinthethrough-thicknessdirectionthancomponentsfabricatedofunstiffened,thin, flatplates.
3-3
—-
F1Examplesof.highcomponentre- ,straintusuallycanbefoundatthemulti-columnconnectionsornodejoints“ofmobileandfixed z.offshorestructures.
o WeldMetalStrength.Whentheyieldpointoftheweldmetalissignificantlyhigherthanthatof thebasemetal,allof theweldshrinkagestrainsmustbeaccommodatedbythebasemetalmatrix.Theconcentrationofthestraininthebasemetalin-creasestheriskoflamellartearing.Weldmetalisusually“matched”tothebasemetalonthebasisofequivalenttensilestrengths.However,weldmetalswhichmatchthe tensilestrengthof thebasematerialgenerallyhavesignificantlyhigheryieldpointsthanthebasematerial.
3.4 MaterialFactors
A detaileddiscussionofthemetallurgicalfactorswhichinfluencethesusceptibilityof rolledsteelplatesto lamellartearingwouldbetoovoluminoustoincludeina practicalguidancemanualfordesignersandengineers.However,anunderstandingofthefundamentalmetallurgicalconsiderationsisnecessarytoobtainanappreciationofthecomplexityoftheproblemandtheunderlyingrationaleforthecontrolmethodspresentedinSection6. Addi-tionalinformationonthematerialfactorsinfluencinglamellartearingmaybefoundinAppendixB andtheselectedworkslistedinthebibliography.
Lamellartearingisdirectionallysensitiveandatleastpartiallydependenton thethrough-thicknesspropertiesof the basematerial.Theanisotropyofhot-rolledsteelplatesusuallypro-ducesthegreateststrengthandductilityinthelongitudinalandtransversedirectionswithsignificantlylessductilityinthethrough-thicknessdirection.Thesusceptibilityof carbonandlow-alloysteelstolamellartearingisprimarilydependentontheselowthrough-thickness(Z-direction)ductilities.Thetype,number,shapeanddistributionofthenonmetallicinclusions,aswellasthematrixpropertiesoftheparticulargradeof steel,aregenerallyconsideredresponsibleforthereductioninductili-ty intheZ-direction.
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Allnormalqualitystructuralsteelsforhullandmarineapplica-tionscontainquantities.ofexogenousandindigenousinclusions.Exogenousinclusionsusuallyconsistof ladlerefractory,ingotscum,orslagthatisoccasionallytrappedintheingotduringsolidification.Theyareusuallylargeincomparisonto indige-nousinclusionsandwhenlocatedclosetothesurfaceof a rolledplatesignificantlyincreasethesusceptibilityof theplatetolamellartearing.
Indigenousinclusionsareformedasa resultofthechemicalreac-tionof elementsinthesteelor elementsaddedto thesteelusuallyduringdeoxidation.Thenumberanddistributionofindig-enousinclusionsdependsonthe steelgradeanditschemicalcomposition,thedeoxiciationprocedure,themeltingtechnique,positionintheingot,andthehotworkingtemperature.Whentheingotisrolledtoforma plateorsectiontheinclusionsarepro-gressivelyelongatedandflattenedto varyingdegreesto formplatesorstringersparalleltotheplatesurface.Materialwhichhashighconcentrationsofelongatedorflattenedinclusionswillhavelowerthrough-thicknessductilityanda greatersusceptibili-tytolamellartearing.
Thedominantinclusionsaresulfidesandoxideswiththedeoxida-tionpracticedeterminingthetypeofeach,’inclusionpresent.Forcomparisonpurposesdeoxidationpracticesareusuallyclassifiedintwocategories:non-aluminumtreatedandaluminumtreated.Insemi-orfully-killednon-aluminumtreatedsteelssilicatesandTypeImanganesesulfidesaretheprimarytypesof inclusions.TypeIImanganesesulfidesandaluminaaretheprincipalinclu-sionsinfully-killedaluminumtreatedsteelswhileTypeIIImanganesesulfidesandaluminainclusionspredominateinfully-killedwithexcessaluminummaterials.Inthenon-aluminumtreatedsteelsthesilicatesbecomemoreelongatedthanthesul-fidesduringhotrollingandareprimarilyresponsibleforthereductioninZ-direction(ST)ductility.However,inaluminumdeoxidizedsteeltherodshapedmanganesesulfideinclusionsbecomehighlyelongatedduringrollingandaretheprimarycauseofthelowZ-directionductility.Highconcentrationsorelongat-edclustersofmanganesesulfidesandaluminacanalsoproducelocallypoorZ-directionductilityinnon-aluminumandaluminumtreatedsteels,respectively.
Manyoftheearlierworksonmetallurgicalaspectsof lamellartearingemphasizedtheimportanceofsulfurcontentandinclusionshapecontroltoimprovethrough-thicknessductilityasmeasuredbythepercentagereductionofareaintheshort-transversedirec-tion.Fora reductionofareahigherthan25percent(a levelatwhichtheriskoflamellartearingissignificantlyreduced),thesulfurcontentmustbe lowerthan0.010percent.Additionof .rare-earth(RE)metalreducestheresidualsulfurlevelswhilealsopreventingtheformationofmanganesesulfidesandsilicates,forminginsteadonlysmallglobularshapedRE-containinginclu-sions.However,fornon-alunlinumtreatedsteels,wheresilicatesareprimarilyresponsibleforreducingtheZ-directionductility,
3-5
thesulfurcontentalonecangiveaninadequateindicationof thesusceptibilityof thematerialto lamellartearing.Improvedmanufacturingprocessessuchaselectroslagremeltingandcalcium-argon-blowingmayalsobeusedtoreducethemaximumsulfurlevelsand/orremovemostofthenonmetallicinclusions.
Thepropertiesof thesteelmatrixarealsoimportantinallphasesoftearing.Forsteelswitha low-strength,highlyductilematrix~thematerialattheedgesof inclusionscandeformplas-ticallywithoutpropagatingthefracturesorvoidsformedby thedecohesionofthenonmetallicinclusionsandthematrixmaterials.Inhigherstrengthsteels,thethrough-thicknessductilityde-creaseswhilethehigheryieldstrengthof thematrixmaterialpermitsthedevelopmentofhigh-strainlevelsacrossaninclusionbeforethematrixyields.Thesehigherstrainlevelsinturnfacilitatetheextensionandjoiningof adjacentvoidsinthesecondphaseoftearing.
Ferrite-pearlitebandinginthesteelmatrixhasalsobeenre-portedtocausebothinitiationandpropagationoflamellartears,partiallybecausetheferritehasa lowercleavagefracturestressthanthepearlite.Strainaging,hydrogenembrittlementanddifferencesinthethermalexpansionbetweentheinclusionsandthesteelmatrixallcontributeinsomedegreeto thesuscepti-bilityofsteelplatestolamellartearing.Susceptiblesteelswithhighbrittlefracturetransitiontemperaturesshowimprovedresistancetotearingwhenpreheatedabovethebrittlefracturetransitiontemperaturebeforewelding[2].
3.5 FabricationFactors
Fabricationpractices,particularlyweldingvariables,helptode-terminethelevelofjointrestraintandtheresultingriskoflamellartearing.Factorswhichaffectlamellartearingsuscepti-bilityincludepreheattemperature,heatinputlevel,beadorrunsequence,andfabricationsequence.Increasingpreheatandheatinputlevelsarereportedtoincreasethepostweldductilityofthemetalwitha correspondi~yimprovementintearingresistance.Explanationsfortheapparentlylowerriskoftearingwithhigherpreheatandheatinputweldingprocessesarevariedandincludeincreasedweldpenetrationandweldmetaldepositionrate,reducedrateofpostweldcoclingandproductionof a wider,softerandtougherHAZ. Increasedpenetrationcaninterceptandbluntexist-inglaminationswhilehigherdepositionratesdecreasethere-quirednumberofweldrunsandthesubsequentnumberof straincycles.Thereductionincoolingratespermitsstressrelaxationandthedevelopmentofsmallerstraingradients.Theuseofhigh-erheatinputprocesseswillalsoproducelowerstrengthweldswhichwillaccommodatemoreoftheshrinkagestrain.In additionto improvingthepostweldductilityof thematerial,preheatingmayretardthepropagationof lamellartearingby raisingthetemperatureofthesusceptiblematerialaboveitsbrittlefracturetransitiontemperature.
3-6
Basedontheseresearchresultstheinfluenceof higherpreheatandheatinputweldingprocessesontheincidenceof lamellartearingappearssubstantial.However,reportsof fabricatorex-perienceindicatelittleornodiscerniblesuccesswithincreasingpreheatorheatinputwithina givenweldingprocess.Onthecon-trary,higherpreheatandheatinputlevelsmayincreasetheamountofsubcriticaltearingandcontractionstrains.
Thesequenceofdepositingtheweldbeadsorrunscansignificant-lyaffectthelevelandconcentrationof shrinkagestrainsneartheHA2andparallelto thedirectionof rollingof thebaseplate.Whenfabricatingdouble-sidedT jointsunsymmetricaldepositingoftheweldmetalcancausestrainsto concentrateonthesideoftheweld.Symmetricaldepositi[jnof therunswillreduceandsomewhatbalancetheweldshrinkagestrains.
In multi-jointcomponentsthefabricationorweldingsequencecanaffecttherestraintlevelofeachjointatthetimeof welding.Theriskoflamellartearingincreaseswhenthemoresusceptiblejointsaremadetowardstheendofthefabricationsequencewhenthemaximumrestraintofthestructureisbeingapproached.
3-7
4. OCCURRENCEOFLAMELLARTEARING
4.1 WhatTypesofStructuresAreSusceptibletoLamellarTearing?
Lamellartearingusuallyoccursathighlyrestrainedjointsinlargeweldedstructures,Therestraintmaybe imposedby a mas-sivecomponentorbya smalleronewhichhasbeenstiffened.Tee(T)andcornerjointsarethetwobasicjointconfigurationsmostsusceptibletolamellartearing. Thecruciformjointiscon-sidereda moresevereformoftheT jointsincetherestraintofthebaseplateinwayoftheweldishigher.Thesusceptibilityofthesejointsreflectsthefactthattheinternalrestraintofthejointinthethrouqh-thicknessdirectionissufficienttocausetheweldshrinkag;strainstoexceedtheductilitylimitsofthebasemetal.
Withtheexceptionofcruciformjoints,T jointswithsingleordouble-sidedfull-penetrationweldshavethegreatestinci-denceoftearing.T jointswithsimplefilletor partialpene-trationratherthanfull-pene-trationweldsappearto presentlessriskasdobalanceddouble-sidedweldscomparedto largesingle-sidedwelds.
In cornerjoints,tearingcanoccurin one or more planesthroughthebaseplatethick-ness.Thetearsoftenextendtotheexposedplateedgewherethey are eithervisible orreadilydetectedby standardnon-destructivetestingmethodssuchasdyepenetrationormag-neticparticleinspection.
4-1
...—
:FV=lE!!:$3~t<lgmm boundaryisata largeangle
tothe~latesurface.How- 1i ever,tearinghasbeenre-
tportedinbuttweldsofthickplates(ta 19mm)withanx-groove.
tt~19mm
In theheavyfabricationandconstructionindustriesjlamellartearingiscommonlyreportedtooccurinthefollowingtypesofstructures:
1 1
o Nozzleorinsertsetthrougha rlald~late.Tearingcanoccurin a rolled p-latenozzleor penetratorsetthrougha vesselshellplateorendwall,or in a fabri-catedinsertinthewebof alargegirder.Forexample,aVierendeelgirderfabricatedofheavyplatesectionswitha ringstiffenersetintothewebopeningissusceptibletolamellartearingintheringstiffener.Inallcases,anytearingwilloccuronlyinthenozzleorinsertplate.
%,e, :P1ate
4-2
s
ShellofVessel
●
Cylin’’&ical/
RigidEndPlate
Stiffenersor end closurePIatesIncylindricalstruc-tures.Shellplatesof cy-lindricalstructureswhichareinwayoftheendclosureplatesor heavyinternalstiffenersaresusceptibletolamellartearing.Instruc-turesofthistypethetearscanbecompletelysubsurfaceanddifficulttodetect.
Boxstructuresandstiffenedjointssuchas beam-to-column.Structuresinthiscategoryrangefromsimpleboxcolumnstolargestructuralconfigurationswithcomplexmulti-memberconnections.
I I ——/------[
.
For11.highlysusceptiblemateria.,
tearinghasbeenreportedinapparentlylowrestraint
y Heavy
l’c)
LiftingLug
situationssuchaspulloutofliftinglugsandinflange-to-webconnectionsinfabri-catedI-beams.Theriskoflamellartearinginappar-entlysimple,unrestrainedjointsmakesit essentialthatforcriticalcomponents,suchas liftinglugs,postweldinspectionfortearingbeperformedandoftenaccom-paniedbya reductioninthethrough-thicknessserviceloads;
4-3
.....— ..
