Hard Times and Education:

The Meaning of the Scenes at the Schgolreom of G. rad,g.rm' d's School

A Thesis

Presented te

The Faculty ofthe Graduate Course at

Hyogo University of Teacher Education

in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of School Education

by

Shigeto YOKOI

(Student Number: MOO152B)

December 2eOl

Hard Times and Education:

The Meaning of the Scenes at the Schoolroom of Gradgrind's School

g2k*1 • <uttstdigtlli]i[l.5t

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ne# ISi51-

Hard Times (1854) includes nodetailed description of the structure

of Gradgrind's school building, but

we can sketch some features of that

building. It contains a gallery and a

floor, but it seems to have no class-

room. The presence ofa gallery in-

dicates that simultaneous instruction

was given there.

A scboolroom with a gallery and

simultaneous instruction were of a

modern and reformed type in the1850's. Dickens seems to expressno criticism against the school buil-

ding and the teaching method ofsimultaneous instruction. It is the

schoolmaster, M'Choakumchild, andhis lessofis that Dickens criticizes

sharply.

M'Choakumchild is described as

the new type of schoolmaster that ap-

peared in the mid-19th century. He

was one of the first schoolmasters

who was admitted to one of the newly

built training schools in 1851, gra-

duating from it in 1853. We cafi say

that he was a product of the educa-

tional reform m the 1840's and the

1850's in England. Obviously, Dic-

kens was aware of some educationalproblems associated with tke trainiRg

schools.

M'Cheakumchild's teaching re-lied too rriuch upon figures. Histeaching at Gradgrind's school is as

"overdone" as his learning at thetraining school is. Ifi other words,

his teaching and learning are one-sided; they are lackifig in achieving

Pestalozzian practical skills and ac-

tlVitleS.

Bitzer is an excellent pupil at

Gradgrind's scbool. Crammed with"cold abstraction or generalization,"

his heart is thoroughly cold. Hisunwholesome body indicates that at

Gradgrind's school M'Choakumchild,in his lessons, does not adopt "physi-

cal exercise" or "field trips" which

Pestalozzi's curriculum emphasized.

Bitzer's body is no more sound thafi

his mind is. In this sense, Bitzer is

regarded as the antithesis of a mid-

Victorian ideal, "A sound mind in a

sound body."

Bitzer is a product, or a victim,

of the unbalanced education whichM'Choakumchild h.as given. As his

name suggests rightly, M'Choakum-child is a "child's spirit-`choker.'"

In a seitse, however, he himself is a

product, or a victim, of the one-sided

curriculum of the training school.

The training scheol's unbalanced cur-

riculum produces such a schoolmas-

ter as M'Choakumchild, and he inturn produces such an unwholesomeboy as Bitzer.

The fundame"tal source of theproblem lies in the training school

curriculum. In Hard Times Dickenspoints ou{ that the training school's

unba}ailced curriculum is a fatal flaw..

in the contemporary reformed educa-

tional system. As far as his view of

the school curriculum is concerned,

we can say that Dickens maintainsthe Pestalozzian policy of education,

which Kay-Shuttleworth already in-corporated into the original daily rou-

tine of Battersea Training School ifi

1841.

The problem with the training

school's unbalanced cuniculum isclosely cennected with Gradgrind's

philosophy. Gradgfind eventual}yundergoes a conversion from a keen

advecate of "a wisdom of the Head"

to a supporter of harmony between "a

wisdom of the Head" and "a wisdom

of the Heart." In other words, he

humanizes his former utilitarianp.k.ilosepl.iy of "Facts" and "Figures."

In conclusion, we can say that in

Hard Times Dickens ascertains theimpertance of a harmenious balance

between body and mind, and betweenhead and heart. In this sense, Dic-

kens aims at education for a well-

rounded persoR, that is to say, means

of the integration of intellectual,

moral, and physical education. This

concept ef education is far from old-

fashigned at all, but a fundamental

and universal ideal which we should

make great efforts to attain in our

times. As a nove! about educatien,Hard Times is evcn "ow worth read-ing and studying, since it is fi11ed

with usefu1 and profound suggestions

for approaching fundamental and es-

sential problems of education.

SlltReeS('=gtr'

tRij.#fi'

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i

Acknowledgement

' I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge and

express my appreciation to those who have helped and sup-

ported me to complete this thesis.

First and foremost I express sincere thanks to my semi-

nar supervisor, Professor Hiroshi Oshima, who guided every

stage ef the preparation of this thesis with his valuable advice

and constant, generous support. Without them, this thesis

would never have come into existence.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to other

staff members ofthe Department ofLanguage Studies at Hyogo

University of Teacher Education for their professional and

helpfu1 comments and insightful suggestions. I also wish to

thank my colleagues in the Graduate Course for the valuable

discussions.

