SHORT TITLE:

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND LAND-USE CHANGE

- 1

~./

AGRICULTURAL MARKET FUNCTIONS AND LAND-USE CHANGE: A QUEBEC CASE STUDY

by

WILLIAM SMITH

ABSTRACT

The thesis presents the resu1ts of research into the function

of farm-market linkages in the evo1ution of hybrid grain-corn production

in Southern Québec. Some consideration is made of the genera1 structure

and trends in Québec agriculture, and the ro1e of hybrid grain-corn is

presented within this wider contexte The evo1ution of the physica1

structure of the market, the nature of market demand, and the farmers'

perception of the market, are a11 identified as significant variables

in the locationa1 pattern of grain-corn production. The direct ro1e of

the market as an information source is examined and found to influence

positive1y both the rate and direction of change. The use of free seed

samp1es and the establishment of contract marketing further confirms

these findings.

M.Sc. Thesis Department of Geography McGi11 University Montreal, Québec February, 1972.

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND LAND-USE CHANGE: A QUEBEC CASE STUDY

par

WILLIAM SMITH

RESUME

Nous présentons ici les résultat d'une recherche sur le rôle

des rapports entre les producteurs et le marché, dans l'évolution

de la production du mais hybride dans le sud du Québec. Une

première partie de notre étude porte sur la place de la production

du mais hybride dans le contexte plus général des structures et

des tendances de l'agriculture àu Québec. Nous avons ensuite trouvé

que ce sont les variables suivantes qui déterminent le plus le

schéma de la localisation de la production du mais hybride:

l'évolution de la structure du marché la nature de la demande et

la perception du marché par les producteurs. De plus, il semble que

la connaissance qu'ont les producteurs du marché, influence directement

et de façon positive la tendance et la vitesse du changement de

la production. L'utilisation d'échantillons fournis par l'acheteur,

et la conclusion assurée de contrats de vente, confirment nos

observations.

M.Sc. Thesis Department of Geography McGill University Montreal, Quebec

February, 1972.

:\

.., . ..

AGRlCULTURAL MARIŒT FUNCTIONS AND LAND-USE CHANGE:

A QUEBEC CASE STUDY

~, .

William Smith

A thesis submitted ta the Facu1ty of Graduate Studies

and Research in partial fu1fi1ment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Science

Department of Geography McGi11 University Montreal, Québec. February, 1972.

@) William Smith 1972

J

- i -

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Throughout the development of this thesis, the assistance, advice,

encouragement and patience of members of staff, fellow students and the

many other individuals, authorities and bodies contacted has been greatly

appreciated, and is gladly acknowledged.

Particular thanks are expressed to Dr. H.C. Brookfield and Dr. J.M.

Gilmour for their valuable supervision and guidance in the writing of

this work; Dr. F.C. Innes willingly helped in the preparatory stages, and

Dr. R.C. Zimmerman suggested and encouraged an initial interest in hybrid

grain-corn in Québec as a case study.

M. O. Dubois and M. M. Hénault, both of the Ministère de l'agriculture

et de la colonisation, offered considerable advice and material assistance

in the preparation of a sample design, and in the provision of technical

information.

Miss L. Dubreuil carefully drafted the maps and diagrams, and Miss

S.C. Foster efficiently typed the manuscript.

Dr. T.R. Moore proof read the final draft, and Mr. I.M. Barlow provided

continuaI, occasionally constructive, criticism.

- ii -

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ii

LIST OF MAPS AND DIAGRAMS iv

LIST OF TABLES vi

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Prob1em 1 Re1ationship of Study to Existing Research and Literature 1 Sca1e of Thesis and Data Collection 4 Termino1ogy and Conversions 12

SECTION 1: THE STRUCTURAL BASIS

1.1 Physica1 Constraints 1.2 An Historica1 Perspective 1.3 Farm Structure 1.4 Auto-Consumption 1.5 Hybrid Grain-Corn Yie1ds 1.6 Summary

SECTION 2: TANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND THEIR FUNCTION AS FORCES IN AGRICULTURAL CHANGE

14 15 21 27 33 37

2.1 Some Theoretica1 Consideratiorls 38 2.2 The Evolution of Grain-Corn Marketing Structure

in Québec 41 2.3 Market Perception and Market Choice 50 2.4 Summary 60

SECTION 3: INTANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRlCULTURAL MARKETING AND THEIR FUNCTION AS FORCES IN AGRICULTURAL CHANGE

3.1 Introduction 62

- 1

- iii -

3.2 Information Sources and the Sequence of Change 3.3 The Ro1e of the Free Samp1e 3.4 Contract Farming 3.5 Sununary

CONCLUSIONS

APPENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE: Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

REFERENCES

62 75 76 79

81

84 86 88

88a

89

la

lb

2

3

4

5

6a

6b

7

8

- iv -

MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

Grain-Corn Production in Québec, 1908-1971

Grain-Corn Yie1ds in Québec, 1908-1970

Location of Samp1e Parishes

County Location Map, Southern Québec

Grain-Corn as a Percentage of Improved Land, 1966

Grain-Corn as a Percentage of Improved Land, 1970

Québec Agricu1tura1 Labour Force as a Percentage of Total Labour Force

Québec Gross Agricu1tura1 Product per Farm

Québec Farm Income

Farm Classification Map: Before Introduction of Grain-Corn

9 Farm Classification Map: 1971

10a Mi1k Cows in Québec: December 1st

lOb Beef Catt1e in Québec: December 1st

lIa Hogs in Québec: December 1st

lIb Pou1try in Québec: Average Annua1 Production

12 Changing Area of Fodder Crops on Samp1e Farms

13 Hybrid Grain-Corn Utilisation by County: 1970

14 Grain-Corn Yie1ds per Hectare: 1970

15 Yie1d Variations: Gatineau/Pontiac and Argenteuil: 1970

16 Marketing Systems of Québec Grain-Corn

6

6

7

8

9

10

19

19

20

23

24

25

25

26

26

28

30

34

35

42

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

- v -

Market Choice of Samp1e Farmers: First Year of Grain-Corn Production

Market Choice of Samp1e Farmers: 1971

Location of Grain-Corn Driers: 1970

Location of Feed Mi11s: 1970

Market Know1edge and Distance Decay

Size Distribution of Samp1e Farms and of Commercial Grain-Corn Production on Samp1e Farms

Information Sources in the Adoption Process

Time Sequence for Acceptance of Hybrid Grain­Corn

Acceptance of Hybrid Grain-Corn

Information Sources in the Adoption Process as used by the 'Innovators'

43

44

47

49

53

59

63

67

68

72

1

2

3

4a

4b

5

6

- vi -

TABLES

Changing Farm Size Distribution in Québec, 1941-1966

Changing Production Trends on Samp1e Farms

Comparative Cost Structure for Québec Fodder Crops

Leve1 of Market Awareness

Market Awareness of Farmers at First Entry to Commercial Market in Two Time Periods

Initial Information Source in Acceptance of a New Crop

Index of Urbanisation

18

22

31

54

54

65

70

- 1 -

. INTRODUCTION

Statement of Problem

The ~asis of this inquiry is the functional and spatial relation­

ship between individual farm units and the~r markets. In the evolution

of land-use patterns, this relationship is demonstrably important. The

market influences not only the choice of crop, but also the structure

of farm operations and their scale. The approach taken is to review the

evolution of a specifie agricultural marketing system, seen as a mechanism

for change on the farms: the particular marketing system chosen is the

newly-developed supply of hybrid grain-corn to mills, driers, and distil­

leries in the lowland of southwestern Québec.

Relationship of Study to Existing Re~earch and Literature

Although with a very specifie and restricted emphasis, this is a

thesis in agricultural geography. Gregor (1970, p. 2) can state that

••• 'there is almost unanimous agreemènt on the prime object in

agricultural geography: the areal variation in agriculture'. Within

agricultural geography, a problem-generating core may be identified with

two inter-related dimensions :-

- 2 -

1. A physica1 pattern on the ground; and

2. An institutiona1 framework of operation.

Any change in the land-use pattern may be seen as a function of a change

in the working of the 'institutiona1 framework', or of a changing inter­

pretation of this framework by the decision making units.· The thesis

prob1em as presented above fits neat1y into this co~ceptua1 frame.. As

yet, however, industry-farm linkages have been neg1ected as a geographic~l

research focus, notwithstanding the growing emphasis on linkages in

industria1 geography.

Coppock (1968), identifies the study of farm linkages as a ~uture

focus in agricu1tura1 geography,and touches on this topic in his 1964

work. Simi1ar1y, Mather (1950), brief1y discusses marketing patterns

and structures. To date, however, with the exception of a number of

studies onmilksupp1y areas (Barnes, 1958; Simpson, 1959; and Scarlett,

.1966), on1y Gi1lmor (1969), wou1d seem to have attempted any detai1ed

ana1ysis, in this instance, of beef catt1e in the Repub1ic of Ire1and.

None of these studies, ~owever, examined the influence of farm linkages

at the 1eve1 of the individua1 farm. Moreover, whi1e one may extend

the search among such writings back to von ThHnen (1826), the 1itt1e work

that has been done by geographers is focused comp1ete1y on the physica1

or tangible functions of the market.

A thesis of this nature c1ear1y impinges on a wide range of re1ated

economic and socio1ogica1 1iterature. Allen (1959), identifies the

- 3 -

primary role of the market as an information network, and sees lack

of efficient communication as a basic cause in the lack of agricultural

specialisation. WeIler (1967), follows this interpretation, and suggests

the significance of the market system in land-use change; while Le

Bihan (1969), notes the specific value ofLthe specific value of the

market system as an integrated communications network.

A need for more effective co-ordination between producer and consumer

has generated an increasing appreciation of the function of the market

as an information network, and encouraged the development of various

joint decision making units (WeIler, 1967). This further reflects the

increasing inter-dependence of agriculture and industry, and points-up

the need to examine agricultural problems within an indus trial context

(Goldberg and Davis, 1957).

A considerable âmount of literature is available on information diffusion.

A full review of such work is presented by Jones (1967). A few papers,

as that of Jones (1961), examine this field in relation to the function of

the market agents. But such work tends to ignore the geographical or

spatial component. Brown and Moore (1969), have specifically stated the

need to examine the 'spatial characteristics of the information flow'.

The thesis is not a diffusion study, however, but rather given the

evolution of a distinctive locational pattern of production, the aim is

to examine the role of farm-market linkage relationships. The market

functions examined are not unique to the initial stages of production for

, ~. '.

- 4 -

for a new crop, but it is hoped that examination within this context

might clarify the market functions in continuaI operation.

It is clear that there is no 'one' information network (Emery and

Oeser, 1958), but it is suggested that an analysis of farm linkages

and market relations may provide some understanding of an increasingly

important and somewhat neglected spatial system.

Scale of Thesis and Data Collection

The need for improved communication of ideas and techniques to

farmers is of increasing concern to agricultural authorities. Such a

need is particularly evident in the evolution of the agricultural

sector from small scale production within a conservative rural society

to larger scale production for a sophisticated commercial market. As

late as 1967, the Commission royale d'enquête sur l'agriculture au Québec,

noted the structural problems facing Québec agriculture in its transition

from traditional small scale farming and a regional emphasis on dairying,

to increasingly specialised production. The Commission royale identified

the problem asc essentially one of communication between advisory bodies

and the farmers, stating that, 'Seules des campagnes de vulgarisation des

connaissances agronomiques seraient capables de rendre plus éfficaces les

méthodes de culture', (2, p. 51).

There is clearly some suggested relationship between these specific

Québec problems, they themselves having wider significance, and the more

theoretical considerations outlined above. As shown, several writers

(

- 5 -

have noted the lack of effective communication as a factor in land-

use change, and have suggested the nature of farm-market linkages as

of specifie interest.

As suggested, the basis for this thesis rests on a need to explore

the validity of farrn-market linkages as a potential research focus.

Using hybrid grain-corn in Québec as a case study, the problem may be

re-stated thus :

1. The location p.attern of hybrid grain-corn production in Québec, and its changing distribution through time; and

2. The evolution of the marketing system for hybrid grain­corn and its relationship to land-use and farrn structure.

Statistics, presented graphically in Figure la, show some production

of grain-corn in Québec between 1908 and 1932, but a production gap from

1932 till 1965. Since 1965, the area of grain-corn has increased from

near zero to over 44,000 hectares (110,000 acres).

The re-establishment of grain-corn production in the province from

the early 1960's is a consequence of the development and diffusion of a

new high-yielding hybride As yet, the earliest maturing varieties of

hybrid corn require a minimum of 2,500 heat units per annum, but the seed

is much less susceptable to damage by the European Corn Borer which

devastated the crops of the 1930's.