Documentedcasesoflamellartearingareextremelyrareforshipsunderconstructionorinservice.However,isolatedinstancesoflamel”lartearinghavebeenreportedinthefollowingtypesofstructuralconnections:CVK/innerbottom,CVKriderplate/trans-versebulkheadgdeckstringerplate/sideshellsheerstrake,con-tainerbuttresssupportsandthick-walledboxgirdersof largecontainerships.
ngerInnerbottom-?1NoteUnusual
Configuration Il!!!rSheerStrake
DeckStringer/SheerStrake(\ \
CVK/Innerbottom
w
TransverseBulkhead
RiderPlate
.CVK
CVKRiderPlate/TransverseBulkhead
Bulkheadorinnerbottomheelconnections,heavysternframeweld-mentsandthickwebframeflangetolongitudinalbulkheadconnec-tionsinlargetankersarealsoconsideredsusceptibletoIamellartearing,althoughnoactualfailureshav@beenrePorted”
4-4
Shel1
BulkheadorCofferdam
Plating
\
TankTop
{ a
BulkheadorCofferdam
$
Plating
\
Itisimportanttonotethatallofthesesusceptibleshipdetailsareessentiallyvariationsofthebasiccorner,T andcruciformjointsdescribedinthebeginningof thissectionasbeingthemostsusceptibletolamellartearing.Theweldsmaybeeitherofthedoublecontinuousfilletor bevelgroovetypewithfullorpartialpenetration.
Todate,lamellartearinghasnotbeenresponsibleforeithernumerousorcriticalfailuresinshipbuilding.Whileitcannotbeconsidereda seriousproblembasedontherateofoccurrence,thedesignerorengineermustbeawarethatlamellartearingcanbe apotentiallysignificantproblemwhenitoccursincriticalconnec-tions,suchasbulkheadorcofferdamheels.Intheseareas)proced-uresforthecontrol,detectionand,Ifnecessary,therepairoflamellartearsshouldbeimplemented.Wheretheincreaseinthesizeofshipsresultsinstructuralassembliesfabricatedfromthickerplates,theriskoflamellartearinginjointswhichare
4-5
. . .
acceptablewhenfabricatedof thinnermaterialshouldbe re-evaluated.Whilethesignificanceoflamellartearingshouldnotbeunderestimated,theextentoftheproblemshouldnotbe exag-geratedtothepointthatexpensivematerials,andfabricationandinspectionproceduresareunnecessarilyspecified.
TheproblemsofIamellartearinginmarinestructuresareconsid-erablymoresignificantintheconstructionofmobileandfixed ..offshoredrillingplatforms.Theconfigurationof thesestruc-turesisverycomplexwiththeuseof thickplatesinhighlystressedweldedT andcruciformjoic:s.Thesejointsusuallytake ktheformofmulti-columnconnectionsornodejointsatwhichtubesof largediameterandthicksectionpassthroughor aresurfaceweldedtoanothertubewithfull-penetrationfilletwelds.
L’
L HeavyWallPipeAtIntersection
4-6
—
Samplestructuralconnectionsofcolumnstabilizedan’dself-eleva-tingmobileoffshoreunitsandfixedjackettypeplatformswhicharesusceptibletolamellartearinginclude:
ColumnStabilizedUnits
1. Intersectionofverticalcolumnsandupperandlowerhulls.
2. Majorintersectionsofhorizontalandverticalbraceswiththemselvesandwiththeverticalcolumn.
3. Portionsofdeckplating,heavyflanges,andbulkheadswith-intheupperhullorplatformwhichformi~oxorI typesup-portingstructure.
Self-ElevatingUnits
1. Jackhousesupportingstructureandbottomfootingstruc-ture.
2. Verticalcolumnsinwayof theintersectionwiththematstructure.
3. Combinationsof deck,side,bottomandbulkheadplatingwithintheupperhullwhichformboxor I typesupportingstructure.
4-7
JacketTypeFixedPlatforms
1. Decktolegcanintersections,
2. Majorintersectionsofhorizontalandverticalbraceswiththemselvesandwiththeverticalcancolumns.
4.2 HowOftenDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
Larnell”ar”tearinghasbeenestimatedtooccur“insignificantly-lessthanonepercentofallweldments.Thefrequencyof occurrenceincreasesslightlyforlargeweldedstructuresfabricatedofplatesorsectionsover25to30mm inthicknessunderconditionsofhighrestraintinthethrough-thicknessdirection.Forappli-cationswhichdonotsatisfytheessentialconditionsofmaterialsusceptibilityandthrough-thicknessstrainsdueto weldingpro-ceduresandjointconfiguration,theriskof lamellartearingisnegligible.
Thefrequencyoflamellartearingintheconstructionof ships,andmobileandfixedoffshorestructuresisdifficulttoestimate.Repliestoquestionnairessenttotheworld’smajorclassificationsocietiesindicatethattheincidenceoflamellartearinginship-buildingissmall.Isolatedcasesof lamellartearinginsuchconnectionsasthedeckstringerplate/sideshellsheerstrakehavebeenvirtuallyeliminatedby theuseof improvedweldandjointdetails.
Theproblemoflamellartearingisconsiderablymoreseriousintheconstructionofmobileandfixedoffshoredrillingplatforms.Thegreatersusceptibilitytotearingofthelargenumberofhigh-lyrestrainedT andcruciformjointsinthesestructuresincreasesthefrequencywithwhichlamellartearingoccurswhennormalstructuralqualitysteel(sulfurcontent> 0.020%by weight)isused.Thefrequencyof tearingisreducedsignificantlywhensteelswithimprovedthrough-thicknesspropertiesareusedincon-junctionwithrevisedweldingproceduresandjointdesigns.Oneoilcompanywhichfabricates15to20fixedoffshorestructuresayearestimatestheirfrequencyof lamellartearingat lessthanoneperyear.
4.3 WhenDoesLamellarTearingOccur?
Lamellartearingusuallyoccursduringfabricationjoftenatanad-vancedstagewherpthemaximumlevelofrestraintisapproached.Thereisconsiderabledisagreementintheliteratureconcerningthetimeandtemperatureattheonsetof tearing.Somereportsindicatethatlamellartearingisinitiatedshortlyafteraddi-tionalweldmetalisdepositedoverpreviousbeadswhichhavecooledtothepointofdevelopingweldshrinkagestrainssuffi-cienttocausedecohesionattheinterfacebetweenmicroscopicnonmetallicinclusionsandthesurroundingmatrix.Otherreportsconclude,however,thattearingisanambienttemperature,delayedcold-crackingphenomenon.
4-8
4.4 WhatTypesofSteelAreSusceptibleToLamellarTearing?
Lamellartearinghasbeenencounteredprimarilyinnormalqualitystructuralsteelplatesofthecarbon,carbon-manganeseandlow-alloytypes.Thesteelmaybeinthenormalized,as-rolled,con-trolled-rolledorquenchedandtemperedcondition,or be fineorcoarsegrain.Examplesoftypical.AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)andAmericanBureauofShippingsteelspeci-ficationswithreportedhistoriesoflamellartearinginclude[3]:
SpecificationTypeofProduct
ABSAH36 HigherStrengthHullStructuralSteelASTMA36 StructuralCarbonSteelASTMA283 StructuralCarbonSteel- LowandIntermediate
TensileStrengthASTMA285 PressueVesselCarbonSteel- LowandInter-
mediateTensileStrengthASTMA515 PressureVesselCarbonSteel- ForIntermediate
andHigherTemperaturesASTMA516 PressureVesselCarbonSteel- ForModerateand
LowerTemperatures
Nonmetallicinclusionshavebeenshowntobeprimarilyresponsibleforlowthrough-thicknessductilityandthevoidinitiationphaseof lamellartearing;andthedeoxidationmethodusedinthesteel-makingprocessdeterminesthetypesofinclusionspresentinthesteel.Theearlierliteratureindicatedthataluminumtreated-semikilledsteelscouldbeexpectedtohavebetterresistancetolamellartearingthansilicon-treatedsemiskilledsteels.However,recentstudiesreportthatthelamellartearingmechanismistoocomplextosimplyrelatesusceptibilitytosteelgradeor inclu-siontype.Hence,aluminumtreatedorsemiskilledsteelscannotbeconsideredmoreorlesssusceptibletotearingthannon-aluminumtreatedorfullykilledsteels.
Intheory,thereisanincreasedriskoflamellartearingwithin-creasingstrengthlevels.Forhigherstrengthsteel,thethrough-thicknessductilitydecreaseswhilethegreaterstrengthproper-tiesofthesteel’smatrixmaterialwillpermitthedevelopmentofhigherelasticstrainacrossaninclusionbeforethematrixitselfyields.Theincreasedsusceptibilityofhigherstrengthsteelsisoffsetinsomecasesbytheincreasedflexureduringweldingduetotheuseof thesmallerthicknessespermittedby thehigherstrength.Somehigherquality,high-strengthalloysteels,suchasHY-80,HY-1OO,HY-130andHY-180,haveshownminimumsuscepti-bilitytodecohesioncracking.However,thisresultisattributedtotheincreasedcleanliness(reducedinclusioncontent)of thesespecial-purposesteelsproducedby electricfurnacesteelmaking,coupledwithvacuumdegassing.
4-9
—.
Lamellartearingoccursprimarilyinrolledstructuralplates,toa lesserdegreeinrolledsectionsandrarelyinforgings.Steelcastingsarenotsusceptibletotearing.
4.5 WhatSteelThicknessesAreSusceptibleToLamellarTearing?
Lamellartearinghasoccurredinplatesranginginthicknessfrom10to200mm,withthemostcommonincidencebeinginplates25to ,.,60mmthick.Thinplatesusuallyhavelowerductilityinthethrough-thicknesssdirectionthanthickerplatesdue to thegreaterdeformationofinclusionsinthinplatesduringrolling. .:However,theydonotnecessarilyexhibita greaterincidenceoftearing,sinceflexureofthethinnerplatestendsto limitthestrainsinthethrough-thicknessdirection.Exceptionsto thisgeneralizationarerolledplatenozzles,cruciformjointsandhighlystiffenedstructuralconfigurationswhichlimittheflexurerfthethinnerplates.
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5. SIGNIFICANCEOFLAMELLARTEARING
Wheredetected,lamellartearingcanresultincostlyrepairsandfab-ricationdelays.Thesignificanceofundetectedorunrepairedtearson theserviceperformanceofthestructurevarieswiththetypeof loading.Thefollowingsectionsevaluatetheeffectsoflamellartearingon thestatic,dynamicandfatiguemodesofloading.
5.1 Static LoadCondition
Theextremelyfewreportedincidenceoflamellartearingfailuresinserviceindicatesthatthestrainsdevelopedduringweldingaremorelikelytocausetearingthanthestaticdesignor serviceloads.Localizedstrainsashighas2%havebeenreportedduringweldingandtheimmediatepostweldingcool-downperiod.By com-parison,theoffsetstrainlevel,correspondingto theyieldpointofmoststructuralsteels,isonly0.2%.Sincedesignstressesarealwayssignificantlylowerthantheyieldstressofthematerial,thestrainsencounteredinserviceareatmostonly10%of thestrainsdevelopedduringwelding.PreliminaryresultsofresearchdoneintheUnitedKingdomatTheWeldingInstituteindicatethatevenincaseswhereextensivetearingis initiallypresentthrough-thicknessstaticstresslevelsgreaterthantheyieldstrengthofthebasemetalarerequiredto extendthetearstocompletefailure.Hgwever,astheextentoftheinitialtearingincreases,thestresslevelsnecessarytopromotefailuredecrease[3].
Lamellartearingisreportedtohavenoeffectontheserviceper-formanceof jointsstressedprimarilyincompressionin thethrough-thicknessdirection.Injointssubjecttoshear,theser-viceperformancewillnotbediminishedprovidedthereissuffic-ientareaintheremainingligamentsbetweenthetears.In areasofextensivetearing,themaximumshear-loadcapacityofthejointsmaybereduced.
5.2 DynamicLoadCondition
Verylittleinformationisfoundintheliteratureconcerningtheeffectoflamellartearingontheabilityofa structureto with-standdynamicloads.A fewstudiesreportreducedCharpyV-notchimpactenergiesanddynamictearingpropertiesinthethrough-thicknessdirection.ShocktestsperformedbytheBritishNavyonfull-penetrationweldedT-joints,fabricatedof HY 80 andtwogradesofC-Mnandlowalloysteels~showedthatlamellartearingcouldbeinitiatedbydynamicloads.Ofthethreesteelstested,onlytheHY80,withitsgreaterZ-directionductility,failedtodeveloplamellartears.Althoughnotconclusive,thesereportswouldseemto indicatethatmaterialswithlowerZ-directionpropertiesaremoresusceptibletolamellartearingwhenexposedtodynamicloads.Conversely,thepresenceof undetectedtearscanonlyincreasetheriskoffailureduringdynamicloading.
