SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve...

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SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve pain, can be found in the writing of Theophrastus in the third century BC - although it is almost certain that the analgesic effects of an extract of poppy seeds was known long before then: for opium was imported from Cyprus to Egypt in the early 18th Dynasty (1551-1436 BC). As was the case with certain other products of the plant kingdom - such as alcohol, curare and cocaine - the powerful properties of opium were recognised, therefore, many centuries ago.The most active constituent of opium - morphine - was isolated in 1806. This was an important event because it was then possible to prepare a purified drug, of known potency, from what had previously been a crude and uncertain mixture. Almost fifty years were to pass, however, before drugs such as morphine could be given in a way which was reliable and predictable - that is by injection. This required the invention of the hollow needle and syringe achieved in Edinburgh, 1853. Initially, it was thought that morphine needed to be injected very close to the painful area if it was to have any useful effect Morphine can be found along with a variety of over 20 similar substances (like codeine) in the dried seed capsules of this plant. The mixture is called opium.Whilst morphine and codeine are naturally drugs, other 'morphine-like' drugs like pethidine, fentanyl, sufentanyl and alfentanyl are synthetic.

Transcript of SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve...

Page 1: SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve pain, can be found in the writing of Theophrastus in the.

SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS

The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve pain, can be found in the writing of Theophrastus in the third century BC - although it is almost certain that the analgesic effects of an extract of poppy seeds was known long before then: for opium was imported from Cyprus to Egypt in the early 18th Dynasty (1551-1436 BC).

As was the case with certain other products of the plant kingdom - such as alcohol, curare and cocaine - the powerful properties of opium were recognised, therefore, many centuries ago.The most active constituent of opium - morphine - was isolated in 1806. This was an important event because it was then possible to prepare a purified drug, of known potency, from what had previously been a crude and uncertain mixture.

Almost fifty years were to pass, however, before drugs such as morphine could be given in a way which was reliable and predictable - that is by injection. This required the invention of the hollow needle and syringe achieved in Edinburgh, 1853. Initially, it was thought that morphine needed to be injected very close to the painful area if it was to have any useful effect

Morphine can be found along with a variety of over 20 similar substances (like codeine) in the dried seed capsules of this plant. The

mixture is called opium.Whilst morphine and codeine are naturally drugs, other 'morphine-like' drugs like pethidine, fentanyl, sufentanyl

and alfentanyl are synthetic.

Page 2: SHORT HISTORY OF OPIOIDS The first authentic account of the use of opium, especially to relieve pain, can be found in the writing of Theophrastus in the.

Morphine was first used in labour in 1906 as one of the constituents of 'twilight sleep'. In an attempt to find a powerful (but non-addictive) pain reliever, pethidine was introduced in Germany in 1939 and was first used during labour in the following year.

Pethidine has remained the most popular narcotic drug for use during childbirth - although initial claims that it was a non-addictive drug have, unfortunately, proved to be false. Since the introduction of pethidine, many other drugs have been manufactured (and continue to be manufactured) which share the same basic properties as morphine and pethidine (but at much greater cost) and yet these two drugs have stood the test of time and continue to be used throughout the world today.

For many years, morphine-like drugs were commonly called 'narcotics' (from narcosis, meaning 'to deaden'). Narcosis is not really an accurate description of their principal effect, however and some countries have confused the issue further by also calling other drugs 'narcotics' - such as barbiturates, sedatives and tranquillisers.

In order to avoid such confusion, all drugs that behave in the same way as morphine are now called 'opioids' (because, as we shall see later, they act upon the body's 'opioid receptors').

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The opioid storyThe opioid story

•L’oppio nella storia dell’umanità: “lenitore” del dolore del corpo e dell’anima

•Isolamento e Sintesi della morfina

•Analgesia da elettrostimolazione intracranica, TENS, agopuntura

•Ipotesi (e dimostrazione) di recettori cerebrali per gli opioidi

•Ipotesi (e dimostrazione) di opioidi endogeni

•Opioidi, dolore e piacere

•una molecola per una funzioneuna molecola per una funzione•side-effectside-effect

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1878: Claude Bernard descrive l’azione di blocco della giunzione muscolare del curaro

1897: John Jacob Abel isola l’adrenalinaSherrington conia il termine “sinapsi”

1898: la Bayer vende l’eroina come calmante per la tosse 1904: viene sintetizzata la procaina1907: viene introdotto il concetto di recettore di membrana1911: Barger e Dale scoprono la noradrenalina1921: Otto Loewi riferisce azioni in vitro („Vagusstoff“), legate all‘acetilcolina (come in seguito identificata)

Dal cervello “asciutto” al cervello “umido”: 1.

neurochimica, farmacologia del comportamento, psicofarmacologia

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1936

"for their discoveries relating to chemical transmission of nerve impulses"Henry Dale Otto Loewi

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““THE THE CHEMICAL CHEMICAL BRAIN”:BRAIN”:È possibile associare una molecola ad una funzione?… anche superiore?