Within the a~ea receiving a mean of over 2,500 neat units per annum

(Figure 2), hybrid grain-corn in Québec is found on approximately 2,500

J

!

/ /' .

--- County Boundary

--- 2500 Heal Unit Isohyet

1 20 4D ! . 1 MILES [. 1 KllOMETERS

30 60

Figure 2

LOCATION OF SAMPLE PARISHES

.....

•

COUNTY LOCATION MAP:SOUTHERN QUEBEC PAPINEAU

ARGENTEUIL

/ /' ONTARIO

00

* Distillery

_. County Boundary

·0 20 40 ! ! , MILES 1 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

. Figure 3

1.

v.:· -

.' .. '-.ne:: ~ GRAIN-CORN AS A PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVED LAND: 1966 ottawa

/ /'

1=1+1 Percent· ttJj .6.1'13.0

~ 3.1-6.0

~ \.1-3.0

§ 0.6-\.0

§ 0.1-0.5

o l 'p 40

Figure 4

1 1 MILES 30 1 KILOMETERS

60

..,--'

- County Boundary

Source: . Québec agricu1tura1 census statistics, 1970.

\0

1=-~ ~

I=j~ GRAIN-CORN AS A PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVEO LAND: 1970 OH.w. ~

Em ~ ~ .§ §

/ /'

Percent -6.1-13.0 ~ 3.1- 6.0

1.1- 3.0

0.6-1.0

0.1-0.5

~

-T ~

~

! w ~ 1 1 MILES f 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

Figure 5 .

2500 Hp.lIf IInit Il:ohvp.t

:$ ~~: ~ w

1- ~ 1 ~

County Boundary

~~

Source: Unpublished statistics of the Ministère de l'agriculture, Québec.

1-'. o 1

- 11 -

farms (1970), with some concentration centred on Chateauguay and

Bagat counties (Figures 3, 4 and 5).

The basis of the thesis rests on a field survey of a two-stage

random sample of 134 farms. Using lists of aIl hybrid grain-corn

producing parishes and farms in Québec, and random sample tables, a

sample of ·52 parishes was first obtained (Figure 2).

It would seem probable that a random samp1e of aIl hybrid grain­

corn farms should have been taken direct, without any prior samp1ing

of parishes. This would have allowed any marketing patterns to evolve

freely, ~,without any semblance of moulding by sample design. But this

would have demanded a much larger sample than was possible for an inquiry

limited to a single field season.

Using the sampling method described, it was hoped to maintain a

wide over-all coverage, but minimise sample size. Work by Coppock (1964),

Farris and Armstrong (1963), and Lasnier (1969), aIl suggest a tendency

for production concentration around processing plants. Corn mills and

driers commonly serve farmers grouped at parish level, and as producer

behaviour and location with respect to market out let is one of the factors

to be examined, the research design suggested seemed appropriate.

A questionnaire (Appendix), was used during the interviewing of the

sample farmers. After an initial period of investigation the original

questionnaire was modified to fit the particular problems which had

emerged, and to clarify certain ambiguous statements which it had included.

The response to the questionnaire was excellent, with only two refusaIs

- 12 -

out of the sample population of 136 farmers. Problems of response were

encountered with respect to questions involving yields and priees. It

is believed that in general, the farmers were not aware of the facts

required, although the nature of the questions may have discouraged an

accurate response in some instances.

To establish the nature of demand and supply arrangements to the

various markets, the main outlets for Québec grain-corn were visited,

or the appropriate organisation contacted. Almost aIl the farmers that.

grew hybrid grain-corn in its first production season were interviewed,

similarly officiaIs and research workers of particular significance were

contacted. Statistical data, published and unpublished, was always

willingly provided by the Gouvernement du Québec, Ministère de l'agriculture

et de la colonisation. Research began in the spring of 1971; field inquiry

was carried out entirely during the summer of 1971, and data analysis and

writing occupied a further six months.

Terminology and Conversions-' ~

By preference, the thesis is written using the metric system. Tables

for area, distance, and other measures were obtained from the Statistical

Yearbook of the United Natdens. Most farmers gave area figures in arpents,

and these were converted to standard measures, following the Ministère

de l'agriculture, with 1 arpent - 0.84 acres ~ 0.34 hectares.

The term 'grain-corn' has been used as a general one, and where

Flint Corn or Hybrid Grain-Corn are specifically considered, this is stated

in the text.

- 13 -

The word agronome has been retained in its French forme The English

equivalent is agricuItural extension officer, or agricuItural advisory

officer. Within Québec, the term agronome is commonly used by both

English and French speaking farmers and officiaIs, and seems more useful

in the context of this work.

Maps of percentage area in grain-corn, and maps of corn yieId, are

delimited by the 2,500 heat unit isohyet. Hybrid grain-corn is grown

outwith the 2,500 heat unit zone, but this generaIIy involves few producers

and a very small area.

- 14 -

SECTION 1

THE STRUCTURAL RASIS

1.1 Physical Constraints

The earliest maturing varieties of hybrid grain-corn require

a minimum of 2,500 heat units per annum: thus temperature, as noted,

provides a primary barrier broadly delimited by the 2,500 heat unit

isohyet (Figure 2). Rainfall, averaging between 40.6 and 81.3 cente­

met ers (16 - 32 inches) during the months of April to September, is

generally adequate.

Cloutier (undated paper), specifies optimum soil and drainage

conditions, namely a deep, friable, weIl drained soil. The soils of the

area have developed in deposits of the Champ~ain Sea (Karrow; 1961), and

are essentially clays of varying composition, with irregular sandy

deposits. Soil drainage is a major problem throughout most of the

Saint-Lawrence Lowlands, and tile drainage is not extensive. Drainage

conditions may vary considerably within"any one field, and there is little

evidence of any general relationship between soil types and the location

pattern of hybrid grain-corn production (Figure 5). MacKenzie (1970),

in a study of the relationship between soil types and oat yields in

Southern Québec, found a coefficient of variation of yield within

several agronomie soil classifications of about 0.3; within the climatic

- 15 -

area as de1imited for grain-corn production, it seems probable that

other factors more successfu11y exp la in location patterns and variations

in production returns.

1.2 An "Historica1 Perspective

Cole Harris (1966), considers the historica1 deve10pment of the

Québec agricu1tura1 land-use pattern, and fits it into a wider North

American perspective. Harris notes the simi1arities between the Québec

agricu1tura1 system and that of New Eng1and (p. 167), and view the

1ag in know1edge of European agricu1tura1 practices among Québec farmers

as having para11e1s among most North American farmers in the seventeenth

and ear1y eighteenth centuries.

Harris goes on ta suggest a possible strengthening of the seigneurial

system in the years after the conquest as 'a potentia1 bastion against

Eng1ish cultural encroachment' (p-"';d96). Beauregard (1970), accepts the

philosophy of l'agriculturisme as a partial explanatory basis for the

continued lag in Québec rural development, but identifies Québec as an

essential1y marginal economy, and suggests this as a major element in

exp1aining the economic development of the area. Simi1ar1y, the reports

of the Commission royale d'enquête sur l'agriculture au Québec note the

paral1e1s ta current Québec rural prob1ems throughout much of the Western

wor1d. Schultz (1964), considering traditiona1 agriculture, fo11ows a

- 16 -

similar reasoning, and while accepting cultural variables as of some

importance and interest, sees economic theory as providing an adequate

thesis.

*It has always been possible to grow corn in Southern Québec. Flint

Corn was known to the native Indians prior to European settlement in the

area, and was used to a limited extent by the early French settlers

(Harris, p. 154). Within Southern Québec, Flint Corn was extensively

produced prior to 1932. Québec agriculture wastthen, and has to some

extent remained, an example of polyculture. Thus, while widely grown,

Flint Corn commonly occupied only 1-2 hectares (2-5 acres), on any one

farm, and was used solely as cattle fodder.

As shown in Figure lb, the yield per unit area of Flint Corn is much

lower than with modern hybrids. An average return of 25 hectolitres per

hectare (28 bushels per acre), during the 1908-1932 period, has had a

counterpart of 68 hectolitres per hectare (76 bushels per acre), since

1965. The low yield potential of Flint Corn in part explains its absence

today, even in areas where no hybrid of sufficiently early maturity is

yet available. Equally important, however, as me~tioned, the European

Corn Bore spread rapidly into Québec from the north-east U.S.A. in the

early 1930's, -confirming a pre-established downward production trend. While

* The pre-1962 structure is developed largely on personal communications from Dr. R.I. Braun, formerly of Macdonald College, McGill University, Montreal, and M. Philippe Granger, formerly of the Institut de Technologie agricole, St-Hyacinthe.

-17 -

as shown, there are no statistics overing the 1932~1965 period, Flint

Corn production did continue at a level of 25,000 to 40,000 hectares

(60,000 to 100,000 acres), but was cut green, and used as grain

silage. This continues today in the more marginal areas.

. The thirty year gap between 1932 and 1962 left a full generation

of farmers without any experience in grain-corn production. Consequently,

production techniques had to be taught and learned again, and no relation­

ship between the earlier Flint Corn growers and current producers was

observed. There was a one hundred percent correlation between silage

corn producers and the first hybrid grain-corn farmers in the St-Hyacinthe

area, but this was a deliberate relationship established by the diffusion

agents, and was not evident beyond an initial two year period.

The new hybrid seed forming the basis of current production, was

developed by Dr. R.I. Braun, in the Faculty of Agriculture, Macdonald

College, McGill University, and was available for commercial use by the

mid-1930's. Attempts were made to diffuse knowledge of this hybrid to

the appropriate authorities, but it was not until the late 1950's, early

1960's, that this was achieved. The reason for the time lag is not clear,

but seems due primarily to a lack of interest and enthusiasm on the part

of extension officiaIs. This is an apathy backed by caution regarding

a crop type so recently removed from the production schedule. Information

on early maturing corn varieties never spread below this official· level.

The 1960's saw the emergence of a new group of vigorous agronomes, many

trained at Macdonald College, aware of hybrid grain-corn, and of its

!l

- 18 -

potential contribution in a rationalisation of provincial agriculture.

Table 1 and Figures 6a-7, illustrates some of the major trends

in Québec agriculture. It is clear that, while having some distinctive

features, the overall Québec trend is towards a rationalisation of land

and labour in agriculture, paralleling wider trends at the national and

internationallevel (Federal Task Force on Agriculture, 1969).

TABLE 1

Changing Farm Size Distribution in Québec 1941-1966

Size of Farm 1941 1951 1961 1966 % % % %

0.41 - 1.62 hectares 0.9 0.7 1.0 1.1

2.02 - 4.05 " 1.9 1.5 0.8 0.9

4.45 - 20.23 " 12.2 9.9 6.4 6.2

20.64 40.46 " 39.1 36.5 30.4 26.0

40.84 80.92 " 34.2 37.9 42.5 41.8

81.33 - 120.98 " 7.2 8.4 11.4 13.8

121.38 - 193.80 If 3.7 4.3 6.2 8.3

194.21 - 258.54 If 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.3

258.94 and over If 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6

Source: Census of Canada - Agricultural Section - Vol. iv 1968.

From the information presented, it is shown that while the total

agricultural labour force in Québec decreased at a rate of 4.5% per annum

- 19 -

% QUËBEC AGRICULTURAL LABOUR FORCE AS A PERCENTAGE

25 OF TOTAL LABOUR FORCE

5

1950 1955 1960 1965

Figure 6a

19!9 QUEBEC GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT PER· FARM 2600

1 2000

1500

1000

500

Figure 6b

1950 1955 1960

Source: Québec agricu~tura1 census statistics, 1910.

1965

1970

1970

J

800

... ~ 600 c3

Figure 7

1950

- 20 -

QUEBEC FARM INCOME.

Total Gross Income

Total Net ln come

1955 1960 1965

Source: Québec agricu1tural census statistics, 1970.

..~.

- 21 -

between 1946 and 1965, agricultural productivity increased by 6.6%

per annum (Figure 6b). The mean farm size in the province is now

65 hectares (161 acres), in contrast with a mean of 47 hectares (117

acres) in 1941 (Table 1). More significantly perhaps, the average area

of improved land per farm is now 38 hectares (95 acres), an increase

of 62% on the 1946 figure. But the per capita demand for agricultural

produce has remained fairlys~ead~, the total level of production increasing

with population growth. At the same time, production costs have risen

due to the increased cost of labour, equipment, and fertilisers. This

is reflected in the expanding gap between gross and net farm income

(Figure 7), and reflects trends evident throughout the industrialised

world.