5-1
5.3 Fatigue
Forlowcyclefatigue,existinglamellartearswillgraduallyex-tendandmayultimatelyresultincompletefailureasthenumberofcyclesapproachesthedesignlimit[1].However,inpractice,catastrophicfailuremaybe avoidedby thetransferof loadtoothermembersofthestructure.StressconcentrationsattherootortoeoftheweldmaybemoredetrimentalthanexistingtearsorpoorZ-directionductilitywhenthe structureis exposedtohigh-cyclefatigue(greaterthan10 cycles)[3]. t
5-2
6. CONTROLOFLAMELLARTEARING
Sincedesign,materialandfabricationfactorscontributeto lam-ellartearing,controloftearingmustaddressthesesameparam-eters.ItisevidentfromSections2 and3 thatthecausesoflamellartearingareapplicableto generictypesofweldmentswhichareindependentof thespecificendproduct.Itmatterslittlewhetherthesusceptibleweldmentsarein a skyscraper,nuclearpowerplant,supertanker,or largeoffshorestructure.Accordingly,mostofthefollowingrecommendationsforthecontroloflamellartearinginthemarineindustryarepresentedintheirmostfundamentalform.Itisimperativethatthenavalarchitectordesignerusejudgementto arriveattheoptimumbalanceofjointdesign,materialselectionandcosteffectivefabricationproceduressuitablefortheapplication.
6..1 Joint Design
Theavoidanceandcontroloflamellartearingmustbeginatthedesignstage.Thedesignof susceptiblejointssuchasthoseshowninSection4.shouldbeoptimizedwherepracticableto:
● Avoidexcessivethrough-thicknessstrains
● Reducejointrestraint
o Reducecomponentrestraint
● Allowfortheuseoflow-strengthweldmetals
6.1,1AvoidanceofExcessiveThrough-ThicknessStrains
Methodsforavoidingthecreationofweldshrinkagestrainsinthethrough-thicknessdirectioninclude:
iiii?
● Weldingbetweentheends.,*:..... ofplatesratherthanon,...+....“,.4. thesurfaceofthesuscep-,,,.,..::..,:#,.-.:..-:..-..... tiblematerial. This
weldingtechniquedirectstheshrinkagestrainsinthe X or Y directionsratherthaninthecriti-calZ directionandmayrequiretheuseof elec-troslagwelding.
Susceptible Improved
6-1
Susceptible Improved
A“*...‘~f.,*F?.:.,.-..
Susceptible Improved
ElectroslagWeld
:
.7
ElectroslagWeld
● Orientingtheweldfusionboundaryat an angletothesurfaceofthesuscep-tibleplate.Largebevelanglesofferlessriskoftearing,buttheedgeprep-arationcostandthevol-umeofweldmetalrequiredis alsohigherthanforsmaller edge angles.Selectionofa cost-effec-tiveanglemustconsiderthesusceptibilityof theplate,theimportanceofthe connectionand therelativecostof fabrica-tion.
LeastImproved
6-2
Susceptible Improved
I
Forgingor
Casting
6.1.2ReductionofJointRestraint
Methodsofreducing
Susceptible3
_l-13t T
ii
. Replacingofdouble-sided,full-penetrationweldswithsymmetricalfilletorpartial-penetrationweldstominimizethevolumeofweldmaterialandreducethestrainintheZ-direc-tion.Thetotalshrinkageofthefilletweldsoccursatanobliqueanqleto“theplatesurfaceth~rebvfur-therreducingthe~traincomponentintheZ-direc-tion.
. Usingcastingsorforgingsin somecriticalT andcruciformjointstoelimi-natethecriticalweldsandanyriskof lamellartearing.Thismethodisexpensive,involvescon-siderablymorewelding,andisgenerallyusedinhighlycriticalsituationsinpressurevessels.
jointrestraintinclude:
J
● Reducingthesizeof theweldby notusingweldslargerthannecessarytotransferthecalculateddesignloads.Forexam-ple,full-penetrationweldsatthedeckstringerplate/sheerstrakeconnec-tioncanoftenbere~laced
Improved bysmallerpartial‘~eri~-trationorf“illetwelds.
1
Improved
bs6-3
——
Susceptible Improved
Susceptible!==3
Improved
0 Joiningplatesof differ-entthicknessesso thattheweldsizemaybere-ducedbyplacingitinthethinnerplate.
o Replacinglargesingle-sidedweldswithbalanceddouble-sidedwelds inordertoeliminatetheun-symmetricconcentrationofstrain.
Susceptible Improved
6-4
.—
1
Susceptible Improved
● Selectingweldconfigura-tionswhichdistributetheweldmetalovermoreofthesurfaceof thesusceptibleplate.Theuseof smallerweldsizesoflongerlengthordoublefilletsinplaceof fullpenetrationweldsreducesthevolumeof weldmetal and diffusestheshrinkagestrainsoveralargerareaofthesuscepti-bleplate.
o Othermethodsincludespeci-fyinglowyieldstrengthweldconsumablesandtheuseofbuttering.Thesemethodsare discussedin othersections.
6.1.3ReductionofComponentRestraint
Componentrestraintcansometimesbereducedbymodifyingthestructuralconfigurationorscantlings.Methodsofdecreasingthelevelofrestraintinclude:
● Avoidcomplex,multi-memberconnections.Thisprohibitionisnotalwayspracticalinstructuressuchasfixedandmobileoffshoredrillingunits.
o Minimizememberstiffnessby usingscantlingsofminimumthickness.
o Useflatplatesinsteadofcurvedmemberswhereverpossible.
o Donotusestiffeners,bracketsorgussetsnotspecificallyrequiredbythedesigncalculations.Scantlingsandweldingofallauxiliarystiffeningshouldbethesmallestrequiredtosuitthedesignloads.
6-5
-.
6.1.4SelectionofWeldMaterial
o In cruciformjointsstag-gerthememberson oppo-sitesidesofthesuscep-tibleplate.Thismethodisnotalwaysdesirableinhighlyloadedjoints.
s Ifpossible,use lowerstrengthmaterialforthemembercausingthestraininthethrough-ti.icknessdirection.
To accommodatemoreoftheweldshrinkagestrainintheweldmetselect,wherepossible,weldingconsumableswhichmatchtheylestrengthratherthanthetensilestrengthofthesusc@p\i~leb?plate.DetailcalculationsofthestressesacrosstheJointW1usuallyhavetobepreparedtojustifytheuseof lowertensistrengthconsumables.Low-hydrogenconsumablesarerecommendedordertoavoidembrittlementoftheheat-affectedzone.
alldse11lein
6-6
6.2 MaterialSelection
6.2.1GradeofSteel
Inquiriesmadetothemajorshipclassificationsocietiesindicatethatthemostsuccessfulandcost-effectivemethodof preventinglamellartearingistheuseofsteelswithimprovedthrough-thick-ness(Z-direction)propertiesatsusceptibleconnections.ImprovedZ-gradesteelshavebeenusedprimarilyintheconstructionoffixedandmobileoffshorestructures.Thelimiteduseto dateoftheZ-gradematerialsinshipbuildingreflectsthelimjtedoccur-renceoflamellartearingintheconstructionof conventionalshipsandthefactthatmanyofthesusceptibleconnections(suchasthegunwale)havebeeneasilycorrectedbymodifyingthejointconfigurationandweldingprocedures.However,BureauVeritashasreportedthattwoshipyardshaveputstrakesof specialZ-gradeplatesinthetanktopofLNGships[4].Theseplatesareusedatthecriticalintersectionsoftheheelsofcofferdamswhichformthesecondarycontainmentboundaryfortheliquefiedgas.
Specificationsforsteelsto be usedincriticalcomponentsofoffshorestructureshave,inthepast,specifiedmaximumsulfurcon-tent,minimumZ-directiontensilestrength,minimumZ-directionpercentageelongationandreductioninarea(RAz),andmaximumallowableinclusioncontent.However,highyieldandultimatetensile-strengthvaluesintheZ-directiondo notnecessarilyreducetheriskoflamellartearing.Thepercentageelongationmeasuredbyconventionaltensile-testproceduresalsodoesnotprovidea reliablemeasureoftearingsusceptibility,sinceitmayincludedeviationscausedby theformationof smallfissuresadjacenttononmetallicinclusions.Furthermore,thesmallgaugelengthofsamplestakenfromthinplatesmakesitverydifficultto measureelongationintheZ-directionwithanyacceptabledegreeofaccuracy.Whilesulfurcontentcangivean indicationofthesusceptibilityofaluminumdeoxidizedsteels,itisnotap-plicabletonon-aluminumtreatedsteelswheresilicatesarepri-marilyresponsibleforreducingtheZ-directionductility.Themeasureof inclusioncontentbytheprefabricationultrasonicinspectionofthesteelplateshasbyitselfbeeninadequateforassessingtheriskoflamellartearing.
Atpresent$thepercentagereductioninareaintheZ-direction(RAz)isthemostpracticalandaccuratemeasureofmaterialsus-ceptibility.ReportspublishedbytheWeldingInstituteshowgoodcorrelationbetweenmeasuredRAzandobservedincidenceoflamel-lartearing[5].RAzisbeingincreasinglyusedbythemajorshipclassificationsocietiestodefineandapproveZ-gradesteelsforuseinshipsandoffshorestructures.Theserequirementsdefine
6-7
uptothreeZ gradeplatecategorieswhichvaryaccordingtotheirminimumguaranteedmeanvalueandtheminimumindividualvalueofRAz. ThefollowingexamplefromBureauVeritas’rulesforoff-shoreplatformsistypical[6]:
MinimumGuaranteed MinimumIndividualGradeCategory RAz,MeanValue* RAzValue
Z15 15% 10%
Z25 25% 15%
Z35 35% 25%
* Meanobtainedfromthreetests.
Duetothecomplexinterrelationshipsbetweenthefactorswhichcancauseandcontrollamellartearing,theselectionofcandidatesitesandZ gradecategoryisusuallyleftto thediscretionofthedesignersubjectto theclassificationsociety’sapprovalduringdesignreview.
Whenselectingmaterialsforsusceptiblecomponentsinoffshorestructuresthefollowingrequirementsshouldbeobserved:
o Atjointsconnectingstructuralelementswhichareessentialtotheintegrityofthestructure,andwhicharesubjecttohighstressesinthethrough-thicknessdirection,specify .steelswithaminimumguaranteedmeanvalueRAzof25%andaminimumindividualRAzvalueof15%.ExamplesofsusceptibleconnectionsinmobileandfixedoffshorestructureswerenotedinSection4.1. It isnotedthatsomemarineclassifi-cationsocietiesandmajoroilcompaniesrequireminimummeanRAzvaluesof30%to35%forcriticalapplicationssuchasthenodeplatesinoffshoredrillingrigs.
s Foraluminumtreatedsteels}thesulfurcontentshouldnotexceed0.01%byweight.
● Prefabricationultrasonicinspectionofthesteelplatestobeusedinsusceptibleconnectionswillnotgivean adequateindicationofthematerialsresistanceor susceptibilitytolamellartearing.Whereultrasonicinspectionisto be usedto indicatethenumberandsizeoflaminationsorinclusions,theplateshouldbecontinuouslytestedalongthelinesof ameshgrid100mm square.Alledgesshouldbeinspectedforawidthequalto1-1/2timestheplatethicknessor 100mm,whicheverisgreater.
6-8
o Thefollowingfigure,publishedby theAustralianWeldingResearchAssociation[1],maybeusedas a generalguideinselectingminimumRAzvaluesformaterialto be usedinstructuralelementssusceptibleto lamellartearing.ThedesignermayvarytherequiredminimummeanRAzvaluewiththeimportanceofthecomponenttotheoverallintegrityofthestructureandthelevelofrestraintof theconnection.Forextiple,materialusedinthehighlyrestrainednodesconnectingcriticalmembersof anoffshoredrillingrigshouldhavea minimummeanRAzvalueof 25%. The riskcategoriesshownon thefigurearebasedon a qualitativeevaluationof therecommendationsof bothindustrialandmarinereferences(seeAppendixB)ratherthana statisticalforecastoftheprobabilityof a lamellartearoccurring.Similarly,thelevelsofjointrestraintcannotbe equatedwithan acceptedquantitativemeasureof restraint.Thefigureisa plicabletosteelswithaminimumyieldstressof
f40.8kg/mm (58,000PSI)or less.ThemeanRAz valuescorrespondto thoseobtainedusing6.4mm diametertestspecimens.AsnotedinAppendixBjthediameterof thetestspecimenissignificantwhenquotingRAzvalues.