E l’alterazione di una molecola ad uno stato mentale?… anche patologico?

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Sinapsi one-to-one: pochissime

Multiple sinapsi su un neurone (1000)

Tutte le parti del neurone possono contenere versante pre- e post-sinaptico:

• sinapsi asso-somatiche

• asso-dendritiche

• dendro-dendritiche

• asso-assoniche

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Sinapsi eccitatoria, con vescicole sferiche

Sinapsi: versante presinaptico

• caratterizzato dalla presenza di vescicole, di forma diversa a seconda del tipo di neurotrasmettitore

• possono contenere più di un neurotrasmettitore

• specializzazione di membrana per il rilascio (densità presinaptica in ME): recettori e canali ionici particolarmente densi

• abbondanti mitocondri

• spazio fra versante pre- e post sinaptico di circa 20-40nm

Sinapsi inibitoria, con vescicole piatte

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1931: Svante, von Euler e Gaddum scoprono la sostanza P1932: la prima anfetamina (usata nel 1935 per curare la narcolessia)1936: Moniz esegue la prima lobotomia frontale1937: Papez sviluppa la „visceral theory“ per le emozioni1938: sintesi di LSD

trattamento di pazienti con elettroshock1949: nasce il National Institute of Mental Health, USA1950: viene identificato il GABA nel cervello1951: inibitori MAO per il trattamento di psicosi1954: appare la torazina, il primo tranquillante maggiore, e viene approvo l‘uso della clorpromazina1956: Rita Levi-Montalcini e Stanley Cohen purificano il NGF1958: Arvid Carlsson scopre la dopamina nel cervello di conisglio. Concetto non

accettato per il SNC. Si riteneva che le sinapsi cerebrali fossero elettriche

l‘aloperidolo viene introdotto come neurolettico1969: Hornykiewicz dimostra la diminuzione di DA nel cervello di paz. parkinsoniani 1961: viene introdotta la levo-DOPA per il trattamento del morbo di Parkinson

Dal cervello “asciutto” al cervello “umido”: 2.

neurochimica, farmacologia del comportamento, psicofarmacologia

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1965: viene accettata la sinapsi chimica nel cervello 1964-65: Annika Dahlstrom e Kjell Fuxe mappano le vie

monoaminergiche: nasce la neuroanatomia chimica (PhD thesis)1965: „gate-control theory“ di Melzack e Wall1969: Reynolds descrive l‘analgesia da elettrostimolazioneda ‘60: applicazioni delle tecniche immunoistochimiche al sistema nervoso1970: nasce la Society for Neuroscience1973: Pert e Snyder dimostrato i recettori opioidi cerebrali1974: Hughes e Kosterlitz scoprono l‘enfefalina1987: fluoxetina (Prozac) nel trattamento della depressione1993: viene identificato il gene responabile della corea di Huntington1997: Nobel a Prusiner per la scopeta die prioni

Dal cervello “asciutto” al cervello “umido”: 2.

neurochimica, farmacologia del comportamento, psicofarmacologia

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NEUROTRASMETTITORI/NEUROTRASMETTITORI/neuromodulatorineuromodulatori

• AA– Eccitatori: glu, asp– Inibitori: GABA

• Amine biogene– Cetecolamine: DA, NA,

A– Serotonina

• Acetilcolina• Peptidi

NEUROANATOMIA CHIMICA

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• meccanismo calcio-dipendente

• prevede lo scorrimento della vescicola fino al sito attivo del versante presinaptico e la fusione della membrana della vescicola con la membrana plasmatica presinaptica (esocitosi)

• questo è consentito da un complesso machinary molecolare

Sinapsi: rilascio del neurotrasmettitore

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• Esiste un pool di vescicole sinaptiche rapidamente mobilizzabile e uno di immagazzinamento

• la membrana delle vescicole viene recuperata con un meccanismo che coinvolge la clatrina (altrimenti si allargherebbe la superficie del versante presinaptic, che prevede o no la formazione di endosomi

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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970

"for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation

Bernard Katz Ulf von Euler Julius Axelrod

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"for their discoveries concerning the peptide hormone production of the brain

Roger Guillemin Andrew V. Schally Rosalyn Yalow

for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones"

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977

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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000

"for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"

Arvid Carlsson Paul Greengard Eric R. Kandel

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(From http://www.onu.edu/user/FS/tfaulkner/Dopamine.htm)

Dopamine and Norepinephrine

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Adapted from BG Lehmkuhle 2000

Serotonin

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FC = Frontal cortex

PC = Parietal cortex

OC = Occipital cortex

H = Hippocampus

M = Medial septal nucleus (Ch. 1) and diagonal band of Broca (Ch. 2)

T = Diagonal band of Broca projecting into the olfactory tubercle (Ch. 3)

B = Nucleus basalis of Meynert (Ch. 4)

Adapted from Coyle JT et al. Science. 1983;219:1184-1190. McNeal. Alzheimer’s Disease: Unraveling the Mystery. 1995:1-48.