1.3 Farm Structure

Figures 8 and 9, show the location of the sample hybrid grain-corn

farms visited, and classify them on a functional basis. The classification

is unsophisticated, and relies completely on field data. From a scatter-

gram, groupings were identified using three primary categories with two

sub-sections, as detailed below.

1. Beef and dairy farms with over 75% land in pasture or fodder crops for on-farm use.

2. Arable farms with less than 25% land in pasture or fodder crops for on-farm use.

3. Mixed farms with over 25% but under 75% land in pasture or fodder crops for on-farm use.

J •

-22 -

21 Hog and poultry producers with arable/fodder 31 sub-section.

Farm types were mapped symbolicaily, as follows :-

Dairy Mixed Poultry

J

Beef Arable Hogs

The simplicity of the classification fails to bring out several

salient points. Joint enterprises such as diarying-beef and dairying-

hogs, are hidden, being grouped under the dominant sector. This leads

one to underestimate the degree of movement out of dairying into beef,

hogs and poultry (Table 2, Figures 10a-llb). Simi1ar1y, changing farm

size is not reflected, nor certain changes in land-use (Table 1, Figure

12) •

TABLE 2

Changing Production Trends on Sample Farms

Stock Type Pre - Corn 1971 % Change

Beef Catt1e 162 621 383.3

Dairy Cows 3,393 2,972 8.5

(Average Dairy Herd) 32.6 37.7 15.6

Hogs 2,766 6,875 248.6

Poultry 107,370 108,970 1.0

Ottawa

/ /"

Sample Farm Function • Dairy Caille o Bee! Catll e • Mixed

[] Poultry

 Hogs

b. Arable

o 20 40 ! 1 __ 1 . MILES 1 ==q IÙlOMETERS

JO 60

Figure 8

FARM CLASSIFICATION MAP: BEFORE INTRODUCTION GRAIN- CORN

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

•

N W

1

{

/ /'

- County Boundary

Sample Farm Function • Dairy CaUle o Beef Cattle [J Mixed [J Poullry  Hogs

 Arable

o 20 40 ! 1 1 MILES . 1 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

Figure 9

FARM CLASSIFICATION MAP: 1971

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

•

N oIl'o

.",

- 25 -

MllK COWS IN aUEBEC: DECEMBER 15t 1.05

1.0

i 0.95

0.85

1955 1960 0.80 ............ -..--.r-.,-...,.._-__ ..,..__r-.,.-...... --r~.__----r--"':I::'-

1970 1965

"C .., '" :z: .., c .., '" ::. <> ..c: ....

Figure 10a

BEEF CATTLE IN aUEBEC: DECEMBER 15t 140

120

1955 1960 1965

Figure lOb

Source: Québec agricultural census statistics, 1970.

1970

- 26 -

HOGS IN QUEBEC: DECEMBER lst 1.3

1.2

"C

'" 1.1 tU :z::

c:

~ ~ 1.0

0.9

0.8 1955 1960 1965

Figure Ua

POULTRY IN QUEBEC: AVERAGE ANNUAl PRODUCTION 90

80

70

"C

'" tU 50 :z:: c: .~

40 ~

30

20

10

0 1955 1960 1965 1970

Figure Ub

Source: Québec agricultural census statistics, 1970.

- 27 -

A grùuping on the basis of income sources within the farm economy

might have been more satisfactory, but was not feasible given the

available data. Simple as the ordering is, however, a comparison of

the two distributions (Figures 8 and 9), does show the considerable

change in farm structure paralleling the introduction of hybrid grain­

corn. A causal relationship is suggested. This interpretation was

confirmed by the farmers themselves, and is examined in the following

sectd.on.

1.4 Auto-Consumption

As noted above, there is a suggested relationship between hybrid

grain-corn production, and changing farm structure. Lasnier, Hénault

and Cathala (1969), note the shortage of fodder crops within the province,

given a changing production structure. In nutritional terms, hybrid grain­

corn off ers the greatest p6tential value of any of the alternatives open

to the Québec farmer. This is now generally recognised, and corn is

increasingly substituted for hay, mixed-grains, and pasture (Figure 12).

Of the hybrid grain-corn grown in Québec in 1970, 31% was used on

the farm as fodder, a decrease of 58% on the 1967 figure. While to some

extent this reflects the physical growth of the market system, and the

emergence:of alternative market outlets, it further supports the pattern

of change identified at an individual farm level. Despite market knowledge

and awareness by the farmer, a time lag was co~only identified between

initial production and involvement in the commercial system. A similar

Figure 12

CHANGING AREA OF FODDER CROPS ON SAMPLE FARMS

YEAR BEFORE INTRODUCTION OF GRAIN-CORN 1971

5199 Hectares

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

4804 Hectares

~ 00

- 29 -

tfme sequence has been identified by Ryan (1948), with respect to

hybrid corn in Iowa.

In Québec, even in areas where hybrid grain-corn has·now been

successfu11y estab1ished for up to 8 years, new producers continue

to fo110w a sequence of 'experimenta1' production on a sma11 sca1e

for their own usage, on1y 1ater increasing their 1eve1 of risk, and

producing at a 1arger sca1e for the commercial market. This pattern

is modified by the market system itse1f, and is discussed more fu11y

in a 1ater section (Section 3).

As identified from the samp1e data, whi1e the are a of hybrid corn

increases with farm size, a significant1y higher proportion of the

hybrid corn grown on the sma11er farms is used as fodder. A re1ationship

between hybrid grain-corn for fodder and farm type is a1so apparent. On

the hog and pou1try farms as identified in the classification above,

auto-consumption reaches an average of 54% of the corn produced; on

hog farms a10ne, an average of 67% is found. It wou1d seem va1id to

project simi1ar reasoning to the on-farm consumption pattern at a

provincia11eve1 (Figure 13). Thus in the most recent production areas

a higher than average percentage of the corn produced is used as fodder,

for examp1e, Arthabaska and Gatineau counties; whi1e within any one

county the proportion of.fodder corn to different sectors in the farm

economy varies with farm type.

Lasnier et al., (1969), note the magor increase in pou1try rearing

as particu1ar1y significant (Table 2). Pou1try provide a guaranteed

J

!

i"

i~.,"_ ..