MeanRAz(%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
NegligibleRisk
Low Medium High
JointRestraint
Withtheuseofelectroslagremeltingor calcium-argon-blowingsteelmanufacturingprocesses,essentiallyallgradesof hullsteelusedinshipsandoffshorestructurescanbepurchasedwithimprovedZ-directionproperties.Typicallytelectroslagremelting
6-9
— ---
willdoublethepriceperpoundofanABSAH32gradesteel.Thecostofmanufacturingthesamegradebythecalcium-argon-blowingprocessisconsiderablylessexpensive,addingonlyapproximately3 centstotheper.poundcostofthebasicqrade.However+cal-ciumprocessedsteelscanonlyobtaina min~mumRAzof25 percent,whilesteelsproducedbyESRcanobtainminimumRAzvaluesof30percentormore.SincetheimprovedZ-gradesteelsareonlyusedlocallyatsusceptiblejoints,thetotalextracostperstructurefortheimprovedmaterialsisoftenlessthanthecostofa singlerepairandtheassociatedconstructiondelays.
6.2.2ProductType
Wherepractical,replacingrolledsteelplateswithotherlesssusceptibletypesofsteelproducts,suchascastingsandfor9-ings,willdecreasetheriskoflamellartearing.
6.3 Fabrication
6.3.1LayoutandFormingofSusceptibleComponents
Whenfabricatingcomponentsoutofplatessusceptibleto lamellartearingthefollowingpracticescanbeusedtoreducetheriskoftearing:
.. PlatePosition- avoidmakingheavyattachmentweldsatthecenteroftheplatewidth,theextremeedgesof platewithas-rolledoruninspectedflamecutedges,andareasoftheplatewhereultrasonicinspectionindicatesheavyconcentra-tionsofinclusions.Cautionattheedgesofplatesiswar-rantedbythefactthatthematerialat an as-rollededgeusuallyhaslessthrough-thicknessductilitythantherestoftheplate.Theheateffectsofa cuttingtorchcanresultinthedecohesionofinclusionsinthesteelmatrix.
● DirectionofRolling- componentswithhighriskof lamellartearing,suchasheavyliftingeyesattachedtothickplates,shouldbeorientedwiththeweldaxisatrightanglesto theprimaryrollingdirectionofthesusceptibleplate.
● PlateForming- thickcold-formedplatesaremoresusceptibleto lamellartearingand,wherepractical,shouldnotbe usedincomponentsrequiringlargewelds.
6.3.2WeldingProcess
Withtheexceptionofelectroslagweldingmostconventionalweld-ingprocessesaresusceptibletolamellartearing.Thefrequencyofoccurrenceinprocesseswhichutilizehigherheatinputislessthanthosewhchhavea relativelylow-heatinput.Thisismostlikelyduetothedeeperpenetration,reducedhardnessintheHAZ,andthesmallerstraingradientsencounteredwithhigherheatin-put.Recommendedweldingprocessesinorderofdecreasingprefer-ence(orincreasingsusceptibilitytotearing)are:
6-10
-—
o Electroslag
● Submerged-arc
o Gasshieldedmetal-arc(MIGorC02)andflux-coredarcwelding
s Manualmetal-arc- lowhydrogenelectrodes
o Manualmetal-arc- non-lowhydrogenelectrodes
6,3.3JointPreparation,Fit-upandJigging
Otherthantherequirementsconformingto normalgoodpractice,jointpreparationstocontrollamellartearingshouldreflecttheimprovedjointdesignsdiscussedinSection6.1.Mainlythejointpreparationshouldprovidefora balancedweldwitha fusionboundarywhichisnotparalleltothesur~dceof thesusceptibleplate.Widegrooveangleswhichincreasedistortionandstrainshouldbeavoidedandthedepthoftheweldshouldbe limitedtothatnecessaryfortherequiredweldthroatthickness.Filletweldsorpartialpenetrationweldsshouldbegivenpreferenceoverfullpenetrationwelds.
J!lksoft0.8nun
InrJSteel
to1.6 Wire
Tightfit-upandheavyjigswhichinhibitlateralweldshrinkageshouldbe avoided.Theuseofanundressedflame-cutsurfaceor soft-steelwirespacerswillpermitcon-tractionof theweldmetalwithoutproducinghighcon-centrationsofstrain.Copperwire should not be usedbecauseitmaycontaminatetheweldmetal.Larqeqapswhichincreasethevolum~ofweldmetalshouldalsobeavoided.
6.3.4WeldingConditions
6.3.4.1Preheat
AsnotedinSection3.5,theuseofpreheatingtocontrollamellartearingcanbebothbeneficialandharmful.However,wheresus-ceptiblejointsarepreheatedeithertocontrollamellartearingortosatisfyotherweldingrequirements,suchasthepreventionofhydrogencracking,thefollowingconsiderationsshouldbe ob-served:
6-11
, Avoidthecreationofadditionalorconcentratedcontractionstrainsbyheatingallcomponentsaroundthejointforanequaldistanceandtoapproximatelythesametemperature.
● A preheattemperatureofapproximately100”Cor greaterisconsideredthemosteffective.
6.3.4.2DepositionRate
Weldingprocesseswithhighweld-metaldepositionratesarepre-ferred.Thehigherdepositionratesdecreasethenumberof weldrunsnecessarytocompletetheweldwitha correspondingdecreaseinthenumberofstraincycles.Sincedepositionratesarepri-marilya functionoftheheatinputof theweldingprocess,thelistandrankingofpreferredweldingprocessesarethesameaspresent~dinSection6.3.2.
6.3.4.3InterpassTemperature
Maintainingproperinterpasstemperatureisnecessaryto preventexcessivecoolingofpreviouslydepositedweldmetalbetweenruns.Repeatedheatingandcooli”ngcyclesmayunnecessarilyincreasethetotalshrinkagestrains.Recommendedpracticesinclude:
# Donotpermittheinterpasstemperaturetogobelowthepre-heattemperatureuntilallweldingonthejointiscompleted.
o ASinnormalweldingprocedures,avoidveryhighinterpasstemperatureswhichmayunfavorablyalterthepropertiesofthesteel.
● Allowcompletedjointstocoolslowlyandevenlyinordertopreventexcessivethermalstrains.
6.3.4.4WeldSizeandShape
Todecreasetheriskoflamellartearinginsusceptiblejointsthefollowingconsiderationsofweldsizeandshapeshouldhe imple-mented:
. Usetheminimumweldsizecompatiblewiththedesignloadsandstressdistributionsacrossthejoint.Oftenexcessiveweldsizesarechosenarbitrarilywhenthestrengthrequire-mentsacrossthejointareunknown.
● Weldswithdeeppenetrationandunevenshapepermitthedif-fusionofthecontractionstrainsintomoreofthesuscepti-blematerialandavoidconcentrations.
o Increasingthelengthofthelegonthebaseplatewillalsodistributethestrainsovermoreofthebasemetal.
6-12
6.3.5WeldingTechniques
6.3.5.1RunSequence
Propersequencingofweldrunswillhelptoreducethelevelandconcentrationoftheweldshrinkagestrains.Applicablemethodsinclude:
o Minimizethenumberof weldrunsinorderto reducethenumberofheatcycles.
● Deposita layerofweldmetalonthesurfaceofthesuscepti-bleplatepriortomakingconnectingrunsbetweenthecompon-ents.Theseinitialrunsshouldbedonein accordancewiththerecommendedproceduresforbutteringandinsitubutter-———.-inginSections6.3.5.2and6.3.5.3,respectively.
.—-——
0 StrainconcentrationsinsymmetricallyconfiguredTjointscanbe reducedbydepositingweldrunsinanalternating,balancedsequence.
6.3.5.2Buttering
Butteringconsistsofdepositingoneormorelayersof lowyieldstrengthweldmetaldirectlyonthesurfaceor in a gouged-outareaof thesusceptibleplate.Thepurposeof the butteredlayer(s)istoaccommodatetheweldshrinkagestrainsbyspreadingthemmoreuniformlythroughthelowerstrengthweldmetal.Butteringalsodisplacestheheat-affectedzoneawayfrom thesusceptibleparentmetal.In ge.neral~butteringhasbeenverysuccessfulinpreventinglamellartearinginnewweldmentsandintherepairofexistingtears.Pointstoconsiderwhenusingthebutteringtechniqueinclude:
6-13
9
0 The butteredlayer(s)shouldbe5 to10mmthickandextend15 to 25 mmbeyondeachweldtoe.
.——..—
0
Whenthebutteredlayeristobeappliedin a groove,thegrooveshouldbe ap-proximately5mm deepandextendunderthe fullwidthofthebuttering.
Wherebutteringisto beusedin placeof steelwithimprovedthrough-thicknessproperties,therelativecostsshouldbethoroughlyevaluatedpriortofabrication.
Theyieldstrengthof theweldmetalshouldbe lessthanthestrengthof thebaseplate.
Submergedarcweldingwithlow-hydrogenconsumablesshouldbe usedwheneverpossibleto obtaingoodpenetrationofthebutter-inglayer(s)andto avoidthebuildupofhydrogenintheweld. The levelofheatinputshouldalsobecarefullyregulated.
6-14
6.3.5.3InSituButtering
Thistechniqueisa modifica-tion to the run sequenceratherthanan additionalpreweldpreparationas isconventionalbuttering.Ininsitubutteringthefirst—. ..weldrunsaredepositedonthebaseplatepriorto com-pletingth,?connectingruns.Thismethcl.ihasprovensuc-cessfulindiffusingtheweldshrinkag~strainsata negli-gibleincreaseinfabricationcost.
6.3.5.4Peening
Peening,thecontrolledworkingof theweldbeadsbymeansoflightimpactblowstotheweldsurfacetoreduceresidualtensilestress,hasnotprovensuccessfulincontrollinglamellartearing.Excessivepeeningcancauselossoftoughnessandcrackingintheweldmetal.Althoughnota viablemethodofreducingtheriskoflamell,”tearing,peeningingeneraldoesnotincreasetheriskoftearinginsusceptiblematerial.Ifemployed,thefirstandclosingrunsshouldnotbe peened.Onereportindicatesthat~~~ningofthelastweldrunmaycontributeto IamellartearingLIJ.
6.3.5.5WeldingandFabricationSequence
Therestraintlevelofa weldedjointissequenceinwhichtheweldsinthejointricationseauenceofad.iacentcom~onents.
greatlyinfluencedbythearemadeandby thefab-The
shouldbeconsideredwhknpreparingfabricationules:
● In multi-jointcomponents,themoresuscept”bemadefirst.
‘Ollow’andwe”
blejo
ng factorsdingsched-
ntsshould
@ Completel!lweldsubassemblies~riorto finalassemblvtolimitthe-numberofcriticaljoints.
.
● Minimizestrainaccumulationbyweldingfromareaofmaximumrestrainttofreeedgesorotherareasofminimumrestraint.
● Forindividualjoints,sequencetheweldingsothatthelevelofrestraintwillbeminimizedforthelargestwelds.
o Minimizethesizeandnumberoftackweldsusedto holdcomponentstogetherduringwelding.
6-15
— —. .
● To reducerestraintatcriticalareas,suchascorners,leavea portionoftheconnectionbetweenlessrestrainedcomponentsunweldeduntilthecriti-calweldsarecompleted,asindicatedby ‘D’.
Dapprox.150mm
6.3.5.6IntermediateStressRelief
Theuseofintermediateheattreatmenttoreduce”residualstresseshasnotbeenparticularlysuccessfulincontrollinglamellartear-ing.Largememberswhichcannotbe placedin a furnacerequirelocalizedheatingwhichcanincreasethecontractionstrainsduringcooling.Heattreatmentmaycauseadditionaldecohesionofinclusionsinsusceptiblematerial,therebyincreasingtheindica-tionsoflamellartearsduringsubsequentultrasonicinspection.
6-16
7. DETECTIONANDREPAIROFLAMELLARTEARINGAFTERWELDING
7.1 WhenIsNon-DestructiveTestingforLamellarTearingRecommended?
Normalweldinspectionrequirementsandproceduresareadequatewheretheriskoflamel.lar..tearingissmall.However,wheretheriskof tearingissignificantbecauseof thecombinationofmaterialproperties,weldingproceduresandjointconfiguration,additionaltestmethodsforthedetectionoflamellartearsshouldbeemployed.Formembersandjointswhicharecriticalto theoverallintegrityofthestructure,suchasthenodejointsanddecktolegconnectionsofoffshorejackettypestructures,sup-plementaltestingisrecommended.
7.2 WhichNon-DestructiveTestingMethodsAreApplicable?
Standardnon-destructivetestingmethodssuchasvisualinspec-tion,dyepenetrationandmagneticparticleinspectionaresatis-factoryforsurfacecrackingbutnotforsub-surfacetears.Radi-ographyisgenerallynotpracticalforthedetectionof sub-sur-facetearssincetheinclusionsintheplatecanmaskdefectsanditisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,todirectradiationalongthetearaxis.Ofalltheconventionalnon-destructivetestingmeth-ods,ultrasonictestingisthemostpracticalandwidelyusedtech-niquefordetectinglamellartears.