Deep thanks are also owed to Mr. Gerg Clayton and Ms.

Andrea Ikeda for their critical comments in reading the draft of

this thesis.

Last but not least, I wish to acknowledge the Hyogo Pre-

fectural Board of Education for providing me with the splendid

opportunity to study in this graduate course for two years.

' ' Shigeto YOKOI Kakogawa, Hyogo

December 2001 '

ti

Abstract

Hard Times (1854) includes no detailed description of the

structure of Gradgrind's school building, but we can sketch

some features of that building. It contains a gallery and a

floor, but it seems to have no classroom. The presence ofa

gallery indicates that simultaneous instruction was given there.

A schoolroom with a gallery and simukaneous instruction

were ofa modern and reformed type in the 1850's. Dickens

seems to express no criticism against the school building and

the teaching method of simultaneous instruction. It is the

schoolmaster M'Choakumchild and his lessons that Dickens

criticizes sharply.

M'Choakumchild is described as the new type of school-

master that appeared in the mid-19th century. He was one of

the first schoolmasters who was admitted to one of the newly

built training schools in 1851, graduating from it in 1853. We

can say that he was a product of the educational reform in the

1840's and the 1850's in England. Obviously, Dickens was

aware of some educational problems associated with the train-

ing schools.

M'Choakumchild's teaching relied teo much upon figures.

His teaching at Gradgrind's school is as "overdone" as his

learning at the training schoel. In other words, his teaching

hi

and learning are one-sided; they are lacking in achieving

Pestalozzian practical skills and activities. - Bitzer is an excellent pupil at Gradgrind's school. Cram-

med with "cold abstraction or generalization," his heart is

thoroughly cold. His unwholesome body indicates that at

Gradgrind's school M'Choakumchild does not adopt "physical

exercise" or "field trips" which Pestalozzi's curriculum em-

phasized. Bitzer's body is no more sound than his mind. In

this sense, Bitzer is regarded as the antithesis of a mid-Vic-

torian ideal, "A sound mind in a sound bedy."

Bitzer is a product, or a victim, of the unbalanced educa-

tion which M'Choakumchild has given. As his name sug-

gests appropriately, M'Choakumchild is a "child's spirit-`cho-

ker.'" In a sense, however, he himself is a product, or a vic-

tim, of the one-sided curriculum of the training school. The

training school's unbalanced curriculum produces.such a

schoolmaster as M'Choakumchild, and he in turn produces

such an unwholesome boy as Bitzer.

The fundamentai source ofthe problem lies in the training

school curriculum. In Hard Times Dickens points out that the

training school's unbalanced curriculum is a fatal flaw in the

contemporary reformed educational system. As far as his

view of the school curriculum is concerned, we can say that

Dickens maintains the Pestalozzian policy of education, which

Kay-Shuttleworth already incorporated into the original daily

IV

routine ofBattersea Training School in 1841.

The problem with the train-ing school': unbalanced ciur-

riculum is closely connected with Gradgrind's philosophy.

Gradgrind eventually undergoes a conversion from a keen ad-

vocate of "a wisdom of the Head" to a supporter of harmony

between "a wisdom of the Head" and "a wisdom of the Heart."

In other words, he humanizes his former utilitarian philosophy

of "Facts" and "Figures."

In conclusion, we can say that in Hard Times Dickens

ascertains the importance ef a harmonious balance between

body and mind, and between head and heart. Dickens aims at

education for a well-rounded person, that is to say, the integra-

tion of intellectual, moral, and physical education. This con-

cept of education is far from old-fashioned, but a fundamental

and universal ideal which we should still make great efforts to

attain in our times. As a Rovel about education, Hard Times

is even now worth reading and studying, since it is filled with

usefu1 and profound suggestions for approaching fundamental

and essential problems of education.

Contents

AckRowledgemefits ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Abstract ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ." .., ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..

'Contents

introduction ..i ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Chapter I

A BriefHistorical Survey ofElementary Education

(iirad$rrind's School: Schoolroem and instruction ...

Chapter M

"Another Thing Needfu1" in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Conclusion... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..

'Notes... ... ... ... ... ... ". ." ". ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ." ...

B ibliography ... ... ,.. ... ... ... •.• t•• ••• ••• ••• ••••ny•-•• ••• •i• ••

"i

. ti

"1

4

.12

. 26

.33

..36

..41

1

Introduction

Charles Dickens (1812'70) was not only a great novelist,

but also a great social critic and reformer in the Victorian

period. He often spoke out on public affairs and became in"

volved with a variety of causes such as prison reform and the

abolition of the death penalty. In his major industrial novel,

Hard Times (1854), Dickens dea}t with class conflict and de'

scribed a strike which he observed at Preston.i Although a

struggle between capital and }abeur occupies the center of

this novel, Hard avmes includes another major social prob-

lem in mid'Victorian England. That problem is the educa"

tion of the poor, and particularly of children. Elementary

education was one of the major public affairs that the social

critic Dickens was greatly interested in.