1 , ....... ,

1 '··~··l <: i11111l1 ! :~: ~ :~: 8 l.·.·.· • .•••••••• 0

~~~~~;~r ~ ':lljlllj!

~;~;~;;~: ........ '

!llllll~ ~

/ 100,t.:'CIOlilreS

50,000

1.

10,000

o 20 40 ! ~ 1 MILES . : 1 KllOMETERS

30 60

Figure 13

HYBRID GRAIN-CORN UTiLIZATION BY COUNTY:1970

Source: Unpublished statistics of the Ministère de "l'agriculture, Québec.

w o 1

- 31 -

market for corn due to minimum substitutability by other grains. With

other stock types, price relationships between alternative feed grains

(specifically corn and barley), are more significant. Barley may be

completely substituted for corn where used as a fodder for dairy cows.

An upper level of substitution is set at 85% for hogs, and barley must

be used below this level on an Il:10 replacement ratio.

The published statistics of the Ministère de l'agriculture show

the price received by the Québec farmer for barley to be, on a five year

average, 1966-1970, $1 per hectolitre (40 cents per bushel), below that

of corn. Comparable cost struc.tures for alternative Québec fodder crops

are presented in Table 3, below.

TABLE 3

Comparative Cost Structure for Québec Fodder Crops

Hectolitres or M. Tons 12er Hectare Yield Price Gross Cost of Net Hours

CroE in 12er revenue Eroduction revenue of work

Corn 31.31 4.29 329.62 598.78 67.10 17.29

Barley 21.11 3.40 177 .64 139.56 38.10 14.82

Oats 24.26 2.42 144.96 140.77 4.20 14.82

Hay 3.14 22.0 137.83 120.59 17.20 13.59

Source: R. Cloutier 'La production des plantes industrielles dans la région St-Hyacinthe', undated paper for the Ministère de l'agriculture et de la colonisation.

- 32 -

From Table 3, it seems that structural changes in Québec

agriculture have been backed by favourable price relationships

for corn. In 1968, it co st an average of $3.38 to produce and dry

artificially, one hectolitre of hybrid grain-corn in Québec ($1.23

per bushel), (Cloutier, undated paper). In November 1968, the price

of grain-corn on the Montreal market was $4.1 per hectolitre' ($1.46

per bushel). A calculated transport cost of 19 cents per hectolitre

(7 cents per bushel) between Montreal and St-Hyacinthe may be added,

giving a total price of $4.20 per hectolitre ($1.53 per bushel). The

price incentive to change seems clear.

It remains true, however, that the Québec farmer receives a lower

per unit price for corn than he might justifiably expect, given corn

prices in the United States, and the transportation costs from Chicago

to Montreal. Indeed, in an analysis of price trends in the last three

years, Marten (1971), notes a distinct difference between Québec and the

Chatham (Ontario), and Chicago price series. Thus:-

'Between the first half of 1968 and 1970 the Québec price paid to farmers dropped by 21 ~ents per bushel. Comparable changes for Chicago were 13 cents, for Chatham 10 cents, per bushel. A 20 cents drop in price represents between $16 and $20 an acre drop in revenue, thus puts corn in the same revenue category as hay, and below that of barley.' (p. 25)

The reason for the different price trends between the production areas

is not known. Research on this topic is currently being pursued by

both the Québec Provincial Department of Agriculture, and the Federal

Government.

J

- 33 -

1.5 Hybrid Grain-Corn Yields

The validity of any argument on price relationships and incentives

rests primarily on attainment of a given production level. In the

example discussed above, Cloutier uses an average corn yield of 31.31

hectolitres per hectare (86.1 bushels per acre). Such detailed knowledge

at an individual farm level could not be obtained for the current study.

This seems due to lack of accurate information on the part of the farmers,

though an unwillingness to conf ide t~is type of data may also have been

involved.

The basis for Cloutier's conclusions on hybrid corn yiel~s rests

on statistics obtained from only six particularly co-operative farmers.

Statistics gathered by the Ministère de l'agriculture at a county level

show output variations of between 7.4 and 15.9 hectolitres per hectare

(50.4 - 102.6 bushels per acre), (1970 figures). 'Correcting' yield

variations due to climate, birds, insects and 'other causes', as identified

by the Ministère de l'agriculture, differences in hectare returns of

between 8.8 and 16.1 hectolitres (58.9 - 109.7 bushels per acre), remain.

Yield variations show no clear spatial relationship (Figure 14). This is

particularly so with the 'corrected' figures. The causes noted by the

Ministère de l~agriculture seem to explain many of the major 'uncorrected'

yield variations in the more marginal counties; for example, Gatineau,

and Nicolet. Moreover, these areas are the most recent to enter hybrid

grain-corn production.

., .. "

t---.

~ GRAIN-CORN YIElDS PER HECTARE: 1970 Ottawa

~

/ /'

~' ,(111111\ "'" 2500. ,",PlIt "nit Isohvet :li

" ~.- ~

~.Momrea'd Em" ~ ~ §

Hectolitres over 71

60- 71

50- 59

under 50

~

o w ~ ~ 1 1 MILES

"1- 1 KILO MEl ERS 30 60

~tk J

~ tI

~

~

~ ~~~

tp

~ .,- County Boundary

Figure 14 . Source: Unpub1ished statistics of the Ministère de l'agriculture, Québec.

"::~-"~". ' .

w ~

1

3S

30

25

~ 2(} ~ -0

NI5

10

5

0

35

30

25-

'" E ~2(}

c; N

15

10

5

Figure 15

- 35 -

YIElD VARIATIONS

1

Gatineau/ Pontiac 1970

è ch

1 r----- ~ 1 Il 5.D. = 0.7836 c ... 1 ...

E

1 1 è ch

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r--I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 ~ ~ 4 Y!eld in Metrie Tons

~

"" Argenteuil 1970 M c: lIJ E

ci 1 ... 1 r--- 1 5.D.=0.6633 , 1 1 1 ci

1 1 ... 1 ,

~ 1 1 1 1 ,

1 _ . H .

1 1

1

r---,

1 , 1

f 1 , 1

1 2 3 4 Yield in Metrie Tons

Source: Unpub1ished statistics of the Hinistere de l'agriculture, Québec.

Il

- 1

- 36 -

Yields were obtained for individual farm units in the areas

Pontiac/Gatineau Sud and Argenteuil, in 1970. The difference in

average yield between the two areas was around 20%. The statistics

are presented diagramatically in Figure 15. Standard deviations of

1.75 and 1.54 were calculated for the two areas. Both distributions

tend to skewness, however, and are not amenable to further analysis on

this basis. A visual assessment shows yield variations between individual

farms of over 300%. Widely varying returns per unit area are similarly

noted by Heighton (1968), in his study of grain-corn production in

Eastern Ontario.

From field evidence it is clear that the statistics gathered by

the various agricultural authorities are incomplete. However, the data

available commonly provide the sole basis for any statistical analysis,

but must be treated with care, and assessed against whatever field

evidence obtained. Thus the detailed statistics on individual producers

in the above exa~ples do not correspond with other data which give the

number of corn producers by county in 1970. Similarly, any attempt to

examine the extent to which low yield correlat es with new (1970) producers

is not possible, as earlier records are known to be similarly deficient.

Low initial returns might be expected on a logical basis. Such evidence

as was obtained from the sample farms confirms this view.

Variations in soil potential within the corn area are seen as

relatively unimportant by the agronomes, and amenable to good management

techniques. Again with respect to the two sample areas discussed,

production returns for the individual units show no significant correlation

- 37 -

with input of fertiliser. Fertiliser input was noted by Braun* as

a major variable in explaining production returns. Québec farmers

traditionally use litt le if any fertiliser, but grain-corn has a high

nutritional demand on the soil. This in turn reflects directly on one

of the major problems facing agricultural extension workers, the farmer's

willingness to change, his level of knowledge, and his ability and

desire to maximise the economic potential of his farm.

1.6 Summary

Conceptual and practical limitations necessitate a high level

of selectivity in the development of a thesis topic. This section has

attempted to fit the current work into a wider perspective.

Québec is presented as a marginal agricultural area, and hybrid

grain-corn suggested as but one element in a wider pattern of change

and rationalisation. Parallels may be identified in many parts of the

Western world. The physical constraints and historical development of

the area have easily identifiable unique elements. It is suggested

that they also may be more profitably examined within the concept of

marginality.

Some consideration of the potential of hybrid grain-corn is

made, and using a simple classification of farms, its integration into

a total pattern of change developed. Yield variations are discussed

and the impoDtance of 'behaviourable' variables suggested.

* Dr. R.I. Braun, Macdonald College, personal communication.

- 38 -

SECTION 2

TANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND THEIR FUNCTION AS FORCES IN AGRICULTURAL CHANGE

2.1 Some Theoretical Considerations

Irwin (1962), in his identification of both tangible and intangible

sides to agricultural marketing, provides the conceptual frame for this

and the following section. He states that, ' ••• agricultural marketing

has come to have a dual basis ••• intangible functions, stemming from

the transfer of ownership, include (1) pricing, plus financing and risking,

and (2) guiding products to consumers in place, form, and time. Physical

functions include mainly the transporting, processing, storing and grading

of farm products.' (p. 397)

While with·some justification Irwin sees the intangible side of

marketing as a 'neglected area of research', and 'even more essential

than the physical side', other writers have certainly dealt with the

topic, if in less specific terms. Allen (1959), notes the primary

function of the market as an information market, and this theme is

similarly considered by Davis and Goldberg (1957), and WeIler (1967),

and provides a major theme in the 'Proceedings of a Conference held by

- 39 -

the International Economies Association', entitled 'Economie Problems

of Agriculture in Industrial Societies' (Papi and Nunn, eds. 1969).

The growing concern with agricultural marketing as more than a

physical structure, has been precipitated by the failure of earlier

examinations to provide an adequate base for policy decisions (Irwin).

Moreover, customary supply/demand co-ordination developed on priee

incentives has increasingly failed to operate effectively. Since 1946,

increased production has failed to balance with a changing demand schedule.

This is reflected in Québec with dairy surpluses, and a shortage of beef.

Wholesal~rs now demand highly staJ1,.darised produce of a given quality

and type. The inadequacy of existing market mechanisms has led to

changing functional relationships between producer and consumer, the

integration of decision making, and more formalised information flows.

Allen suggests the need for the market system not simply to minimise

distribution costs, but to minimise instability in farm output, priees, and

incomes. He identifies the necessity of considering farmer's behaviour in

terms of long-term risk minimisation rather than maximisation of returns.

This viewpoint parallels research and a growing emphasis in aIl the

social sciences on 'behavioural' rather than 'normative' variables as

determinants in patterns of change. Within geography, Wolpert (1964),

provides the most pertinent example. In his paper, Wolpert stresses the

need to relax the assumptions of economic man, and using the concept of

'bounded rationality', to investigate the goals of the individual farmer,

. -----, i i 1

- 40 -

and his level of knowledge, as they vary through time. He identifies

diversification of production as a specific example of risk minimisation

in the face of income loss, and notes the significance not only of

alternatives available, but awareness of alternatives, in determining

land-use patterns.

Similar views have been expressed by other geographers, notably

Pred (1967), and are increasingly incorporated into marketing concepts,

as evident in the conference papers of the International Economics

Association (ed. U. Papi and C. Nunn; 1969). In discussion, the conference

suggests the validity of considering the problems facing agriculture

in industrial societies and the nature of agricultural marketing, specifically

integration, as really one of the extent and nature of the economies of

scale in agricultural production. This view is certainly supported by

the Commission royale in considering the economic and structural problems

facing Québec agriculture.

As noted in the previous section, Québec agriculture is regarded

as an example of polyculture, and while farm size is increasing, the

scale of production remains small. Almost aIl the farms visited may

be viewed as 'family farms', few employed non-family labour. It is in

this situation that one might expect scale limitations to be particularly

acute, as reflected in problems of standardisation of produce, effective

information spread, and mechanisation. The Commission notes that the

solution to these problems need not necessarily be sought within the

market structure, though vertical integration is posed as one alternative.

- 41 -

The availability of market facilities and long-term security, however,

are seen by many writers as a prior condition for change.

The problems and trends in Québec agriculture have already been

discussed. Hybrid grain-corn has been viewed as a key factor in the

current development of the area. Using hybrid grain-corn as a case

study, it is proposed to examine the evolution of the market system,

and through a consideration of selected factors, to consider the role

of this system in the promotion of land-use change.

2.2 The Evolution of Grain-Corn Marketing Structures in Québec

While direct 'on-farm' use of grain-corn as.a high quality

fodder has already been discussed, several other methods of utilisation

are also available. Grain-corn may be, (1) sold for use as fodder;

(2) used by mills in composite cattle feeds; (3) processed for human

consumption, as in breakfast cereals, flour, or starch; (4) used by

distilleries to produce alcohol.

Within Québec, grain-corn for human consumption may be discounted,

almost aIl the corn produced being used directly or indirectly as

fodder, or sold to distilleries. Using calculations by Hénault (1970),

it is suggested that in 1968, 39.4% of the grain-corn produced in

Québec entered the commercial market; 34.4% being sold to mills, 5.0%

. to distilleries. In 1969, of the 51.3% grain-corn sold commercially,

38.8% went to mills, 12.5% to distilleries.

-

- 42 -

Hénault notes the 1ack of any high1y structured market system

for Québec corn comparable to that found in the United States or

Ontario. Distinctive market re1ationships may be identified, however,

(Figure 16), and a c1ear spatia1-time sequence was observed (Figures

17 and 18).

Figure 16

Marketing Systems of Québec Grain-Corn

Auto-Consumption

Beef Catt1e Dairy Cows

Pou1try

Hf"" Hybrid Grain-Corn

Other Farmer ... E:-----Mill ... EE---------Drier ----...;~ .. Distillery 1 1 1 1

Beef Catt1e Processed Dried A1coho1 Dairy Cows Feed Corn Pou1try

Rogs

il

Ottawa

/ /'

- County Boundary

Each Symbol Represents One Far • Auto-consumption

o Distillery

o Mill and Drier

o 20 40 ! 1 1 MILES 1 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

Figure 17