7.3 UltrasonicTesting(UT)OfWeldedJoints
Thepulse-echoultrasonictestingtechniqueisbasedon thein-terpretationofreflectedultrasonicwavesfromthefracturesur-faceto detectlamellartears.Theinstrumentprobeisbothtransmitterandreceiver.Theultrasonicbeamisreflectedeitherbythefaceplateoppositetheoneonwhichtheprobeis applied(bottomecho),orpartlyatleastbyanareaof lamellartearingoranyotherdefectofthemetal(flawecho).WhileUTmethodsnormallylocateplateandwelddefectswhentheplatesurfacesareflatandreasonablyfreefromloosematerial,it isoftendiffi-culttodistinguishtruelamellartearsfrominclusionbandsandotherformsofcracking.Thematerialsthataremostsusceptibleto lamellartearing,suchasthickplateswithhighconcentrationsofnonmetallicinclusions,containthetypeof defectswhchcanattenuatethesignalsandmakeinterpretationdifficult.Misin-terpretedultrasonicindicatorscanoftenleadtounnecessaryandcostlyrepairs.
i-
CompreslionWave
Bothcompressionwave andshear(orangle)probeUTmethodsarecapableof accu-ratelylocatinglamellartearing.However,theuse-fulnessof compressionwavetechniquesislimitedtoT orcornerjoints.
7-1
—
ShearorAngleProbe
Probefrequenciesof 2 MHzareconsideredsuitablefortherapidlocationof truetears.Sufficientresolutiontoobtaingoodidentificationofthecharacteristicsteppedsurfaceof thetearcan beobtainedbytheuseof4 to5MHzprobes.Theuseofhigh-erprobefrequenciestogetherwithhighequipmentgainset-tingsarereportedto in-creasethe likelihoodoferroneousindicationsoflam-ellartears.
DetailsoftechniqueandequipmentfortheultrasonicdetectionoflamellartearingareessentiallythesameasforthenominalUTinspectionofwelds.Specificsmaybe obtainedintheAmericanBureauofShippingRulesforNon-destructiveInspectionof HullWeldsorASTME164-StandardforUltrasonicContactInspectionofWeldments.
POINTSTONOTE
● Ultrasonictestingshouldbespecifiedforhighlyrestrainedweldedconnections,criticaltotheintegrityof thestruc-ture,wheretheriskoflamellartearingissignificant.
s Thereliabilityoftheultrasonictestingmethoddependstoagreatextentontheabilityandexperienceof theoperator.Personnelresponsibleforconductingultrasonictestsshouldbefamiliarwiththeequipmentbeingusedandbe properlyqualifiedbytrainingandexperiencetoperformthenecessarycalibrations,andtointerpretandevaluateindicationsinaccordancewiththetermsofthespecification.InadditiontobeingqualifiedinaccordancewiththerequirementsoftheAmericanSocietyofNon-destructiveTestingPublicationTC-lA- SupplementC,UltrasonicTestingMethodsorotherrecog-nizedagencies,thepersonnelshouldpreferablyhaveexperi-encein,orbeabletodemonstrateabilitytoidentify,lam-ellartears.
● Ultrasonictestingshouldbeperformedwhenallweldingonthejointiscompletedandmaximumrestraintisreached.Sincelamellartearinghasbeenreportedto occurupto 36hoursafterthecompletionofallweldingandthecoolingofthecomponent,finalultrasonicinspectionofcriticaljointsshouldbeperformednosoonerthan36hoursafterweldingon .thejointiscompleted.
7-z
● Allcriticalweldedjoints,suchasthenodejointsanddeckto legconnectionsofoffshorestructures,shouldbe ultra-sonicallyinspected.
● Acceptancestandardsforlamellartearingshouldbe estab-lishedsothatclustersofinclusionsanddensemicrostruc-turalbandswhichappearasdefectindicationsdonotconsti-tuterejectabledefects.Sincetheremovalandrepairofminornon-criticaltearsmaydomoreharmthangood,theacceptancecriteriashouldconsiderthefunctionalrequire-mentsof thecomponentorjointaswellasthepracticallevelofworkmanshipwhichexperienceindicatescanbe ob-tainedinweldmentsofa giventype.Atpresent,theweldingacceptancecriteriaofmarineclassificationsocietiesandnationalcodesandspecificationsdo notcontainspecificacceptancestandardsforlamellartearing.
@ Inorderto distinguishlamellartearsfrompre-existingdefects(largeinclusions,laminations,etc.),the basematerialintheareaoftheweldshouldbe ultrasonicallyinspectedpriortofabrication.Theseinspectionsshouldbemethodicallyperformedandrecordedusinga gridsystemforlocatingcheckpoints.
s Ultrasonicindicationsoflamellartearingexhibita charac-teristicmultiplepeaksignalanda rapidchangeindepthastheprobeismoved.Thesecharacteristicshelptodifferen-tiatelamellartearsfromothercracks,laminationsor back-wallreflection.
7.4 RepairofLamellarTears
Therepairoflamellartearscanbedifficult,timeconsumingandcostly;and,inthecaseof highlyrestrainedconnectionstherepair,canbemoredetrimentalthantheoriginalweld. Thein-creasedriskoflamellartearingduringrepairispartiallyduetothegreateroverallrestraintof thecompletedstructure.Themechanicalandthermalstrainsinducedbytherepairweldingcancausetearingtooccurata greaterdepthbelowtheoriginalweldfusionline.Thebasicmethodsofrepairare:
● gougingoutofthetearandreplacementwithweldmetal
● cuttingoutthedefectivematerialandreplacingwithmaterialwithimprovedthrough-thicknessproperties.Thisprocedureisoftenaccompaniedbymodificationstotheweld-ingproceduresorjointdetailsinordertoavoidthecondi-tionswhichprecipitatedtheoriginaltear.
o providingadditionalstructuralmemberstocarrytheantici-patedserviceloadsacrossthejoint.
7-3
Priortoselectingrepairprocedure,itshouldbe verifiedthatthediscontinuityisa lamellartear. Thenumber,locationandextentofothertears,ifany,shouldalsobedetermined.If thecrackisinfacta lamellartearandexceedsthespecifiedaccept-ancestandards,allthefactorswhichcancontributetothedevel-opmentoflamellartears,namelymaterialsusceptibility,jointconfigurationandweldingprocedures,shouldbereviewed.Merelygougingoutthetearandreweldingusingtheoriginaljointgeome-tryandweldingproceduresunderconditionsofpossiblyevenhigh-errestraint,willprobablyresultinnewlamellartears.Forthisreason,itis.oftenmoreeconomicaltoreplacea componentorjointratherthantorepairit. Alternately,additionalsupportmemberscanbeprovidedto reducethejoint,thusreducingthecriticalityof
Wheregougingandreweldingisjudgedproceduresshouldbeused:
serviceloadsacross”thethejoint.
acceptable)thefollowing
● Removedamag~dmaterialusingflamegouging,arc-airgougingorgrinding.TheAustralianWeldingResearchAssociationreportsthatflamegougingisslightlypreferredto arc-airgougingduetothelessintensethermalgradientsandlowerthermalinducedstressesofflamegouging[1].On theotherhand,a fabricatorwithLTrepairexperiencereportsthatgasgougingdevelopstoomuchheatintheweldcausingthelamellarteartopropagate[7].Herecommendsusingonlyarc-airgougingwithnopreheat.Grindingisslowandimpracti-cal.
0 FlameGouging- thefirstpassofthegougingtorchshouldcutacrosstheendoftheplaneoftearingatsuchan attitudeas tominimizethetendencyofthe tearto openup aswellas “toreleaseanytensilestressacrossthetear. The baseof thegouge should be wellrounded.Subsequentpas-sesshouldremove2 to 3mmof thematerialbelow
theoriginaltearand3 to 4 mm beyondtheendsof thetear.Deeperandwidergougingwillincreasetheamountof reweldingwitha correspondingincreaseintheriskofnewtearing.In somecases,completereleaseordisassemblyoftheweldedjointmayberequired.
7-4
o Air-ArcGouging- thefirstarc-airgougeshouldbemadeadjacentto thetearandextend3 to4mm beyondtheendofthetear.Addi-tionalpassesshouldbemadeparallelto theini-tialgougeuntilmaterial2to3mm belowtheoriginaltearhasbeenremoved.
@
@
●
NOTE
Regardlessofthegougingmethod,allfinalsurfacesshouldbelightlygroundandinspectedusingmagneticparticleor dyepenetrationtestingmethodspriortowelding.
Butteringlayersof lowyieldstrengthweldmetalaregenerallyconsideredessentialpriortomakingconnectingwelds.TheweldingproceduresgiveninSection6.3shouldbeemployedinordertoreducestrainsinthethrough-thicknessdirection.It isrecommendedthatthe minimumpreheattemperaturebemaintainedfor8 hoursafterallweldingonthejointiscomplete.
Therepairedjointshouldbethoroughlyre-examinedinac-cordancewiththerequirementsforultrasonictestinggiveninSection7.3.
-
Duringtherepairprocess,theactuallocationofthelamellartearshouldbenotedandcomparedwiththatindicatedby theultrasonictestinordertovalidatethetestingprocedures.
7-5
~
i-
8. TESTSFORDETERMININGTHESUSCEPTIBILITYOFSTEELPLATESTOLAMELLARTEARING
Duringthelastfifteenyears,manytestshavebeendevelopedfordeter-miningthesusceptibilityofdifferentgradesof steelplateto lamellartearing.Withvaryingsuccess,thesetestsattempttoprovidereproducibleresultswhichcorrelatewellwithknowncasesof lamellartearing.Eachtestincorporatesdifferentcombinationsoftheactualjointdesign.,compon-entandjointrestraint,weldingprocedures,andmaterialproperties.Thedifficultyindevisinga single,universallyacceptabletestprocedurereflectsthefactthat,whileitispracticaltorepresenttosomedegreetheactualgeometryandfabricationprocedures,thetestmaterialmaynotberepresentativeofthematerialusedintheproductionjoint.Thethrough-thicknesspropertiesof individualplatesarevariablebecauseof theirregulardistributionofnonmetallicinclusionsintheplate.Themoreimportanttestsarelistedbelowbytype:
● NondestructiveTests(withoutwelding)
(i) Ultrasonicinspectionofsusceptiblesteelplatespriortofabrication[8] - oflimitedusefulnessindeterminingthesusceptibilityofsteelplatestolamellartearing;usefulfordistinguishinglamellartearsdetectedduringpost-weldingUTinspectionfrompre-existingdefects.
s DestructiveTestsWithoutWelding
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Through-thicknesstensiletest- practicaltest;RAzgivesgoodcorrelationwithknownincidenceoftearing.
Slice-bendtest[9]- groundsurfaceisexaminedforthesizeandlocationofcracksafterthespecimenissubjectedto increasingsurfacestrains;practicaltestwhichpro-ducesrealistictears.
Specialnotchedtensiletest[10]- comparestheshearfractureloadsonandacrossthelaminarplane;forprelim-inaryscreeningofsusceptiblematerial.
CharpyV-notchimpacttest[11]- limitedusefulness;canbeusedonlyforplates55mmthickorgreater.
Microscopiccountofnonmetallicinclusions- usesstandardmetallurgicalexaminationproceduresto determinenumber,size,shapeanddistributionofnonmetallicinclusions;im-practicalforproductiontest;moresuitableforresearch.
8-1
● DestructiveTestsWithWelding
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
WeldingInstitutewindowtest[12,13]- specimenof thesusceptiblebasematerialisinsertedthrougha rectangularholeorwindowina restrainingplateandweldedto formacruciformjoint;observedtearingcanoftenbe inducedbyrootcrackingnotlamellartearing;restraintlevelvarieswithjigandtestplatethickness;notpracticalforpro-ductionuse.
Cranfieldtest[14]- a stemplateisbeveledto45 or 60degreesandmultirunweldedto thesteelsampleto betested;severetestconditionsareonlycapableof identi-fyingmaterialswitha highresistanceto tearing;mixedcorrelationwithcasehistories.
Short-transversenotchedbendtest[15]- complexandex-pensivetestmoresuitabletoresearch.
Lehighrestrainttest[2]- suitableforquantitativelymeasuringlamellartearingsusceptibilityunderlaboratoryconditions.
H-typerestrainttest[16]- researchorientedtest.
Testsofprototypeweldedjoint- difficultto duplicatetheexactrestraintlevelsandweldingconditionpresentduringactualproduction;doesnottakeintoaccountthevariabilityofpropertiesinthethrough-thicknessdirec-tion;notpracticalforproductiontesting.