In the Victorian period, the critical reception of Hard

Times was mixed. Harriet Martineau (1802'76) observed,

"master and man are as unlike life in England, at present, as

Ogre and Tom Thumb."2 But John Ruskin (1810'1900), a

great Victorian art and social critic, thought Hard Ti'mes the

greatest of Dickens's works, and contended that it "should be

studied with close and earnest care by persons interested in

social questions."3

In the twentieth century, Frank Raymond Leavis's (1895-

1978) criticism marked a new epoch in the critical history of

2

Hard Times. He considered it as a moral fable, and regarded

itj highly:

... if I am right, of all Dickens's works it is the one

that has all the strength of his genius, together

with a strength no other of them can show -- that

of a completely serious work of art.

---e"---e---t-}---"---------"----------e--"--------------"

I need say no more by way of defining the mo'

ral fable than that in it the intention is peculiarly

insistent, so that the representative significance of

everything in the fable -- character, episode, and

so on - is immediately apparent as we read. In'

tention might seem to be insistent enough in the

opening of Hard Times, in that scene in Mr. Grad"

grind's school.... Actually, the Dickensian vitality

is there, in its varied characteristic modes, which

have the more force because they are free of re"

dundance: the ereative exuberance is controlled by

a profound inspiration.4 ,

Since Leavis's critical essay was published, Hard avmes has

been studied mainly from the standpoint of a clever moral fa'

ble, including a critique of mid'Victorian industrial society

dominated by utilitarianism.5 But only a few attempts have

so far been made at a close examination of the relationship

between mid'Victorian society and education in Hard TJ'mes.

3

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the descriptions

of edu-eation in .U.ard- Ti'me.a, with s- peci;al reference to the edu"

cational tendencies of mid'Victorian Eng}and. Dickens's

views on education will be clarified through the analyses of

the scenes at the schoolroom of Gradgrind's school.

4

Chapter I

A Brief Historica} Survey of Elementary Education

Hard Ti'meswas published in 1854. The setting of Hard

Ti'mes is not shown clearly, but a clue is described in it. In

chapter 12 of book 1, Bounderby's mother remarks:

I came from forty mi}es by Parliamentary this

morning, and I'm going back the same forty miles

thisafternoon. (63)'

The Gladstone Act of 1844 required companies to run one

such "Parliamentary" train, every day, on all their principal

lines. Therefore, we can suppose that Hard TJ'mes has its

setting between 1844 and 1854.

In mid-19th century England, radical educational re-

forms were being carried out. Before we examine education-

al problems in Hard Ti'mes, it is necessary that we should

take a brief survey of the educational reforms in the pre'

ceding years.

In England, the rapid industrialization from the mid"

18th century onwards, combined with the dislike of state con'

trol, prompted the Church of England and other religious bo"

dies to establish a system of voluntary elementary educa-

tion.2 In these voluntary or sectarian schools, the teaching

method was individual instruction3 and the schoolroom was

5

noisy because the schoolmaster was busy in giving individual

instructJion, and ,:tJ w. as rat.her difficiv,.!t for the schoolm.aster to

keep children quiet. Besides, the number of the children

that received elementary education got larger and larger, due

to an expanding population, but schoolmasters were woefully

insufficient. Schoolmasters were too busy to scold them.

A monitorial system was thought to be able to solve the

scheolmaster shortage. It is said that Andrew Bell (1753-

1832) and Joseph Lancaster (1778'1838) each claimed to have

invented this method. By this method one schoolmaster

could supervise the teaching of hundreds of children. He

gave each lesson to a group of older children - the monitors -

and, in tum, they passed it on to the juniers by individual

instruction. The lessons were given on the large floor of the

schoolroom. (See Figure 1.)

IXNo church societies were founded to run schools in the

same way. In 1811 Bell established the Church of England

National Society for the edueation of the poor and in 1814

Lancaster's Nonconformist's supporters organized the British

and Foreign Schools Society. The fault of the system was

that instruction was left entirely to monitors who were still

children, and therefore they could not teach their pupils well.

Besides, pupils were mainly taught by individual instruction

as before, so the schoolroom remained noisy.