MARKET CHOICE OF SAMPlE FARMERS: FIRST YEAR OF GRAIN-CORN PRODUCTION

\

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

•

.r:­w

L·

,Ii /'"

- County Boundary Each Symbol Represents One Farm

• Auto ·consumption

o Distillery

o Mi~. and Drier

o 20 .40 ! ~ 1 MILES F 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

Figure 18

MARKET CHOICE OF SAMPLE FARMERS: 1971

'.

Source: Informati~n obtained on fie1dwork.

: ,.' .... ~...;-.

•

~ ~

1

- 45 -

As noted, hybrid grain-corn has commonly been introduced as a

substitute for hay, pasture and other fodder crops. The 'on-farm' use

of corn in the'development of a livestock economy may be viewed as a

form of 'internaI' vertical integration, and as such, is found throughout

the whole production area. Auto-consumption dominates in the newer,

more marginal production areas, however, (Figure 13), and is often a

prior stage to the development of a commercial market economy.

Of the current commercial producers visited, 61% initially produced

hybrid grain-corn solely for their own use, or if unexpectedly successful,

for sale to neighbouring farmers. This is in part due to the small scale

'experimental' plots generally worked in the first season. An average

initial production area of 9 hectares (22 acres), was found, an average

heavily weighed by several anomalously large areas. Over one-third of

aIl the farmers began with less than 4 hectares (10 acres), of hybrid

grain-corn. Further, in many areas no commercial market system of any

kind exists for corn. This is certainly true in the eastern and western

counties at present, and was formerly true throughout the whole production

area.

A prerequisite in the development of a grain-corn marketing system is

the availability of drying facilities. Few 'on-farm' storage faciliti~s

for high moisture corn are available in Québec, and are insignificant in

the total provincial pattern. Corn is mature when the moisture content

of the grain is at a 35% level. Harvesting may take place at any time after

this point is reached, and humidity level at harvesting of between 20 and

i 1

...:J'

Il i

- 46 -

30% is commonly aimed for. In general it is planned to reduce the

moisture content to around a 15.5% level for storage and/or sale.

Natural drying may be successfully accomplished by means of an

open-air crib, on the farm. Indeed, 'natural crib dried corn' 1s

noted as first preference by the distillery companies. In effect,

however, relatively few commercial hybrid grain-corn producers favoured

this method (23%), although it is cheap, and easily established. Crib

drying completely domina tes in aIl the most recent areas to enter pro­

duction, and is similarly common on aIl farms producing for auto­

consumption. It was the only drying method available in the early

period of hybrid grain-corn production in Québec, but was found by many

farmers to encourage a high wastage rate due to vermin and birds, and as

difficult to regulate to supply the requisite humidity levels.

Since the mid-1960~s a system of propane gas or other type commercial

driers has been established (Figure 19). This has evolved with the

emergence of an 'entrepreneur' type farmer, and in association with pre­

existing mills and co-operatives. One-third of the commercial hybrid

grain-corn farms visited now have their own mechanical drier. The current

location pattern as shown in Figure 19 again brings out the lack of

commercial facilities in the newest production areas. In these regions,

the volume of grain-corn to justify a mechanical drier commonly does not

existe 'The House of Seagram' (1969), suggest a minimum volume of 227

metric tons (250 U.S.A. tons), to justify a mechanical drier which may

have an initial cost of between $7,000 and $10,000. Indeed 'on-farm'

_____ --1..-

/ /"

- County Boun~ary

o 20 40 ! 1 1 MILES 1- 1 KILOMETERS

30 60

Figure 19

LOCATION OF GRAIN-CORN DRIERS: 1970'

Source: Unpublished statistics of the Ministère de l'agriculture, Québec.

,r:.. .....

- 48 -

mechanised drying may rarely be justified on a cost basis, but is

rather a factor of convenience. Of the farms visited utilising

commercial drier facilities, 80% were 4.8 kilometers (3 miles) or

less from the drier.

The integration of drier and mill has already been suggested. The

pattern of mills within the corn growing area is shown in Figure 20, and

again the decline in availability of facilities away from the production

core is clear. Moreover, the pattern of mills plotted in Figure 20, may

tend to over-estimate the extent of facilities available. While precise

data on mills processing Québec grain-corn were available for the south

shore core areas, for regions north of the Saint-Lawrence, and in the

peripheral areas, only more generalised information was obtained.

The hinterland of the mills is generally fairly small, and of the

farms selling to mills, 67% are located within 8 kilometers (5 miles) of

the mill. Occasionally a farmer was found to have changed mills through

time; this was always to a nearer mill, the original choice being formerly

the closest outlet. From the data available, a sample of 59 mills, the

average volume of local grain-corn handled by any one mill is 500 metric

tons (550 U.S.A. tons) per annum, but over 55% of the mills handle less

than 227 metric tons (250 U.S.A. tons) per annum.

Nevertheless, the mills and driers do provide the primary link between

farmers and the more distant, often more sophisticated markets with rig­

orously defined demand schedules; for example, the distilleries. In their

function as flow co-ordinators, processors, graders, and storage units,

~/ /"

- County Boundary

o 20 40 1 ! 1 MILES 1 1 KllOMETERS

30 60

Figure 20

LOCATION OF FEEO MILLS:1970

•

Source: Unpublished statistics of the Ministère de l'agriculture, Québec.

". ,,-:._,,:_~",.~~ .• -'. " ............... ".-I~"-_ .... ~-_.-

~ \0

- 50 -

the mills/driers form a useful component in the development of any

more fully integrated market.system. This has been recognised and

effected with respect to hog and poultry production (Commission royale).

There is some evidence of this with respect to grain-corn. Much of the

grain produced under contract to certain distilleries is supplied in this

way. While the linkage provided by the mills and driers clearly allows

the tapping of a much wider supply area, a zonatmon of grain-corn

production around the market (distillery), is still evident. Such zonation

is a consequence of both company policy in the allocation of supply contracts

to the closest producers, and transport costs borne by the producer or

drier/mill in supplying the distant market.

Thus a marketing hierarchy may be identified tapering up from a

base of widely dispersed individu al farmers with a low quality demand, to

the highly specified and localised demands of the distilleries. The mills

and driers form an intermediate and vital link between these two sectors.

The hierarchical structure has both a temporal and spatial element. This

has a bearing both on producers' market choice, and their changing percep-

tion'of;=market availability through time.

2.3 Market Perception and Market Choice

From the information presented above, 4 main market outlets for

Québec grain-corn may be identified and located, namely, stock farmers,

driers, mills and distilleries.

- 51 -

The initial linkage between farm and commercial market, typica11y

a mi11/drier, may be seen as a major stage in the deve10pment of the farm

economy. Before this point grain-corn production is genera11y geared for

auto-consumption, and as with traditional subsistance farming, on1y

surp1uses enter the market economy direct. In Québec this is evident in

ad hoc sales to neighbouring farmers. Most Québec producers first grew

hybrid grain-corn for their own stock (80%), the value of grain-corn as

a potentia1 cash crop on1y 1ater emerging. In some instances farmers have

deve10ped corn sales to local farmers as a regu1ar market, and their grain-

corn production is dictated on this basis. More common1y, the pr.ob1ems

imposed by severa1 sma11, individua1, if local markets encouraged the use

of other out1ets.

As noted in the introduction, there is 1itt1e geographica1 1iterature

on producer-market relations in agriculture. Such as there is rests

primari1y on direct 'von Thunen' type ana1ysis, for examp1e, Buchanan and

Hurwitz (1951), Chisho1m (1962) and Peat (1969). Such distance re1ationships

are evident in Québec at the 1eve1 of individua1 farms, mi11s, driers and

distilleries, as shown above. Market areas do over-1ap, however, and

each market type has a different demand schedu1e and potentia11y different

functiona1 re1ationship with the farmer.

As shown, the deve10pment of marketing linkages is dependent on the

existence of given physica1 faci1ities, name1y, drier, 'mi11 and so on.

Awareness of the existence of these faci1ities wou1d seem equa11y

,

j

- 52 -

important, similarly knowledge of their individual demand schedules.

Thus while grain-corn sold td neighbouring farmers or to mills may vary

considerably in standard, grain-corn to distilleries must fulfill very

specifie criteria. Besides general q~ality considerations such as

'cracked Kernals', and 'foreign material' content, precise humidity

levels and drying techniques are also delimited.

In an examination of marketing patterns it was thus decided to

consider farmers' perception of market availability and market demand as

they evolve through time, and with distance. The farmer's basis for

market choice was examined. The source of annual inputs, specifically

seed and fertiliser, was also considered, as was source of hired equipment,

it being suggested by some producers that a relationship between supply

source and market outlet existed.

Market Perception

That awareness of potential markets varies through time and space

is evident from the data collected. Table 4a presents the information

obtained with respect to changing market knowledge through time. A

maximum of five market groups was identified; stock farmers, mills, driers,

distilleries and 'others'. Farmers were questioned with respect to their

current knowledge, and as to their knowledge of markets for grain-corn

during the~!_ first commercial season. It seemed possible that farmers

entering the market during the earlier period, 1962-67, might have had

a generally low market awareness in contrast to later entrants, 1968-71,

---/

- 53 -

due perhaps to a shortage of physical facilities in the earlier period,

or due to a more effective communication of market knowledge once some

market 'system' had emerged. This cannot be substantiated from the data

presented (Table 4b).

Evidence is given in Figure 21, reflecting a decrease in market

knowledge with distance from the market. This was assessed with respect

to the three distillery companies at Valleyfield, Montreal and Berthierville

(Figure 3).

Figure 21

Market Knowl~dge and Distance Decay

100

co 1-1 75 QI

~ CIl

11-1 50 ~

25

0 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

20 40 60 80 95 klms.

x - Grouping of sample farmers.

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

- 54 -

Table 4a

Leve1 of Market Awareness

During First Year of Awareness in No. of Commercial Production 1971

Markets No. of Farmers No. of Farmers

5 2 6

4 1 15

3 8 19

2 23 13

1 21 4

Table 4b.

Market Awareness of Farmers at First Entry to Commercial Market in Two Time Periods

Date of First Entrx No. of 1962 - 67 1968 -71

Markets No. of Farmers No. of Farmers

5 0 2

4 0 1

3 2 6

2 9 14

1 8 13

Source: Information obtained on fie1dwork.

- 55 -

The direct distances between farms and the nearest distillery

were measured and compared with awareness of the market at these points.

The distinctive pattern presented, however, must be treated with care.

While the sampling techniques allowed the over-all marketing pattern

to be observed, it failed to provide an ad~quate sample for rigorous

statistical analysis of this particular 'distance decay' problem. Too

few farms exist within certain distance groups, and regression analysis

using only the distance groupings shown in Figure 21, would·.,be of no

value.

That a causal relationship between distance and market awareness

does exist is, however, backed by further field evidence. Despite some

'distortion' due to a direct information flow between selected farms and

a distillery (Section 3), market awareness during the first commercial

season is confined very largely to parish levels: namely, local stock

farmers, mills and driers. The latest markets 'discovered' are those

most distant from the farm. Moreover, while Lundgren (1971), has identified

certain unique.features in agricultural marketing (for example, the

seasonalityand perishability of crops), the 'behavioural' evidence

presented above, does have parallels in the retail trade. Golledge (1967),

has viewed the development of retail marketing areas as essentially a

'learning process', and postulat es similar variations in knowledge of the

market with distance and time.

Price Perception

Of aIl the farmers visited, few could give details of the price

- 56 -

received for hybrid-corn in the previous season. Only 2 farmers knew

of comparative priees on alternative markets. Despite some possible

reluctance to convey this type of information, it is suggested that

owing to lack of knowledge of market priees, few farmers are in any

position to select a market on a priee basis.

Market Choice

The distance factor is further emphasised in a consideration of

market choice. The average distance between a farm and its market for

grain-corn is only 12 kilometers (7.6 miles). Further, when questioned

on the basis of market choice, 30% of the farmers identified 'proximity'

as the determining factor, 28% 'priee', and 38% saw 'proximity and priee'

as being equally important. While priee may be seen as of some signifi­

canee in market choice, it is suggested that this is a less valid assumption

than it initially appears. Few farmers have chagged markets. This might be

expected, given the short period of commercial production involved. Never­

theless, of the farmers that have changed markets, aIl except one switched

to a closer market, and of the eight farmers involved, aIl saw 'convenience'

as of major significance in this change.

The willingness of farmers to react to price variations is noted by

Schultz (1964), and a significant relationship is suggested. But this

fails to emphasise the prior need for knowledge of comparative costs and

prices by the farmer. Lack of awareness of price variations has

certainly been noted with respect to other farm groups in North America.

'1 ,.

- 57 -

Kohls in Indiana (1962), studies the relationship between priee

and market choice for farm inputs. No positive relationship between

priee and market choice was identified, although when farmers were given

a hypothetical choice between two markets with a clear priee difference,

priee was seen as significant. The same study emphasises 'convenient

location' and 'the development of habit and inertia' as major factors

in farm purchasing patterns. Kohls' work does refer to market purchasing

areas, but evidence has been provided to support a similar hypothesis

in this instance.

'Convenience' is thus a dominant factor in the evolution of the

marketing pattern, and may be considered to some extent in 'distance'

terms. As already noted, however, the structure of the market is also