Wi”ththeincreasinguseofRAzbythemajorshipclassificationsocie-tiestodefineandapproveZ-gradesteelsforthe.useinshipsandoffshorestructures)RAz,asmeasuredbythrough-thicknesstensiletest,isquicklybecomingthestandardtestfordeterminingthesusceptibilityof steelplatesusedinthemarineindustry.Todate,astandardRAztestprocedurehasnotbeenadoptedbythedifferentclassificationsocieties.Whilesimi-larintheory,allofthecurrentlypublishedRAztestproceduresdifferslightlyintherequireddimensionsandconfigurationoftensile-testspeci-mens.ofthelowing
Fabricatorsandsteelmakershouldfollowthespecificrequirementscognizantclassificationsocietyruleswhilekeepinginmindthefol-additionalconsiderations:
@ TheRAzacceptancelimitsshowninSection6.2areappropriateformaterialswithyieldstrengthslessthan40.8kg/mm2(58,000psi).
● Becauseof thesmallcross-sectionalareaofmaterialbeingtested,theuseofsixspecimenswillgivea statisticallybettersamplingthanthethreesamplesrequiredbysomerules.
o Theresultscanbegreatlyinfluencedbysinglelargeinclusionsorclusters.
8-2
o RAzvaluesarestronglyinfluencedby thediam.qterof thetest ,specimen.Smallerdiameterspecimensareinfluencedby thesizeandpositionoflargeinclusionswhichdecreaseminimumvalueswhileincreasingmaximumvalues.Largerdiameterspecimenshavemorelateralrestraintwhichlowersthemeanvaluesandreducesscatter.Accordingly,caremustbeexercisedincomparingRAzvaluesobtainedfromdifferentsourcesortestprocedures.
.
8-3
9. REFERENCES
1. AustralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“Controlof LamellarTearing”,AWRATechnlcalNote6,April1976.
2. Oates,R.P.,andStout,R.D.,“AQuantitativeWeldabilityTestforSusceptibilitytoLamellarTearing”,SupplementtoWeldingJournal,November1973.
3. McEnerney,J.W., “AssessmentofLamellarTearing”,Oak RidgeNationalLaboratoryReportORNL/NUREG/TM-171,OakRidge,Tennesse@,March1978.
4. BureauVeritas,“LamellarTearing(Non-confidentialTechnicalNoteofGeneralInformation)”,August1974.
5. Farrar,J.C.M.,“TheProblemofLamellarTearing.TheRelationshipBetweenShortTransverse% RAValuesandtheIncidenceof LamellarTearing”,inPhaseIVof“InvestigationsintoLamellarTearing- ACompendiumofReportsfroma SponsoredResearchProgrammed”,TheWeldingInstitute,Cambridge,England,March1975.
6. BureauVeritas,“RulesandRegulationsfortheConstructionandClassificationofOffshorePlatforms”,1975.
7. Smith,R.K.,“FabricationTechniquestoControlLamellarTearing”,AustralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“Symposiumon ControlofLamellarTearing”,April8,1976.
8. AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,“StandardSpecificationforStraight-BeamUltrasonicExaminationofPlainandCladSteelPlatesforSpecialApplications”,ASTMA578.
9. Drury,M.L.,andJubb,J.E.M.,“LamellarTearingandtheSliceBendTest”,WeldingJournal,WeldingResearchSupplement,February1973.
10. Kanazawa,S.,Yamato,K.,Takeshi,Y.,etal,“OntheAssessmentofLamellarTearingSusceptibilityofSteelPlate”,IIWDocIX-840-73.
11. AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,“StandardMethodsforNotchedBarImpactTestingofMetallicMaterials”,ASTME23.
12. NipponSteelCorporation,EngineeringDataBrochureNo.QT21248.9,“NSC’sSteelPlatesforMarineStructures”,Section5, LamellarTearResistantSteels,1974.
13. Farrar,J.C.M.,andDolby,R.E.,“AnInvestigationintoLamellarTearing”,MetalConstructionandBritishWeldingJournal,February1969.
9-1
14. Elliott,D.N.,“LamellarTearinginMulti-PassFilletJoints”,WeldingJournal,September1969.
15. Farrar,J.C.M.,“InclusionsandSusceptibilitytoLamellarTearingofWeldedStructuralSteels”,SupplementtoWeldingJournal,August1974.
16. Nishio,Y.,Yamamota,Y.,“Kajimota,K.,andHirozane,T.,“OnLamellarTearinginMultirunFilletWelds”,MitsubishiHeavyIndus-tries,Ltd.TechnicalReview,Vol.9,No.3,October1972.
9-2
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
AmericanInstituteofSteelConstruction,“CommentaryonHighlyRestrainedWeldedConnections”,AISCEngineeringJournal,ThirdQuater,1973.
Araki,M.,Nagao,T.,andNarasaua,H.,“CrackinginMultirunFilletWelds”,Nippon-KokanTechnicalReport- Overseas,June1974.
Arita,Yukio,Kajimoto,Katsuya(MitsubishiHeavyIndustries,Ltd.),andOhba,Kenui(NipponSteelCo.,Ltd.),“TheStudyof LamellarTearinginOffshoreStructures”,OffshoreTechnologyConference,Houston,Texas,May2,1972.
Baker,T.J., Gove,K.B.,andCharles,J.A., “InclusionDeformationandToughnessAnisotropyinHotRolledSteels”,PreprintsofaMetalsSocietyMeetinq:DirectionalityofPro~ertiesinWrouahtProducts.27-28thNov.1974,vol. 1.
Banks,E.E.,“AssessmentofSteelSusceptibilitytoLamellarTearing”,ItralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“Symposiumon Controlof Lame”Tearing”,April8,1976.
Bernard,G.,Grumbach,M.,andMoliexe,F.,“InclusionsinSteelPlatesMechanicalAnisotropy”,PreprintsofaMetalsSocietyMeeting:Direct’alityofPropertiesInWroughtProducts,27-28thNov.1974,vol.2.
us-1ar
andon-
Chapman,J.A., Clark,A.,andKirkwood,P.R.,“SteelsforNorthSeaStruc-tures”,presentedatWeldinginOffshoreStructures,Newcastle,UK,1974.
Charleux,J.,“Metallurgical,WeldingandInspectionProblemsRaisedby theConstructionofSteelOff-ShorePlatforms”,TechnicalBulletinof theBureauVeritas,February,1976.
Croll,J.E., “MaterialFactorsAffectingLamellarTearing”,AustralianWeld-ingResearchAssociation,“Symposiumon Controlof LamellarTearing”,April8,1976.
Dolby,R.E.,“TheWeldabilityof LowCarbonStructuralSteels”,WeldingInstituteResourceBulletin,18(8):pp.209-16,August,1977.
Farrar,J.C.M.,andDolby,R.E.,“LamellarTearinginWeldedSteelFabrica-tion”,TheWeldingInstitute,PublicationNo.SBN85300068,1972.
Farrar,J.C.M.,Dolby,R.E.,andBaker,R.G.,“LamellarTearinginWeldedStructuralSteels”,WeldingJournal,July1969,pp274s-282s.
Frost-Drury,M.L.,“QualityAssuranceandSpecificationsforLamellarTear-ing”,AustralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“Symposiumon ControlofLamellarTearing”,April8,1976.
1o-1
Ganesh,S.,andStout,R.D.,“EffectofWeldingVariablesonLamellarTear-ingSusceptibilityinLehighTest”,WeldingJournal,March1977,pp.39:78s-87s.
Hancock,J.,Cowling,M.J.andMackenzie,H.C.,“TheEffectsofDirectional-ityontheMechanismsofHoleGrowthandDuctileFailureinThreeHighStrengthSteels”,Preprintsofa MetalsSocietyMeeting:DirectionalityofPropertiesinWroughtProducts,27-28thNov.1974,Vol.1.
Jubb,J.E.M.,“LamellarTearing”,WeldingResearchCouncil,BulletinNo.168,December1971.
Lay,M.G.,“TheStructuralSignificanceofLamellarTearing”,AustralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“SymposiumonControlofLamellarTearing”,April8,1976.
Little,H.H.,McCombe,A.A.F.andRatnapuli,R.C.,“TheEffectof SlabtoPlateDeformationRatioonPropertyDirectionalityof E.S.R.andContin-uouslyCastSteels”,Preprintsofa MetalsSocietyMeeting:DirectionalityofPropertiesinWroughtProducts,27-28thNov.1974,Vol.1.
Morrison,W.B.,“TheInfluenceofTestingDirectionontheMechanicalProp-ertiesofWroughtSteel”,Preprintsofa MetalsSocietyMeeting:Direc-tionalityofPropertiesinWroughtProducts,27-28thNov.1974,Vol.2.
Nakao,N.,andOhsuzu,H.,“PropertiesofSteelPlatesinThicknessDirec-tion”,NipponKokanTechnicalReport-Overseas,Decembei’1972.
Peterson,MarvinL. (ContinentalOilCompany),“SteelSelectionforOffshoreStructures”,JournalofPetroleumTechnology,March1975,pp.274-282.
Pope,C.W.,andCard,K.J., “Detectionof LamellarTearingby UltrasonicTesting”,AustralianWeldingResearchAssociation,“Symposiumon ControlofLamellarTearing”,April8,1976.
Porter,L.F.,“LamellarTearinginPlateSteels(ALiteratureSurvey)”,TechnicalReport1O-F-OO2(O18-5),ResearchLaboratory,UnitedStatesSteelAugust1975.
Rodgerson,P.,Rowntree,G.,andSchofield,R.,“Aspectspf [email protected]”,Preprintsofa MetalsSocietyMeeting:DlrectlonalltyofPropertiesinWroughtProducts,27-28thNOV.1974,VO1.2.
Santini,W.,Repetto,G.,andPosini,G., “ColdCrackingandLamellarTear-inginWeldedCarbon-ManganeseStructuralSteels.DiscussionoftheProb-lemsandPossibleWaysforPreventionwithParticularRegardto ShipBuildingApplications”,TransactionsJapanWeldingSociety,Vol.2,No.2,April1951(WeldingResearchAbroad,October1972).
.,
.
Scott,R.,“DirectionalityofMechanicalPropertiesinHotRolledSteelPlates”,Preprintsofa MetalsSocietyMeeting:DirectionalityofProper-tiesinWroughtProducts,27-28thNov. 1974,Vol.2.
10-2
.—
Takeshi,Y.(NipponSteelCorporation),“LamellarTearingandMarineStruc-tures”,WeldingandMetalFabrication,December1975,pp740-746.
Thomson,A.D.E.,Christopher,P.R.,andBird,J.,“ShortTransverseProper-tiesofCertainHighStrengthSteels”,J.Eng.Ind.,TransactionsASME,90.627-735(Nov.1968).
Wilson,A.D.,“TheEffectofAdvancedSteelmakingTechniquesontheInclu-sionsandMechanicalPropertiesofPlateSteel”,presentedatSymposiumonToughnessCharacterizationandSpecificationsforHSLAandStructuralSteels,AIMEAnnualMeeting,March6-10,1977.
Wilson,A.D.,“TheInfluenceofThicknessandRollingRatioontheInclusionBehaviorinPlateSteels”,presentedattheASM1977rflaterialsConference,Chicago,Illinois,October25-27,1977.
Wilson,W.G.,“MinimizingLamellarTearingbyImprovingZ-DirectionDuci~i-ty”,WeldingJournal,Vol.12,No.1, 1975,pp.274-282.
Weld,-GunnarandKristoffersen,Thorbjorn(DetNorskeVeritas),“DevelopmentofMethodforMeasuringSusceptibilityofSteelPlateto LamellarTear-ing”,OffshoreTechnologyConference,Houston,Texas,April29-May2,1973
-.
Note:WeldingResearchCouncilBulletinNo.232“ThroughThicknessProper-tiesandLamellarTearing(ABibliography)”,by D.H.SkinnerandM.Toyamalistsover400papersrelatingto through-thicknessor Z-directionpropertiesandlamellartearingpublishedpriortoApril1977.
10-3
APPENDIXA
MECHANISMOFLAMELLARTEARING
ReprintedwiththepermissionoftheAustralianWeldingResearchAssociationfromAppendixA ofAWRATechnicalNote6,
ReferencesforAppendixA arelistedattheendoftheAppendix.
A-1 BASIS
Lamellartearingoccurswhentensilestressesandstrainsappliedtothematerialinthethrouqh-thickness(Z)directionofthesteelexceedtheabilityofthesteel‘towithstandthes~stressesandstrains,andtherearesufficientinclusionspresenttoresultinthetypicalLTfracture.
Alternativelystated,lamellartearingoccurswhenthesteelpropertiesareinadequatetowithstandthestressesandstrainsintheZ-direction.
A-2 STEELPROPERTIES
.1 Anisotropy.““Aninherentfeatureofwroughtsteelproductsisthedif-ferenceswhichcanoccurinpropertiesindifferentdirections,i.e.thesteelisanisotropic;althoughformostapplicationsitcanbe treatedas iso-tropic.Thisanisotropyisbroughtaboutbytherollingor forgingopera-tionswhichmainlyflatteninclusionsandmaymodifythemetallurgicalstructureofthesteel.