AcetylcholineAcetylcholine

MT

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Materiale elettrondenso, adeso alla membrana della cellula postsinaptica, affacciato al versante presinaptico: recettori, canali ionici, altre molecole signalling

Sinapsi: versante postsinaptico

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The Scientific American Book of the Brain. New York: Scientific American, 1999: 3

An adult human brain has more than 100 billion neurons

Total number of synapses in cerebral cortex = 60-240 trillion

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mente/cervello:mente/cervello:capire le funzioni, comprese le superioricapire le funzioni, comprese le superiori

mente/cervello:mente/cervello:capire le funzioni, comprese le superioricapire le funzioni, comprese le superiori

Anatomia macroscopica imaging

Anatomia microscopica altissimo numero di connessioni

Elettrofisiologia/psicologia “black-box”

Chimica/farmacologia “molecole dell’anima”

Alcuni problemi: quando troppo e quando troppo poco:

SSRI e “depressed mood”

Prescrizione di farmaci opioidi in Italia

Alcuni problemi: quando troppo e quando troppo poco:

SSRI e “depressed mood”

Prescrizione di farmaci opioidi in Italia

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Malattia mentale Malattia mentale come “chemical come “chemical

unbalance”?unbalance”?

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SSRIs: inibitore reuptake 5HT (negli anni ‘90 prescrizioni triplicate) :PROZAC, Lilly; PAXIL, GSK; ZOLOFT,Pfizer

• “percezione” della malattia: 1/3 della popolazione occidentale soffre di malattie mentali (Kessler, include disturbi depressivi lievi)

• Casistica rivista definendo i criteri di malattia (clinicamente significativa) Narrow et al., arch gen psych, 2002

meno del 20%Depressione grave: da 10% a meno del 5%

• Kessler, JAMA 2004, ricerca fondi pubblici (WHO) e privati (anche Pfizer, GSK, Lilly): prevalence of mental disorders: USA 26%(1/3 lievi)

Messico 12%Giappone 9%Italia 8%

50% affetti da disturbo grave non curati50% dei curati non ne hanno bisogno

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Questionari: “negli ultimi 6 mesi, ti sei sentito triste, malinconico, infelice, depresso?”

Aumento del rischio dipensiero suicida fra adolescenti e giovani: dati richiesti dalle associazioni di difesa dei consumatori, non pubblicate

Società scientifiche: dichiarazione di conflitto di interessi

“Opinion-leaders”

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“insufficient analgesia”moderate to severe pain (% patients)

Per vedere questa immagineoccorre QuickTime™ e un

decompressore Motion JPEG A.

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Cosa cambia con la nuova legge:

• Godono delle nuove modalità semplificate di prescrizione: Buprenorfina, Codeina, Diidrocodeina, Fentanyl, Idrocodone, Idromorfone, Metadone, Morfina, Ossicodone, Ossimorfone 

• È possibile prescrivere i farmaci oppioidi sopra indicati a malati con dolore grave dovuto a cancro o ad altra patologia degenerativa 

• I medici e i veterinari possono approvvigionarsi dei farmaci sopra elencati attraverso autoricettazione. Essi sono inoltre autorizzati a detenere e trasportare la quantità necessaria di sostanze di cui alle tabelle I, II e III previste dall'articolo 14, per uso professionale urgente. Copia dell'autoricettazione è conservata per due anni a cura del medico, che tiene un registro delle prestazioni effettuate, per uso professionale urgente, con i farmaci sopra indicati. 

• Vengono rimosse le sanzioni amministrative per i medici e quelle penali per i farmacisti in caso di errori formali involontari nella compilazione o nella spedizione della ricetta 

• Cambierà in tempi brevi il Ricettario Ministeriale Stupefacenti. Non esisterà più il ricettario a 3 sezioni da compilare ciascuna a mano da parte del medico.

• È possibile prescrivere su ogni ricetta due sostanze o due dosaggi dello stesso farmaco.  La durata massima della prescrizione è portata a 30 giorni (contro gli attuali 8 giorni).   La validità della ricetta è di 30 giorni (contro gli attuali 10 giorni). La ricetta deve contenere l'indicazione del domicilio professionale e del numero di telefono professionale del medico chirurgo o del medico veterinario da cui è rilasciata.

• La consegna di quantità terapeutiche dei farmaci indicate nell'elenco sopra riportato, al domicilio dei malati con dolore grave da cancro o malattia degenerativa potrà essere fatta anche da parte di operatori sanitari, se accompagnata da dichiarazione sottoscritta dal medico di medicina generale, di continuità assistenziale o dal medico ospedaliero che ha in cura il paziente.

• Infine saranno autorizzati a trasportare quantità terapeutiche dei farmaci sopra elencati gli infermieri professionali che effettuano servizi di assistenza domiciliare nell'ambito dei distretti sanitari di base o nei servizi territoriali delle Aziende sanitarie locali, e i familiari dei malati, opportunamente identificati dal medico o dal farmacista.

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