important. Thus one large organised out let is generally favoure~.over

a series of scattered markets with variable and irregular demand schedules.

Each market has its own demand limitations, these varying from the small

scale loads of varying quality for the individual farmer-buyers, to the

large scale highly specifie needs of the distilleries. However, few

farmers saw any limitation on their market choice due to the nature or

scale of their production methods, scale of output being noted as a

limitation in only six instances, method of grain drying in two.

While this is so, level of output do es seem to remain as a significant

variable in determining market choice. Indeed although hybrid grain-corn

production is found within aIl farm size groups, the bulk of commercial

corn comes from the relatively few large scale producers. Over 50% of

- 58 -

the hybrid corn produced on the sma11er farms is for auto-consumption,

whereas on the 1arger units commercial production dominates (Figure 22).

Sma11 sca1e producers more common1y supp1y the market on an ad hoc

basis, and provide on1y for the irregu1ar demands of neighbouring stock

farmers. On the other hand, no farmer producing 1ess than 49 hectares

of hybrid grain-corn (120 acres), supplies the grain under contract to the

distilleries. As stated the latter require regu1ar bu1k de1iveries of

corn which fits rigorous qua1ity constraints. Numerous sma11, individua1

supp1iers are seen as undesirable and impractical, consequently the large

percentage of corn for distilleries is supplied under contract by the

mills. This overcomesmany of the problems faced by the individual farmer

in supplying a distant impersonal,m~rket, but 1essens any direct benefits

that contract farming might bring. There is no evidence of any particular

farm type or particular size grouping supplying the mi11s. Distance is

the primary constraint at this level, farmers trucking their own crops

to the appropriate centre.

Supply Source and Market Outlet

As noted, a relationship between supply source and market outlet

was suggested from initial questioning of farmers. Consequently, the

location of market centres for annua1 inputs of fertiliser and seed was

obtained, as was source of hired equipment and services. Fifty percent

of the farmers obtained their seed and fertiliser from the same location

as provides the market for their crop. Services and hired equipment, for

... T

~'~,

100

80

fi> 60 Ë ~ ~ C-

i CI)

N

40

a

Figure 22

SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE FARMS AND OF COMMERCIAL GRAIN· CORN PRODUCTION ON SAMPLE FARMS

/

/ /

~/

40 80 120

/

160 Hectares

~

200

/ ~/

240 280

Source: Information obtained on fieldwork.

. ~ .",.~. ~ .... ,~.- ~~"--~ ',.- .

100

~ (.)

.c fi>

~ fi>

60 CQ

E d" bD C t'/I 1./1

\0

1 Cl.. CI)

40 E ~

Ci> ëi E ~ N

20

300

- 60 -

example, harvesters, fertiliser-sprayers, and seeders, were commonly

supplied by neighbours, although certain mills do act as equipment pools.

The relatively low relationship between market outlets and service/

supply centres may be explained by the dominance of a few large centres,

in particular, St-Rosalie. In one instance, however, aIl the farmers

supplying a particular company under contract, obtained their annual

inputs and hired equipment fram that company, as a function of the contract

agreement.

It is thus evident from the data presented, that a series of inter­

related factors determine the marketing pattern. Initial market awareness

varies spatially, and through time. The ability to utilise this information

is dependent on the physical facilities available, distance, market

structure, and the on-farm production schedule.

2.4 Summary

Hybrid grain-corn, as with aIl agricultural products, places certain

demands on the physical structure of the market system. The development

of large-scale commercial production is dependent on the availability of

specific physical facilities, lack of which may hinder the establishment

of any stable market system.

Through a consideration of the markets open to the Québec corn

producer and their particular demand schedules, the physical constraints

on market choice are established. These constraints are evident in the

location, volume, stability, and quality of market demand. They are

.' .

- 61 -

simi1ar1y evident at the individua1 producer/supp1y 1eve1, and are

ref1ected in the spatia1-time sequence of market choice.

J

- 62 -

SECTION 3

INTANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRlCULTURAL MARKETING AND THEIR FUNCTION AS FORCES IN AGRICULTURAL CHANGE

3.1 Introduction

Both Allen (1959), and Le Bihan (1967), have viewed the primary

function of the market as that of an information network. In the past

market price generally functioned as the sole indicator of consumer demand.

But the continued lag in rural income levels has been seen as a failure

to communicate both improved production techniques and the needs of the

consumers to the producers.

3.2 Information Sources and the Sequence of Change

It may be postulated that the direct role of the market as an

information source will vary with the sequence of change. Jones (1967),

considers the adoption process in agriculture as having several distinctive

stages. A five stage adoption model first publicised in a paper entitled

How farm people accept new ideas (North Central Rural Sèciological Sub-

Committee, 1955), is now generally accepted. These stages are identified

- 63 -

as (1) Awareness; (2) Interest; (3) Evaluation; (4) Trial;

(5) Adoption. Assuming this sequence, the corn farmers were questioned

according1y (Appendix). Information sources were c1assified into five

main groups.

(1) Agronomes

(2) Merchants and Dealers

(3) Neighbours and Friends

(4) Agricu1tura1 Journa1s and Newspapers

(5) Radio and Television

The resu1ts of this work are presented in Figure 23, be1ow.

100

90 r=:I 80 Sil ~ 70 tJ p::: 60 ~ r=:I 50 ~ j 40

~ 30 tJ

20

10

0

Figure 23

Information Sources in the Adoption Process

AGRONOMES

----.-----DEALERS AND MERCHANTS -'-

- ~IGHBOURS ~~ ' ___ FRIENDS --.

JOURNALS ------, ---'-Awareness Interest Evaluation

Stages in the Adoption Process

Source: Information obtained on fie1dwork.

- -

--

.....J-

- 64 -

lri general farmers found little difficulty in identifying and

dating the major information sources used at each stage of adoption,

although the evaluation/trial/adoption sequence could rarely be divided.

Certain features stand out from the information presented.

Thus the agronomes acted as the prime information source to over 50%

of the farmers in aIl stages of the adoption process. Commercial sources,

dealers and merchants, provide the second most important information

source to the farmers in aIl stages except 'interest', where 'neighbours

and friends' take their place.. Radio and television were surprisingly

never noted as of any significance at any stage in the change process. Farm

literature was likewise unimportant, except in the initial 'awareness' phase,

while the visual evidence presented by neighbours and friends seems particu­

larly significant in developing interest in the potential of growing grain­

corn on one's own farm.

Comparative work has been undertaken in other areas. Ryan and Gross

(1943), in a classic study, used a sample of 259 Iowa farmers to establish

the information source pattern for hybrid corn in that region. Similar

research by BeaI and Rogers (1960), again in Iowa, proved unobtainable,

but data from this work used by Jones (1961), presents a further distribution.

These data are tabulated below, in Table 5.

Since the studies presented differ so much in their findings, it is

difficult to generalise. Perhaps the major feature with respect to the

present study, however, is the dominance of the provincial agronomes as an

information medium. Indeed the division between 'agronomes' and 'dealers

- 65 -

Table 5

Initial Information Source in Acceptance of a New Cr op

Québec Iowa (Ryan/Gross) % %

Dealers/Merchants 17 50

Mass Media and Literature 13 21

Neighb our s 16 15

Agronomes 54

Iowa (BeaI/Rogers) %

17

49

18

6

and merchants' may be a rather arbitrary one in this instance, as in the

diffusion of information for hybrid grain-corn in Québec the commercial

organisations and the Ministère de l'agriculture have co-opted to a high

degree. Ag~onomes helped commercial organisations select farms for free

seed samples, and it seems probable that it is the efficiency and joint

effectiveness of these two groups that explains the slight importance of

the mass media.

Even as a secondary source, radio and television were of only minor

importance, although 73% of the farmers questioned listened regularly~~o~o

agricultural broadcasts. Similarly, despite the insignificance of reading

material as an information source, aIl but 8% of the farmers obtain at

least one agricultural journal. Fort y-one percent of the farmers receive

three or more publications on a regular basis.

, .,

- 66 -

The ro1e of commercial bodies, as the main interest focus in this

paper, deserves particu1ar attention. As shown in Figure 23, farmers

re1y increasing1y on persona1 contact with merchants and sa1esmen as they

pass through the adoption process. This corresponds to the pattern

identified by Bea1 and Rogers, and is understandab1e on a logica1 basis.

C1ear1y whi1e impersona1 sources may provide adequate initial information,

persona1 contact and visua1 evidence is particu1ar1y significant in the

eva1uation and trial of new crops and new production techniques.

Most significant perhaps is the impact of commercial information ~ .

sources on the time sequence of change. Thus those farmers receiving

their initial know1edge of grain-corn from commercial concerns took, on

average, on1y 1.9 years from awareness to adoption, whi1e other farmers

took an average of 2.9 years. In their contact with farmers, sa1esmen provide

the full sequence of information required in the adoption process, whereas

a dependence on a new source for each stage is 1ess efficient, and slower.

The over-a11 time sequence, however, compares very favourab1y with the

five year period found by Ryan and Gross in 1943; perhaps again bearing out

the effectiveness of the joint governmenta1-commercia1 approach.

The process from awareness to acceptance invo1ves a temporal sequence.

Simi1ar1y, individua1 farmers accept innovations at varying rates. The

course of an innovation spread has common1y been expressed graphica11y in

terms of the cumulative 1eve1 of adoption at different points in time.

This has repeated1y been shown to take an S-curve form (Jones, 1967). The

spread of hybrid grain-corn in Québec shows simi1ar features (Figure 24).

- 67 -

Figure 24

Time Sequence for Acceptance of Hybrid Grain-Corn

j:il 100

~ E-I 80 z j:il

~ j:il

60 Po< j:il :> H 40 S ~ 20 u

0 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970

YEARS

Source: Information obtained on fie1dwork.

The precise form and significance of the S-curve is a matter of

continued controversy in diffusion studies, as noted by Jones (1967), and

is the subject of some considerable 1iterature (for examp1e, Ryan and

Gross, 1950; BeaI and Boh1en, 1960; and Jones, 1963). It is sufficient

for the purpose of this paper to note that 'in aIl cases if the data are

p10tted in terms of the increments for equa1 given units of time, a be11-

shaped curve is produced, a1though this is not necessari1y symmetrica1'

(Jones, 1967, p. Il). Assuming a normal distribution this fact has

a110wed the classification of adopters into five categories, innovators,

ear1y adopters, and so on, with rigid statistica1 parameters. As pointed

- 68 -

out by Jones (1967), however, such grouping may weIl be unrea1istic, and

is not va1id where the diffusion curve in rea1ity is non-symmetrica1.

Graphed, the data co11ected in this Québec study provided a skew distribu~ion,

which may of course be due to the fact that the diffusion process is not yet

comp1eted. Due to this skewness a statistica1 division cou1d not be made,

and innovators were determined by the break slope evident at 1965 (Figure 25).

% 50

40

30

20

10

0 1960 1962

Figure 25

Acceptance of Hybrid Grain-Corn

Innovators

1964 1966 YEARS

1968

Source: Information obtained on fie1dwork.

1970

This identification of innovators was then used to examine the

re1ationship between this group and information sources.

- 69 -

In a comparable study designed to examine the psychological determinants

of change in farming techniques among farmers in an Australian rural

community, Emery and Oeser (1958), postulate the concept of 'urbanisation'

as a major factor in information spread, and explain the basis of the

index, stating that :'-

'Urbanisation is a product of past learning in urbanised contexts, that is, in contexts which have the characteristics of inducing an instrumental attitude to knowledge. Thus the items which make up the urbanisation scale and hence the index of urbanisation are aIl drawn from past experience ••• because it is past experiences which determine not only present knowledge, but also present interests, attitudes, and motivations. (p. 10)

The use of the term 'urbanisation' is perhaps unduly restrictive, since

it refers to a wide range of experiences. Indeed Emery and Oeser have

adopted the expression largely as meaning 'non-traditional' or 'modern'.

The index of urbanisation was originally devised to test 'the

hypothesis that degree of urbanisation will be positively related to

effectiveness of communication'. Emery and Oeser develop several additional

indices as measures of other 'determinants of individual action' but

given the success of the index of urbanisation in the Australian study,

and the nature of the current work, this one index was selected and

modified for use in a Québec context (Table 6).

- 70 -

Table 6

Index of Urbanisation

Score of Index

Education: Grade 7 or 1ess Beyond Grade 7

Fami1y of Orientation: Farm Non-farm

Urban type of job: No experience Some experience

Trave1: No experience out of Québec Some experience out of Québec

(Possible range of Index 0 - 4)

o 1

o 1

o 1

o 1

Frequency

58 74

130 2

76 56

52 80

Emery and Oeser use four factors as the basis of their index. These

are

fami1y of orientation, rural or. urban;

post primary education;

emp10yment other than as a rural labourer;

war service.

These factors were weighted for the positive occurrence of each component,

giving an index which ranged from 0 - 4. The first three factors were

------ -.------- ------ -- -

- 71 -

taken and used direct1y in this study. Fami1y of orientation was

identified on the basis of occupation of respondent's father; post

primary education as beyond Grade 7. War service was seen as irre1event

in a 1971 Québec context, and was rep1aced with 'trave1 experience b~yond

Québec'. This latter measure was seen as giving some indication of

rang~,of experience in different environments, as inc1uded within

'war service'.

Sca1ing fo11owed direct1y that used in the original study, giving

an index of 0 - 4. The basis for the sca1ing, and limitations of the

method adopted are fu11y discussed in the original work (Emery and Oeser,

pp. 9-11; 96-97).

Despite the success of the index in the Austra1ian study, its

application in the Québec examp1e proved disappointing, a1though the

scoring and frequency pattern shown in Table 6, is an interesting commentary

on the social structure of Québec agriculture. No positive re1ationship