.2 MechanicalProperties.MechanicalpropertiesintheZ-directionusuallyarereducedtoa varyingdegree.Thetensilestrengthandductility(asmeasuredbyreductionofareaor% elongation)aremostaffected.Inexceptionalcasestensilestrengthmaybereducedby30%andductilitytovirtuallyzero.Yieldorproofstressishardlyaffectedexceptwhenin-clusionsaregross.
.3 Cause.TheZ-directionpropertiesarereducedasa resultof:
(a) increaseinmaximumandaveragelengthandwidthofinclusions.
(b) increasednumberofinclusionsandcloserspacing.
(c) increasedalignmentofinclusionsonplanes.
Thiseffecthasbeenestablishedby theoreticalworkusingfracturemechanicsandprovenbytesting.
Thesepropertiesmayalsobereducedby:
(d) hydrogenfromweldingoperationsorparentmetal;
andasmorerecentlyreported(RefAl)by:
(e) thetemperatureandstresscyclesleadingto strainageingorsimilareffects;and
(f) priorcoldworkleadingtoexhaustionof ductilityandpossiblestrainageingeffectsinthematrixbetweeninclusions.
A-2
.’,
.
A-3 THROUGH-THICKNESSTENSILESTRESSESANDSTRAINS
.1 Cause.Thesestressesandstrainsresultfrom:
(a) weldandparentmetalcontractiononcoolingafterweld”
(b) restraintofthejointcomponents,ieexternalrescontraction,
ng,
stanceto
(c) otherthermalorloadinfluences,eg.unevenpreheat;andfrom
(d) thePoissoneffectdueto highlongitudinalstressesalongtheweldresultinginhightriaxialstressing.
.2 LocationofMechanicalStrains.TensilestressesandstrainsvaryacrossandalongtheweldedJoint,andmaximumvaluesmaybelocated:
(a) atextremeweldrunssuchasundertherootortoe(lastrun)asinFig.A-la.Loaddiffusionandstrainacrosstheplatewillbeconcentratedintheseareasbecauseof thenotchor stresscon-centration,particularlyif anybendingmomentis involved,aswithsinglesidedorunbalancedwelding.
(b) inthecentralplateareaasinFigA-lb,oftenwhenthisismoresusceptiblethannearthesurface.
(c) atweldormaterialdefectsor poorweldor penetrationshape.Thesecanactasseverestressandstrainconcentrators- seeFigsA-lc-e.
* ~~
1~~~IB Z-strainisgreaterat:
- “1’1
A – whencomponent(2) isfreeto rotateB– whencomponent(2) isprevemedfromrotating
..-—- InpracticemostLToccursnearfinalweldrun(Ref.K3)-: “’~11I .=(3-- ,,,:!,l,1-===,
‘1”‘iAa) “~1~
eHAZS.highhardness,n
IeterootpenetrationslopeofHAZratesstrain
d)
anglentratesstrain
Smallunderbeadcoldinhightration
Fi9 A-l LocationofmaximumstraininZ-direction.
A-3
— —
(d) justoutsidethevisibleHAZ,particularlywheretheHAZboundaryisparalleltotheplatesurface.ThispartoftheparentmetalalmostalwayshasloweryieldstressthantheHAZorweldmetalatthetemperatureswhereLToccurs.
Weldandparentmetalcontractionincreasesastheweldwidth,volumeandnumberofrunsincrease.
A-4 FRACTURE
It is believedthatfractureor tearingoccursinthestagesshowndiagrammaticallyinFig10(fromAWRATechnicalNote6 datedApril1976),ie:,
“Elasticstressconcentrationattips,.
J-W:,*;.fCohesionbetweensteelandinclusion
oPrincipal
L plasticzoneatinclusionrips
ShearWalltensilestrength(inZ direction)
/(locatedatterracesatdifferentlevels)
iecompletefracturethrouahinclusionsI I
~ dandli~aments
Decohesionat inclusion ,,~&, ... /,&+v+&E7///~ ~
/
Ductilefractureof
Heavyplastic ligamenttfeavvt31astic shearingbetween betweenstrairiirigof terracesligament
inclusions
Fig10 MechanismofLT.
.1 Onfirstencounteringsignificantstress- almostcertainlywithintheelasticrange,decohesionoccursattheinclusion/matrixinterface.Thestressrequiredwillbedependentonthetypeandshapeofinclusionandthemicrostresssystemdeveloped.
.2 Atthesametimeatthetipsorendsofinclusionsandotheradjacentdefects,plasticdeformationoccursfirstatthelargerinclusionsor thosesocloselyspacedthatthereisinteractionbetweenthetwo,i.e.wherethespacingislessthanaboutthesizeofthelargerinclusion.
.3 Onfurtherstrainingdueto furthercoolingormostlikelyduetofurtherweldingruns,theligamentbetweentheinclusionsbecomesfullyplasticandthevoidsatinclusionsincreaseinsizegenerallyby ductiletearing.
.4 Withadditionalstraining,theextendedvoidslinkup inplanesofgeneralweakness,iewheretheinclusionsarealigned;andthe“terrace”isformed- see-FigA-2. FigA-3showsthenatureoftheterracesurface.
—
A-4
— —
I
FigA-2 Linkingupofvoidstoformterracesx50.
FigA-3 Fracturesurfaceofterraceshowingduct~lefractureandinclusionsXIOO.
A-5
.5 Slightlyfurtherstrainingconnectstheterracesondifferentlevelsbyductileshearingofthe“walls”,virtuallytogivecompleteseparation.SeeFigsA-4andA-5. Shearwallsin lamellartearingaresmaller‘~haninmechanicaltests.
.6 Ifthematerialformingtheligamentbetweeninclusionshasexception-allypoorproperties,~e.lowplane-strainfracturetoughness(Klc)or lowcriticalcrackopeningdisplacement(&c ),theseareasmayshowareasofbrittlefracture.
.7 Theroleof hydrogenisnotclear,butprobablyaccentuateslocalstressatvoidtips,iea positionto whichhydrogenpreferentiallydif-fuses.Hydrogenhasbeenshownexperimentallytohavea greatereffectonLTinsteelswithhighercarbonequivalent.Thisismostlikelydueto theincreasedriskofunderbead(orcold)cracking,whichevenifon a micro-scalemaytriggeroffLT.
.8 ForLTtooccur,theconnectionsystemmusthaveconsiderablestrainenergyandbeabletotransferthistotheareaoftearing.
FigA-d Smallsheaxwalllinkingcloselyal,igr[edterracesX150.
A-6
FigA-5 Electronscanningmicrographgiving3--dimensionalviewofshearwallx200.
LISTOFREFERENCESFORAPPENDIXA
Al Takeski,Y.,“LamellarTearingandMarineStructures”,WeldingandMetalFabrication,December,1975.
A-T
,—
APPENDIXB
ORIGINSOFINCLUSIONS
ReprintedwiththepermissionoftheAustralianWeldingResearchAssociationfromAppendixB ofAWRATechnicalNote6,
ReferencesforAppendixB arelistedattheendoftheAppendix,
B-1 GENERAL
LToccursinparentmaterialandhenceisgreatlyinfluencedby thematerialproperties.LTisalsohighlydirectionalsensitiveanddependentonthrough-thicknessdirectionproperties.
ThesepropertiesandtheriskofLTdepend:
(a) primarilyoninclusionsinsteel;butalsoon
(b) thesteelmatrixitself.
Theeffectofinclusionsonpropertieshasbeennotedin2.3of Appen-dixA. Thevarioustypesof inclusion,theirorigininsteelmakingandmodificationinrollingarediscussedbelow,togetherwiththeuseofvariousmaterialpropertiesinassessingthesusceptibilityofsteeltoLT.
B-2 INCLUSIONS
Inconstructionalsteelplatesandsections,typicalnonmetallicin-cisionsare:
.1 Sulphides,mainlymanganesesulphide(MnS)whichmaybe:
(a) TypeI,i.e.ellipsoidalorsphericalinshape.TheseareusuallysmallinsizeandareseldomresponsibleforLT.
(b) TypeII,i.e.flattenedlamellarshapeas inFigB-1a. Theseareoftena majorfactorinLT,particularlywhenelongatedinstringers.Theyarepredominantinaluminumtreatedsiliconkilledsteels.
Othersulphidesincludetherare-earthmetal(REM)sulphidesandoxy-sulphideswhicharefoundin steelsspeciallytreatedto givehighRAz.Thesesulphidesarepredominantlysphericalinshape- seeFigB-lb.
.2 Silicates,metal-silicon-oxygencompounds.Inthestringerform,asinFigB-lc,thesehavea dominanteffect,particularlywhenRAzis lessthan15%(RefBl).
.3 Aluminates,A1203orcomplexaluminates.
.4 Mixedtypes,generallycombinationsofsul.phidesandsilicates(seeFigB-id)whichoftenarerelativelyshort.
WhilesilicatestringersandTypeII sulphideshavegreatesteffectonRAz,all-inclusionsmaybeinvolvedinLT.
B-2
...
‘.’
,-
b)REMsulphideandoxy-sulphide(inC-Mn-Nbsteel,Si-killedAlandREMtreated,with65%RA,z).
a)TypeIIsulphidestringer(inC-steel,Si-killed,Al-treated,with3%RA-~).
r...
● w.,..
d)Duplexstringers,Mn-Ssurroundedwithsilicatetails(inC+lnsteel,semi-killedwith50%RA~).
FigB-1 flicrogr~phsOf6.3
c)Silicatestringer(inC-Mnsteel,semi-killed,with8%RAz).
——
typicalinclusionsX400.
B-3 ORIGINOFINCLUSIONS
.1 SteelmakingControls.Inclusionsexistinallsteelsto someextentandorlglnateInsteelmakingfromimpuritiesinrawmaterialsandfromgasreactions.
Nearthefinalstageofsteelmaking,eitherinthebasicoxygenfurnaceorafterpouringintoladlesfromopenhearthorelectricsteelmakingfur-naces,thegeneralcompositionofthesteelis largelyfixed.Controlofsteelmakingoperationstothisstageenables,forinstance,sulphur- thecauseofMnSinclusions- tobe limitedfrequentlyto lessthan0.02%innormalconstructionalsteels.Specialcontrolsometimesenables0.01%tobeachieved- a levelwheretheriskofLTisgreatlyreduced.
Furthersteelmakingoperationswhichhavean importanteffectonthetype,distributionandgeometryofinclusionsmayinclude:
(a) de-oxidisation,and
(b) sulphurcontrol.
.2 SteelmakingProcess.Differentprocessesappearto haveno importanteffectonInclusionswhichpromoteLT.
.3 De-oxidisation.Thisoperationimprovespropertiesbyreducingoxygencontent,andiscarriedoutby:
(a) additionofde-oxidants(ie“killing”) to give semi-killedorfully-killedsteels.Thisistheusualmethodadoptedforcon-trollingoxygen.Siliconandaluminumaretheprincipalde-oxidantsused.
Infully-killedsteel,alloxygenintheladlereactswithaddedsiliconoraluminumtoformoxides.In semi-killedsteels,excessoxygenreactswithcarbontoformcarbonmonoxidewhichisevolvedduringsolidificationoftheingot.
(b) vacuumdegassingusingspecialhighcapitalcostequipmenttoremovegasesincludingoxygenwithouttheadditionofdeoxidants.Thismethodreducesoxide-typeinclusionsandisusedforspecialsteelsonly.
.4 FinalSulphurControl.Atthefinalstageofsteelmakingsulphurcanbefurthercontrolledbytheadditionofrare-earthmetals(REM),e.g.misch-metal,whichcontainscerium(Cc),orbycalciumcompoundssuchashypercal.
Thisaddition,whichmayalsobemadetotheingot-
(a) reducessulphurlevelbyremovingsulphurthroughtheslag,and
(b) tiesUD sul~hurinREMoxv-sulDhideswhichhavehiahmeltinc!.,points:resistdeformatio~globular,lessharmfulshape.
duringrollingandthus-retain~
,-.
B-4
J
:+
ThismethodisnowusedforspecialsteelswherehighRAzandresis-tancetoLTisrequired.
.5 IngotPouringandTreatment.Furthermethodsadoptedbythesteelmakertoreduceinclusions include:
(a) adjustmentofpouringtechnique,and
(b) hottoppingofingots.
B-4 INFLUENCEOFROLLINGANDHEATTREATMENTONINCLUSIONS
.1 BasicEffect.Aftersolidification,theingotisreheatedto a hightemperatureandreducedhottoslabsandthentoplateorrolledsections.Thisdeformstheoriginallyglobularinclusionsto a flatandsometimeselongatedshape- thusinfluencingRAzvaluesandsusceptibilitytoLT. Thegrainsofthematrixarealsoelongatedinthedirectionofrolling.
Fromtheslabstagethechangeinshapeofinclusionsdependson:
(a) thedegreeofrollingorreductioninthickness,
(b) thedirectionofrolling,and
(c) thetemperatureofrolling.
Croppingattheslabstageremovesthepartof theslabcontainingpiping,grossinclusions,etc.
.2 EffectofThicknessReduction.Witha greaterdegreeof rollingandreductionofthickness,inclusionsbecomeflatandhavemoreinfluenceonRAzvalues.
.3 EffectofRollingDirection.Rollingpredominantlyinthedirectionofthe”originalingotaxis(l.e,straightrolling)elongatestheinclusionsintostringers.
Crossrolling,iewherethereisrollingbothtransverseandalongtheingotaxis,lessenselongationandgivesa roundershapeinplan. ThisleadstoreducedRAz(Ref132)butnotnecessarilyincreasedsusceptibilitytoLT.
.4 EffectofRollingTemperature.Thistemperatureis importantastheplasticityofmanganesesulphldeinclusionsrelativeto thesteelmatrixincreaseswithdecreasingtemperature,whilethatof silicateinclusionsdecreases.Thus,thelowerthetemperaturerangeofworking,thegreatertheflatteningofMnSinclusions.ForfurtherdetailsseeRefB2.
.5 InfluenceofHeatTreatment.Modificationtoshapeof inclusionsisnotposslble bynormalheattreatment.Diffusionannealinghashelped,butisnotpracticableforconstructionalsteels.Hence,thereisnocleardif-ferencebetweenas-rolledornormalisedcondition.
B-5
B-5 MATRIXFACTORS
.1 General.TheeffectofmatrixpropertiesonLTisprobablysmallwithusualconstructionalsteelswheninclusionsarenumerousandlarge.Re-searchandexperiencesuggestthematrixhasmoreeffectwithfewinclu-sions,butthentheproblemofLTisless.
.2can
.3but
GrainSize.ExperienceshowsthatbothcoarseandfinegrainedsteelsbesusceptibletoLT.
R“BandingofrolledplateandsectionsIsreasonablycommon,
t ISan othersegregationofalloyingelementsdo notappearto sub-stantiallyreduceZ-directionpropertiesorincreaseLT.
B-6 INFLUENCEOFINCLUSIONSONPROPERTIESANDLAMELLARTEARING
Theeffectofinclusionshape,distributionandsizeisdiscussedin2.3ofAppendixA. Usingthisandtheaboveinformationonvarioustypesofinclusionsitispossibleto givetheveryapproximaterelationshipsinTableB-6.
TABLEB-6 INFLUENCEOFINCLUSIONS
SteelTypesInclusionType UsuallyInvolved
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SilicatestringersDecreasingIncreasingSK,FK-Si,FK-Si+Alriskof RAz
TypeII manganese Lamellarsulphidestringers Tearing FK-Si,FK-S+A1
Duplexsulphideswithsilicatetails
1 “1
SK
Ellipsoidalsulphides FK-Si+Al(thickplate)
Sphericalsulphides REMtreatedsteels
SK= Semi-killed Si= SiliconkilledFK= Fully-killed Al= Aluminumtreated
B-7 REDUCTIONOFAREAASANINDICATOROFSUSCEPTIBILITYTOLT
.1 SelectionofReductionofArea.LTisclearlydependentonmaterialproperties,,particularlyInthel-direction.Itisnaturalthatconvention-al,well-establishedmechanicaltestshavesusceptibility.Through-thicknesstensileusedextensively,andtodaytheyareusedspecialsteels.
beenusedto checkthematerialtestsofthematerialhavebeenforspecificationpurposesfor
B-6
—
Thesetensiletestsgiveyieldstress,tensilestrength,% elongation(onvariousgaugelengths)and% reductionof area(RAz).Variationofthesepropertiesisindicatedin2.3ofAppendixA andvariousresearchers(RefsB3andB4)haveshownRAztobethemostdiscriminatingandaccuratematerialmeasureatthelowductilitieswhereLT isencountered.It alsohasbeen-foundtocorrelatewellwithknownLTincidence(RefB5). ThisisnotunreasonableasRAzisa measureofthelocalstrainoccurringatfrac-tureandmorenearlyrepresentsthebehaviou~LT.
Toensurethatthefullthicknessofmaterialisassessed,standardpracticetodayistoweldextensionstubstotheplatebyfriction,studormanualarcweldingtoprovidegripsforthistensiletesting.
.2 InfluenceofTestSpecimenonRAz.testspecimendiameterissignificantin
(a) thesmallerdiameterspecimensthesizeandpositionoflarge
It is importantto notethatthequotingRAzvaluesas:
arelikelytobemoreinfluencedbyinclusions,ieminimumvaluesare
reducedandmaximumvaluesincreased.
(b) thelargerspecimens,uptoapproximately20mmdiameter,havemorelateralrestraintandthusgivelowermeanvaluesandreducedscatter.Thus,6.4mmdiameterspecimensgive,inabsoluteterms,approximately10%higherRAzmeansthan18mmspecimens.SeeFig.-
RAzoIo
50
40
30
20
10
00 5 6.4 10 15 2SpecimenDiametermm
FigB-2 TypicaleffectofspecimendiameteronRAz[forsteelwithapprox.25%Wlzon 6.4~ 4).RefsB5andB1O.
B-?—
.3 VariationofRAzinThicknessPosition.Testinghasshownthatthemaximumincidenceofinclusionsandfracturelocationmayvaryfromjustbelowthesurfacetothecentreoftheplateorsection,butusuallyismoreprevalentinthecentre.ExperiencealsoindicatesthatplatesmaybemoresusceptibletoLTatdifferentthicknesses.
Toprovideforthis,RAztestscheckthefullthickness.
.4 VariationofRAzinPlate.Investigations(RefsBl,B6andB7)shownoapparently-consistentvariationofRAzovervariouspositionsintheplate.Theonlygeneralindicationisthatfor.theplatestestedthere was aslightlygreaterprobabilityof lowerRAzinthetopcentral30%of theplate.
.5 RAzValuestoReduceRiskofLT. Farrar(RefB5)givescorrelationofRAzwith-knownLT,andIndicates:
(a) inallsteelswhichencounteredLT,themeanRAzvalues(6.4mm. diameter)wereequaltoorbelow15%andtheminimumvaluesofallwerebelow12%.
(b) inallsuccessfullyfabricatedsteels,themeanvaluesallex-ceeded13%andtheminimumvaluesofallexceeded5%.
AtthisstageitisnotpossibletostatethatsteelswithhighvaluesofRAzwillnotencounterLT,asmuch“dependsonrestraintfactors.As aguide,thevaluesgiveninFigB-3arerecommended.Thisdatatakesintoaccountrecommendationsfrom:
o ReferencesB1andB8,o IIW,ie15%to 20%minimummean,o ReferenceB9,30%fornodeplatesinoffshoredrillingrigs,o Currentpractice,25%minimummean(4or6 specimenstakenatthe
1/4platewidthposition)for.mostapplications,(35%by onemajoroilcompany)and10or15%individualminimum.
Asthescattercanbehighwithsmalldiameterspecimensthereis ariskthatanoccasionalspecimenwillfailbelowthespecifiedminimum.ThiswillhavelittleeffectonLT,butshouldbeallowedforbytheusualretestclause.
B-8 EFFECTOFOTHERMATERIALPROPERTIESONDESIGN
ThepossiblereductionoftensilestrengthandyieldstressintheZ-directionmayinfluencethedesignofthejointinadditiontoallowanceforreducedRAz.Thesereductionsarenormallynotgreat(see2.3of AppendixA)andcanalmostalwaysbeignoredindesign.
ExtensiveserviceexperiencehasindicatedthatconventionaldesignwhichisbasedonX-directionpropertiesisadequate.Thisis largelyduetothefollowing:
B-8
(a) steelswithverylowtensile oryieldstrengthoftenwillbe de-tectedbyLTduringfabrication,whereconditionsaremoreseverethanalmostallserviceconditions.
(b) tensilestrengthofmostconstructionalsteelsintheworstcondi-tionintheZ-directionisgreaterthantheyieldstressonwhichmostdesignsarebased.
(c) inmostweldedjointsthereisdiffusionof theserviceloadsthrougha greaterarea- thuseffectivelyreducingthestress;and
(d) theprobabilityof alremote.
In specialcriticalcasesspecialconsiderationmayneedto
1 factorsactingadverselyisextremely
whereveryhighstressesareinvolved,begiventodesignormaterial.
w-(J NegligibleRisk: 20x
CiIV-P SmallRisk‘Eg15mN .-
10
5
nu Low Mediurn HighJointRestraint
FigB-3 ApproximateRiskofLamellaxTeaxingforC andC-MnSteels.Specifiedminimumyieldstress<40.8kg/mm2
B-9
..
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B7
B8
B9
B1O
LISTOFREFERENCESFORAPPENDIXB
Farrar,J.C.M.,“InclusionsandSusceptibilitytoLamellarTearingofWeldedStructuralSteels”,WeldingJournal,August,1974
Croll,synlpos
Croll,Journa”
Wilson.
J.E., “MaterialFactorsAffectingLamellarTearing”,AWRAurnonLamellarTearing,April,1976
J.E., “Through-ThicknessPropertiesofStructuralSteels”,ofAustralianInstituteofMetals,September,1975
W.G..“MinimizingLamellarTearing”,WeldingJournal,November1974
Farrar,J.C.M., etal,“UseofSmallScaleDestructiveTeststoAssesstheSusceptibilitytoLamellarTearing”,ProceedingsofInternationalConferenceonWeldinginOffshoreConstructions,February,1974
BritishSteelCorporation,“SteelPlatewithImprovedThrough-ThicknessDuctility”,October,1973
Takeski,Y:,“LamellarTearingandMarineStructures”,WeldingandMetalFabrication,December,1975
Schonherr,W.,“ ? th-V?IIUeasCriterionforJudgingLamellarTearingTendencyofSteelStructures”,IIWDOC.IX-948-76.
DetNorskeVeritas,“RulesforDesign,Construction,andInspec-tionofFixedOffshoreStructures”,1974
IIWDOC. IX-872-74: “JapaneseCommentsonThrough-ThicknessTensileTestforEvaluatingLamellarTearingSusceptibility”,1974
B-10
SHIP RESEARCH COMMITTEEMaritime Transportation Research Board
NationalAcademyof Sciences-NationalResearchCouncil
The Shipinteragency Ship
********
Research Committee has technical cognizance of theStructure Committee’s research program:
Mr. O. H.Mr. M. O.
Dr. J. N.Mr. D. P.Mr. W. J.Mr. A. C.Dr. W. Ft.
Oakley, Chairman, Co?;sultant,McLean, VABurkhart, Nava L Ocecmogaphu Division, Dep.zrtientof the N~Y,
Washington, b.C_.-Corciea, Senior Staff Metallurgist, ARMCO INC., MiddLetow, OHCourt Sal , Vice president, DPJVO Corporation, Pittsburgh, PALane, Consultant, Baltimorw, MDMcCIure, Akz C. McClure Associates, Inc., Houston, TXPorter, Vice ties. for Academ<c Affairs, State Univ. of N. Y.
Maritime Co1logeProf. S. T. RO1fe, Civil Engineering Dept., University of XuwasMr. R. W. Rumke, Ezecutive Secretary, ship Research Committee
********
The.ShipMaterials, Fabrication, & Inspection Advisory Groupprepared the project prospectus, evaluated the proposals for this project,provided the liaison technical guidance, and reviewed the project reportswith the investigator:
Dr. J. N. Cordea, Chairman, Senior .sti~ffMetallurgist, ARMCO INC., Middletown, OHMr. W. C. Brayton , Asst. to General Manager, Bethl.shamSteel corp., Spari-otisPoint,;,~Mr. T. E. Koster, Naval Architect, AMOCO International Oil Co., Chicago, ILDr. W. C. Leslie, Dept. of Materia2s & Met. Eng?g., Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MlDr. H. 1. McHenry , cryogenics Division, Nationa L Bweau of Standards, Boulder, COMr. P. W. Narshal 1, Senior sti~ffcivilEng?., SHELL OIL CO., .Youston,TXPt_Of.P. F. Packman, C’man, Dept. of Civil 4 Mech. hg?g. , Southern Methodist’Univ.
Dallas, TXPrOf. G. C. Sih, Inst. of Fracture & Solid Mechanics, Lehigh Univ., Bethlahern,PA
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The Effect of Strain Rate on the Toughness of Ship Steels by P. H. Franci S,T. S. Cook, and A. Nagy. 1978. AO-A059453.
Fracture Be??wviorCharacterization of Ship Stee1s and Weldments byP. H. Francis, T. S. Cook, and A. Nagy. 1978. AO-A058939.
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