between the innovators and the index was found. Attempts to corre1ate

innovators with exposure to agriculture journa1s was simi1ar1y unsuccessfu1,

as with age. Mean farm size is suggested as a significant factor, however,

the mean for aIl sample farms being 68.4 hectares (169Jacres) improved land,

that of the innovators' farms, 93.1 hectares (230 acres) improved land.

More interestingly, the information sources as used by the innovators

(Figure 26), varied considerably from that of the average, as shown in

Figure 23, with an increase in the significance of both journals and

commercial contacts. The significance of both agronomists and personal

- 72 -

contact with other farmers declined. The latter fact is explicable and

predictable, given the situation presented. Without exception, the

innovators relied on the same initial information source throughout the

change process, several noting a reliance on 'trial and error' methods

in the first years of production.

100

90

~ 80 ~ t 70 ~ 0 60 ~ Pot

50 ~ :>-H 40 S ~ 30

20

10

0

Figure 26

Information Sources in the Adoption Process as used by the 'Innovators'

AGRONOMES

---- ------DEALERS AND MERCHANTS

----------__ ~~BOURS AND F~I~E~ND=.S~ __

JOURNALS

Awareness Interest Evaluation Stages in the adoptionProcess

Source: Information obtained on field work.

- 73 -

As noted in the introduction, a sub-sample of 23 farmers with

English as their first language was included, giving a ratio of 1:5 in

the sample total. Within the innovator group a ratio of 1:2 was obtained,

although the diffusion started simultaneously in both areas. The high

ratio of English speaking farmers within the innovator group is difficult

to explain successfully. The English speaking farmers are generally

considered a rather isolated and conservative group by many provincial

authorities. Few of the English speaking farmers visited spoke French

well, or had anything but casual contact with French speaking neighbours,

and none read Québec (French language) agricultural journals. Nevertheless,

the general range of information sources used by the innovators (Figure 26),

is equally applicable to both English and French speaking groups. However,

the English community, with a reliance on source literature from the

United States and Ontario, rather than from Québec, may be better informed

on agricultural trends at a wider level. Moreover, almost 50% of the

English speaking farmers had been educated in agriculture at Macdonald

College, and retained direct contact with the college through its

publications and staff.

Farm size has already been suggested as a potentially significant

factor, and this view is strengthened in consideration of the two

linguistic fractions. Within the innovators, the English speaking farmers

had an average of 124 hectares (306 acres) improved land, the French

speaking farmers, an average of 56 hectares (138 acres) improved land.

- 74 -

Within the innovator group, farmers using the agronomes and com-

mercia1 agents as an information source were genera11y se1ected by

these bodies on some specifie criteria. 'Leaders', identified by their

progressiveness, wi11ingness to bear risk, and range of influence, were

chosen. The commercial organisations were guided in their choice by the

agronomes. Size was not noted as a specific factor, but more land and

associated higher incomes, does perhaps ref1ect a greater wi11ingness

and abi1ity to bear risk. As far as the industria1 market is concerned,

sca1e of grain-corn production has been noted as significant. Further,

for the one dominant industria1 concern from which detai1s were avai1ab1e,

the ratio of Eng1ish to French speaking farmers contacted during the

first three years of a 'corn program' (1963-65), was at a 1:2 1evel.

This was due at 1east in part to a communications prob1em, a shortage

of suitab1e bi1ingua1 staff.

In the introduction to this sub-section, it was postu1ated that the

direct ro1e of the market as an information source will vary with the

sequence of change. This idea has been shown to be true in a consideration

of the total samp1e of hybrid grain-corn farmers (Figure 23), but not

val id within the innovator group (Figure 26), where the market p1ays a

particu1ar1y significant and constant ro1e.

~ ! ! i 1

i

1 i i , , , l 1 j ! 1

1

l

- 75 -

3.3 The Role of the Free Sample

In the introduction to this dissertation, mention was made of

the use of a sub-set of farmers to examine the impact of free seed

samples in the promotion of grain-corn production. Much of the data

from this study has been included in the general discussion. However,

when examined separately, the sample proved disappointing. Farmers

who received free seed samples benefited by obtaining the full sequence

of information necessary for the change process, with no time lag between

stages. AlI farmers using commercial contacts as a primary information

source benefited in this way. Further the new producers received full

market knowledge from the beginning. Such farmers progressed from

initial awareness to production with a zero time lag; aIl grew corn

during that initial contact year.

The free samples encouraged rapid adoption. Further, the supply

agents' conscious choice of farmers at an increasing distance from the

established production areas aided rapid diffusion. However, the

establishment of an information flow between a distant producer and a

sophisticated market, was not paralleled by a physical linkage. The

company concerned has attempted to encourage grain-corn production in

Québec, but is not willing to buy grain directly from the new producers,

either with a loose marketing agreement or under tight contract control,

but rather maintains its established market links with Ontario dealers.

The farmers'that entered hybrid grain-corn production under the initial

! j-

1

- 76 -

impetus of this company thus follow the market choice pattern of all

the sample farmers (Section 2.3).

The value of the seed samples was weakened by the fact that they

were not supplied to encourage grain-corn production alone, although

this is suggested in the publicity material issued. Seed types offered

varied annually, and their use supplied test results for the company's

benefit. Consequently, seed samples were offered to producers of

several years experience, as well as to non-producers. Only the more

experienced producers, it seems were in a position to benefit from the

comparative study of the different seed types. Most of the farmers that

obtained s~ples found their use 'interesting', but of no other value.

Several producers,were encountered that had been offered samples but had

refused them. These farmers believed that they were merely being asked

to provide free experimental plots for the company.

While the policy of free samples did provide a measurable impetus

to grain-corn production, it did in part indirectly discourage further

close farm-industry linkages. This disillusionment is principally due

to the apparent lack of market opportunity offered by the company, but

is also due to the joint purpose of the seed sample itself.

3.4 Contract Farming

Within the wider context of change in Québec agriculture as presented

in the first section, this current section, with Section 2, has attempted

JI i 1 , 1 i

1

l i j

\ 1

l 1 i ' 1 i

- 77 -

to examine in more detail the specifie roles of the market as reflected

in grain-corn production. Market functions have been considered

separately, as those related to physical plant (tangible functions), and

those related to information spread (intangible functions). Neither

aspect has received an exhaustive treatment due to data constraints, but

an attempt has been made to examine the problem in terms of those factors

particularly relevant in this instance. As is increasingly apparent,

however, both tangible and intangible market functioris are inter-dependent.

The function of the market as an information network is of limited value

without the physical structures necessary for transportation, processing,

and storage. Similarly, the provision of physical plant does not alone

ensure an efficient supply of the necessary raw material. This receives

maximum expression in contract farming. The use of contracts between mills

and distilleries has already been noted, and their value as a means of

co-ordinating amount and qua lit y of grain supplied has already been

considered. Direct contract linkages between individual farmers and

market outlets were also found.

As suggested in the introduction, contract farming may be seen as

a consequence of the increased sophistication of market demand, and the

failure of conventional means of co-ordination, notably priee, to ensure

an adequately balanced supply-demand schedule. Contract farming ensures

some degree of stability for the producer, at least on an annual basis,

and the precise demands of the consumer may be easily conveyed to the

producer via the contract itself, or_through the other integrated communie a-

""1,'

- 78 -

tion linkages thus established.

In the earlier consideration of market choice, 'convenience' was

seen as a dominant factor, both in terms of distance, and in terms of

market structure. Distance is similarly significant in the development

of contract relationships. The structural convenience of contract farming

in the stability it provides for the producer is particularly evident in

land use change. Where a contract was obtained, the area of grain-corn

then produced increased by an average of over 360% during the first

contract year. AlI these contract farms had at least 50% of their

improved land in hybrid grain-corn.

As already noted, with one company in particular, contract farming

also provided access to a farm machinery pool, and this lowered the

capital investment required of each individual farmer. This latter

relationship was seen by certain non-contract farmers as a form of

exploitation by industry of agricultural producers due to the 'excessive'

hire costs they believed were charged. However, this argument was not

accepted by those farmers directly involved.

In effect, these industrial markets for grain-corn have accepted

their dual function, and using a contract relationship have established

an integrated communications system, and provided the physical facilities

necessary for successful production.

The economies of scale obtained by farmers through this vertical

integration, could be similarly provided by farm co-operatives. The

- 79 -

Commission royale (1967), stresses the need for a rationalisation of

the Québec co-operative system. As they now exist, the co-operatives

are small, inefficient, and often poorly managed. Many co-operatives

do hire out equipment for grain-corn production, and act as market

outlets, but in the early stages of grain-corn diffusion, the co-operatives

often acted as a strong conservative force, and resisted any change in the

existing production pattern.

A few 'private' co-operatives are found in Québec, but function

primarily as equipment pools. One at St-Sylvere has been established

for seven years, and links 20 farmers. None of the farmers visited in

that parish owned any specialised equipment individually, but relied

on the co-operative facilities available. A few other less formaI

structures were found where three or four farmers had joined together

specifically to share the equipment necessary for grain-corn production.

None of the these co-operatives, however, could give the market security

and information flow provided by the contract relationship.

3.5 Summary

The role of the market as an information source is evident in the

introduction of grain-corn. The function of the market varies with the

sequence of change. Within the 'innovator' group, however, no such

variation is evident, and the market plays a constant and significant

role in aIl stages.

- 80 -

The impact of the market is particularly evident in the rate of

change, and in the reduction of the time lag between initial awareness

and adoption. The use of free samples emphasises this facto Further,

as an active agent, the market can help direct the spatial sequence

of change in its selection of sample farms; evidenced in this study

by purposeful locational choice.

Contract farming allows the effective integration of both tangible

and intangible aspects of the market. This permits a greater dependence

on the one contract crop, designed to fit a specifie demand schedule,

but with minimum capital risk or investment.

- 81 -

. CONCLUSIONS

Accepting the limitations imposed by data constraints, and by the

lack of any va1id theoretica1 base within the existing geographical

literature, a fair1y 100se1y structured approach has been fo110wed in

this work. The thesis was designed to generate 'grounded theory' (Glaser

and Strauss, 1967), or at least to a1low the development of a few hypotheses

for further testing e1sewhere, rather than for any rigorous analysis of

established theoretical ideas.

Severa1 significant re1ationships between market functions and land-

use change were found. As shown, the 1ack of an effective market structure

may limit the sca1e of production by individua1 farmers to that necessary

for auto-consumption. Consequent1y, the development of large sca1e commercial

production is dependent on the availability of specifie physical faci1ities,

while the location, volume, stabi1ity and qua1ity of market demand may offer

material constraints on market choice at. the individual producer/supply

level.

The role of the market as an information system was confirmed through

an examination of the impact of direct market intervention on information

diffusion .. 'Such intervention was found to influence positively both the

rate and direction of change. The problem of effective communication by

the market system has encouraged the deve10pment of linkages between the

, ..

1 l , .,

1

J

- 82 -

producer and his market on a contract basis. The stability and convenience

offered by contract farming is reflected in specialisation of production.

In the light of the findings summarised above, one may perhaps conclude

that the importance of industry-farm linkages in determining land-use

patterns has been underemphasised in the past literature, andt.that this

aspect of agricultural geography deserves much greater attention. In a

modern farming system,integrated closely with urban and national markets,

one may go so far as to suggest that these linkages are a primary factor

in the evolution of land-use patterns, and that these patterns reflect the

strength or weakness of such linkages in a very direct manner. Although

the evidence presented in this thesis is demonstrably limited, there is no

reason to suppose that this finding might not be replicated elsewhere, since

the processes of information, decisionand action that have been examined

are almost univers al in such economic environments. Analysis of the

functional and spatial relationships between individual farm units and

the processing and supply industries would seem on prima facie grounds

to be an important road to understanding the agricultural patterns, and the

demonstration of their significance in this limited case study may therefore

have wider significance.

,i

- 83 -

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

The appendix does not take the precise form of the questionnaire

as it was presented to the farmer, but rather has been re-structured

to complement the data content of each chapter. The questionnaire itself

was informally presented to encourage the natural development of conversation,

and to allow considerable cross-checking of information.

fi

j

1.

2.

3.

a.

- 84 -

SECTION 1

THE STRUCTURAL BASIS

What is the total number of improved acres/arpents under your cu1tivation?

b. Has the area under your cu1tivation increased/decreased/remained constant since your introduction of hybrid grain-corn?

a. How many people are fu11-time emp10yees on,your farm? ••• part­time?

b. Has your number of farm emp10yees increased/decreased/remained constant since your introduction of hybrid grain-corn?

What types of crops, and how many acres/arpents of each did you produce in the season before your introduction of hyorid grain-corn? in 1971?

Area before corn 1971

Wheat

Bar1ey

Oats

Mixed Grains

Hay

Pasture

Potatoes

Sugar Beet

Tobacco

Vegetab1es

Fruit

Others

- 85 -

Section 1 - page 2

4. What 1ivestock, and how many of each type did you have in the season before your introduction of hybrid grain-corn?

in 1971?

Stock Type Number before corn 1971

Beef Catt1e

Milk Cows

Hogs

Pou1try

Sheep

Others

5. When did you first grow hybrid grain-corn?

6. How many acres/arpents did you produce during your first season, and in each succeeding year?

7. What percentage of your crop did you use on your farm each year?

8. What yie1d per acre/arpent have you received each of your years of production?

9. Why did you decide to grow hybrid grain-corn permanent1y ••• need for cash crop/need for stock feed/other?

10. Has grain-corn production given you the desired resu1ts?

....

- 86 -

SECTION 2

TANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

1. When did you first sell hybrid grain-corn?

2. What markets for grain-corn were you aware of during your first year of commercial production ••• other farmers/mills/driers/ distilleries/others?

3. Where were these markets located?

4. Where did you first obtain information on market out1ets for grain-corn ••• radio-te1evision/newspapers/journa1s/agronomes/ neighbours-friends/sa1esmen/others?

5. Which market did you first sell to ••• other farmers/mi1ls/driers/ disti1leries/others?

6. Where was this market located?

7. Why did you choose this particular market ••• on1y market known/ best price offered/closest/other?

8. What markets do you now know of for your crop ••• other farmers/ mills/driers/disti1leries/others?

9. Where are these markets 10cated?

10. Where did you obtain information on these markets ••• radio­television/newspapers/journals/agronomes/neighbours-friends/ salesmen/others?

Il. Have you changed markets since you first sold grain-corn? If so, when? Why? Where to?

12. Does any factor prevent your sale of corn to any market .•• size of output/transport costs/nature of drying process/quality of crop/other?

i 1

- 87 -

Section 2 - page 2

13. Did you first se11 your grain-corn on an ad hoc basis/through a grain merchant/under contract/other?

14. Have you changed your method of sale since you first sold grain-corn? If so, when? Why? To what?

15. What price did you receive per bushel of undried (dried) corn in 1970?

16. What price wou Id you have received on an other market?

17. Where do you dry your corn?

18. What drying method is used ••• crib/oil/gas/electricity/other?

19. Have you changed the location and/or method of drying grain-corn since you first entered production? If so, when? Where from? What method did you use before?

20. What is your current cost of drying one bushel of grain-corn?

21. What market locations for the purchase of grain-corn seed and fertiliser are you aware of?

22. Where do you buy your seed and fertiliser for grain-corn?

23. Why did you choose that particular outlet best price offered/closest/other?

only market known/

24. Have you ever changed the source of your grain-corn seed and fertiliser supplies? If so, when? Why? Wherefrom?

25. What equipment do you own for grain-corn production ••• seeder/ sprayer/grain-harvester/drier/other? Total cost?

26. What equipment or services do you hire for grain-corn production ••• seeder/sprayer/grain-harvester/drier/other?

27. Where do you hire from? At what cost?

.. .:.:;1"

1.

2.

3.

4.

- 88 -

SECTION 3

INTANGIBLE FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL MARKETING

When did you first become aware of the existance of hybrid grain-corn for production in Québec?

From whom or fromwhat did you obtain this information ••• radio­television/journals-newspapers/agronomes/merchants and dealers! neighbours-friends!others?

When did you first become interested in the possibility of growing hyb~id grain-corn on your faim?

From whom or from what did you obtain this information ••• radio­television/journals-newspapers!agronomes!merchants and dealers! neighbours-friends/others?

5. Do you listen regularly to farming programs on radio and television?

6. Do you read any agricultural journals regular1y? How many?

7. Have you ever travel1ed out of Québec Province?

8. Have you ever been employed other than on a farm?

9. Was your father a farmer?

10. How many grades did you complete at school?

i c:~

- 88a -

Appendix·

Samp1ing Procedure

Derivation of Samp1e

The samp1e farmers were obtained from 1ists of a11 hybrid grain-

corn producing farmers in Québec (approximate1y 2,500 in a11). These

1ists were he1d and had been compi1ed by individua1 county agronomes

of the departement de l'agriculture et de la colonisation, and were

genera11y broken down on an individua1 parish basis, or were so

constructed as to a110w the identification of individua1 farmers at

this 1eve1. The 1ists inc1uded a11 1971 grain-corn producers, but

did not inc1ude farmers entering production for the first time in

1972; these farmers consequent1y not being inc1uded in the thesis

samp1e.

Whi1e e·rrors in the comp1eteness of the 1ists obtained were

uncovered during field investigation, it is be1ieved that the 1ists

did provide an accurate basis for samp1ing.

Samp1e Size

The 1imited time avai1ab1e for field investigation formed the

primary limitation on samp1e size.

f l !

1

1 1 l j J J i 1

- 88b -

Sample structure was designed to allow the fullest possible

areal coverage within the Québec grain-corn production area, with

due consideration of the time factor involved.

Using the lists obtained from the departement de l'agriculture

et de la colonisation, the parishes were ranked alphabetically, and

a random sample of parishes extracted. Using these selected parishes,

a random sample of grain-corn farms was obtained. The number of farms

visited in each parish varied considerably. Where four or less

farmers grew corn in any one parish, aIl these farmers were visited.

Within parishes of more than four corn produces, time was proportioned

equally between them, allowing the fullest coverage of aIl areas. This

ranged down to 8% of fax~ers in th~ parishes with the largest concen-

tration of corn producers.

The sub-sample of English speaking farmers (Chapter 3) was chosen

separately from the lists provided by the agronomes. AlI the appropriate

parishes were identified by the Anglo-Saxon surnames of the farmers

concerned, and a further random sample was taken. The marked concen-

tration of English speaking groups within Québec made this method much

simpler and more effective than it might at first seem.

The time factor again limited the number of parishes studied, and

the number of farms visited. Time was allocated equally between the

parishes, and a farm sample size of 10-12% was obtained.

, 1 i j

~ ,

1 l

1 i 1 , , ./

!

- BBc -

It did not prove possible ta ~ake any precise measure as ta

the statistical validity of the sample, due ta 1àck of appropriate

data on the nature of the universe (i.e. aIl hybrid grain-corn

farmers in Québec). From conversa~ion~ with agronomes and other

workers in the field of Québec agriculture, however, it is believed

that the data and trends presented are representative of the

structure of hybrid grain-corn farms, and the behavioural patterns

of corn farmers.

j

i 1 i

l !

1 1 j ! ! ;] J

1 l

! i

- 89 -

REFERENCES

Allen, G.R. (1959) Agricu1tura1 MàrkétingPo1ièies, Basil B1ackwe11, Oxford, 336 pp.

Barnes, F.A. (1958) The Evolution of Sa1ient Patterns of Mi1k Production and Distribution in Eng1and and Wa1es,Trans. Inst.Brit. Géog., 25, pp. 167-195.

Bea1, G.M. and J.M. Boh1en (1960) The Adoption of Two Farm Practices in a Centra1·IowaCommtinity, Spec. Rep., Iowa Agric. Home Econom. Exp. Stn. Ames, 28 pp.

Bea1, G.M. and E.M. Rogers (1960) ~e Adoption of Two Farm Practices in a Central Iowa COnmi.tinity', Iowa State University, Department of Economics and Socio10gy, Special Report, 26, 54 pp.

Beauregard, L. (1970) Les étapes de la mise en valeur agricole de la vallée du Richelieu, Cahiers/de géographie de Québec, 32, pp. 171-214.

Brown, L.A. and E.G. Moore (1969) Diffusion Research in Geography: A Perspective, Progress in Geography, Vol. 1, ed. C. Board et al., Edward Arnold, London, pp. 119-159.

Buchanan, K. and N. Hurwitz (1951) Land-Use in Natal, E.G., 27, pp. 222-237.

Canada, Department of Agriculture (1969) Canadian Agriculture in the Seventies: Report of the Federal Task Force on Agriculture, Ottawa, 475 pp.

Chisho1m, M. (1962) Rural Sett1ement and Land-Use, Hutchinson, London, 207 pp.

Clodius, R.L. and W.F. Mue11er (1961) Market Structure Ana1ysis as an Orientation for Research in Agricu1tura1 Economics, J. of Farm Econ., XLIII, pp. 515-553.

Cloutier, R. (undated) La production des plantes industrielles dans la région St-Hyacinthe, unpub1ished paper for Ministère d'agriculture, Québec, 56 pp.

Coppock, J.T. (1964) An Agricu1tura1 Atlas of Eng1and and Wa1es, Faber and Faber, London, 255 pp.

-.JI

1 .,

- 90 -

--------------- (1968) The Geography of Agriculture, J. of Agr. Econ., 19, pp. 153-175.

Emery, F.E. and O.A. Oeser, with the assistance of J. Tulley (1958) Information, Decision and Action; a study of the psychological determinants of changes in farming techniques, Me~b~u~e University Press, 132 pp. .

Farris, W.S. and J.H. Armstrong (1963) Determining a Market Area Feed and Grain Potential, Mimeo EC-270, Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana, 7 pp.

Gil1mor, D.A. (1969) Cattle Movements in the Republic of Ireland, Trans. Inst. Brit. Geog., 46, pp. 143-154.

Glaser, B.G. and A.L. Strauss (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Aldine, Chicago, 262 pp.

Goldberg, R.A. and J.H. Davis (1957) A Concept of Agribusiness, Harvard University Press, Boston, 136 pp.

Gregor, H.F. (1970) Geography of Agriculture: Themes in Research, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 181 pp.

Hardy, M., et al. (1967) La culture du mais, Publication 286, Ministère qel'agriculture et de la colonisation du Québec, Québec, 31 pp.

Harris, R.C. (1966) The Seigneurial System in Early Canada: A Geographical Study, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 247 pp.

Heighton, V.A. (1968) The Grain-Corn Enterprise in Eastern Ontario, Cano Farm Econ., 3(2), pp. 408.

Hénault, M. (1970) Approvisionnement et utilisation du mais-grain au Québec, unpublished paper for Ministère de l'agriculture et de la colonisation du Québec, 29 pp.

Irwin, H.S. (1962) The Intangible Side of Agriculture Marketing - A Neglected Area of Research, Marketing and Economic Development: Readings in Agribusiness Research, ed. C.J. Miller, 1967, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 396-409.

Jones, G.E. (1961) The Merchant's Contribution to Agriculture Progress, J. Inst. Corn and Agric. Merchants, 9, pp. 99-103.

----------- (1963) The Diffusion of Agricùltural Innovations, J. Agric. Econ., 15, pp. 387-405.

----------- (1967) The Adoption and Diffusion of Agricultural Practices, World Agric. and Rural Soc. Abstracts, 9(3), pp. 1-34.

- 91,-

Karrow, P.F. (1961) The Champlain Sea and its Sedements, Soils of Canada, The Royal Soc. of Canada Special Publication, No. 3, ed. R.F. Legget, University of Toronto Press, pp. 97-108.

Kohls, R.L. (1962) Farmers Behaviour and Decisions in Purchasing Farm Supplies, Purdue University Research Bul., 749, 27 pp.

Lasnier, G.G., M. Hénault et M. Cathala (1969) Utilisation et mise en marché du mais au Québec, unpub. report for Minist~Eeede l'agriculture et de la colonisation, Québec, 36 pp.

Le Bihan, J. (1969) Vertical Integration and Development of Farms: the Perfecting and Diffusion of Innovations in Integrated Systems, Economie ProblemsofAgrictilttire in Industrial Societies, Proceedings'of'a'Conferenceheld br the International Economics Association, MacMillan, London, pp. 325-343.

Lundgren, J. (1971) On Agricultural Marketing Mechanisms: Functional and 'Geographical'Relàtionships'Fàimer/Crops/Marketing Arrangements, unpublished paper, McGill University, 13 pp.

MacKenzie, A.F. (1970) Agronomic Groupings of Southern Québec Soils: Oat Field Trial Results;SoilSci., 109, pp. 53-59.

Marten, P. (1971) Corn in Québec, unpublished paper for the Federal Department of Agriculture, 33 pp.

Mather, E. C1950) The Production and Marketing of Wyoming Beef Cattle, '.!..!S., 26, pp. 81-93.

North Central Rural Sociological Sub-Committee for the Study of Diffusion of Farm Practices (1955}' 'How 'Faim 'People 'Accept 'New . Ideas , Spec. Rep., Iowa Agric. Ext'. Serv., Ames 15, (N:"'Central reg. Pub!, 1).

Papi, U. and C. Nunn Ceds,} (1969} 0 Economic Prob1ems of Agriculture in . Indùstdal 'Sodeties; o'Proceeèlingsofa 'Conferénceheld br the

. 'International'Economics'Association, MacMillan, London, 671 pp.

Peat, J.R. (1969) The Spatial Expansion of Commercial Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century: A von Thunen Explanation; .~ 45, pp. 283-301.

Pred, A. (1967) Behaviour and Location: f oundat ions for a geographic and dynamic·location·théory, Lund Studies in Geography, Series B: Part 1 Human Geography, Lund, Gleerup, 128 pp.

o -.;.Jo

1

1 \ 1 l 1 ) 1

1

- 92 -

Québec, Rapport de la commission royale d'enquête sur l'agriculture au Québec (1967)1. Les cooperatives agricoles et les plans conjointsatiÇtiébec," 96 pp., 2. L'évolution de l' agriculttire etledeveloppement économique"du Québec, 1946-1976, 155 pp.; "3~ " Lès grains "dè "provende "au Québec, 31 pp., 4. L'integration "èri"agriètilttire "ati Québec, 92 pp., Gouvernement du Québec.

Ryan, B. and N.C. Gross (1943) The Diffusion of Hybrid Seed Corn in Two Iowa Communities;RtiralSoc. Ithaca, N.Y., 8, pp. 15-24.

----------------------- (1950) " Acèèptarice and Diffusion of Hybrid Corn Seed in"Two"Iowa"Commtiriities, Res. Bull., Iowa Agric. Exp. Stn. Ames, 34 pp.

Seagram, House of, (1969)" " Seagram "Corn Program, unpublished paper for House of Seagram, Montreal, 36 pp.

Scarlett, M. (1967) Milk Market of Montreal, Rév. de géographie de Montreal, XXI, 2, pp. 343-361.

Schultz, T.W. (1964) "Transforming Traditional Agriculture, Yale University Press. Newhaven and London, 212 pp.

Simpson, E.S. (1959) Milk Production in England and Wales: Influence of Collective Marketing, "Geog~Rev., 49, pp. 95-111.

ThHnen, J.H. von" (1966)" " Isolatèd"State;an English edition of Der '"Isolièrtè"Staat. Translated by C.M. Wartenberg, edited with à~ introduction by P.G. Hall, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 304 pp.

WeIler. J.B. (1967) "Modern Agrictilttirè and Rural Planning, Architectural Press, London, 442 pp.

Wolpert, J. (1964) The Decision Process in a Spatial Context, A.A.A.G., 54, pp. 537~558.

\ l

... _ ....... __ . __ ._._._ ... ,. __ ~. ___ ._1 .