In the 1830's progressive elementary education came to

6

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Figure 1. A school run on the monitorial system in the 1830's.4

take the form ofthe gallery lesson. It is said that Samuel

Wilderspin (1791'1866) devised a gallery and started gallery

lessons in the 1820's.5 He let fifty to eightv. children sit at a

gallery. David Stow (1793'1864) followed the system and it

became widespread in the 1830's. The earliest simultane"

ous instruction typically took the form of a gallery lesson

with a relativel: large number ofpupils. Simultaneous in-

struction means that one schoolmaster gives the same educa'

tional contents in the same schoolroom or place at the same

time. By adhering to this method, schools did not need to in-

crease the number ofschoolmasters and many children could

be educated. When children sat at the gallery, they could

see the schoolmaster and listened to him better. ThaRks to

7

simultaneous instruction the schoolroom was quieter.6

A ga!lery w.as• s•et- up, cont-iguoiv,.s- to the fioor, inside thue

schoolroom; the floor was left in the schoolroom. (See Fig-

ures 2, 3, and 4.) Therefore gallery lessons and individua}

instruction could be done simultaneously in the schoolroom.

A classroom was not widespread in the 1830's; it was used to

teach a small number of children by individual instruction.7

Although gallery lessons could be regarded as an early form

of "class teaching," they were not associated with class"

rooms•

Indeed, it was not until the 1860's and the 1870's

that teachers, rooms, and classes began to con'

verge into a one'to'one relationship. Equally it

was not until this later period that `c}ass teaching'

began to take on its twenty"century connotations.8

In 1839 the Committee of the Privy Counci} on Education was

established. It marked a new stage in the history of the edu'

cational reforms. James Kay-Shuttleworth (1804'77) be'

came the Secretary of the Committee. He noticed that few

schoolmasters retained the teaching skills required by

schoolroom practices. He tried to increase the number of

goed schoolmasters and also to improve their quality.

A middle system between elementary schools and train'

ing schools was completely lacking; i't was necessary to pre-

pare a recruitment scheme. An attempted solution was

8

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Figure 2. A schoolroom in the 1836 e(lition of D and Stowes The 7)aining

System.9

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Figure 3. A schooiroom prepared by Samuel Wilderepin for A System Por

the Edueation ofthe Young, 1840.io

9

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Figure 4. A schoolroom in the 1850 edition of David Stow's

tltaining System. ii

The

what we call the pupil'teacher system. In those days a pubt

lic school was one thing and an elementary school was en'

tirely another.. Training schools had no choice but,to collect

applicants in elementary schools, and what was more, it was

a common practice for pupils over thirteen years old to leave

school. A mediation between elementarv schools and train'

ing schools was indispensable.

The pupil'teacher sv. stem came from the Minutes of the

Committee ofthe Privy Council on Education in 1846. Pupil

teachers were outstanding pupils who were thirteen v. ears old

and were selected in elementary schools. Directors of

10

schools made a five'year apprentice contract with the pupils.

Th.us t-he pupils• cont-inued t-o s- t-ay at- t-h.e .q,ame -school con'

tinuously, and worked there as assistants-that is, pupil tea'

chers. Pupil teachers were paid a little for their work and

after school they attended lessons for one and a half hours

five days a week.

Her Majesty's Inspectors also paid pupil teachers a little

in exchange for their work. When directors of schools want'

ed to employ pupil teachers, it was indispensable for their

schools to be inspected by Her Majesty's Inspectors in res"

pect of the condition of administration of the schools, the

facilities and the equipment, and the schoolmasters' ability in

training pupil teachers.

The school that employed pupil teachers was provided

with a grant'in'aid in relation to the number of pupil teach'

ers. The schoolmaster was provided with extra pay through

the guidance of the pupil teachers. Pupil teachers them-

selves were provided with grants'in-aid whenever they pass'

ed annual examinations. Pupil teachers who finished their

apprenticeship with excellent resu}ts were provided with the

expenses forentrance intoatraining school. Moreover, such

pupil teachers could become Queen's Scholars. A training

school was provided with grants-in'aid in relation to the

number of Queen's Scholars.i2

It was not until such favorable steps were taken that

11

"new schoolmasters" were produced. In training schools stu'

dents• were t-rained for t-hree years-. In 1853, just one year

before the publication of Hard avmes the first graduates were

produced.

Interestingly, M'Choakumchild, the schoolmaster of

Gradgrind's school in Hard Ti'mes is described as one of those

first graduates that have just qualified from one of newly

bui}t training schools. While Dickens was writing Hard

Ti'mes, he bore the current reform of elementary education in

his mind.

12

Chapter ll

Gradgrind's School: Schoolroom and Instruction

Hard Ti'mes includes no detailed description of the

structure of Gradgrind's school building, but we can sketch

some features of the building. The building has "a plain,

bare, monotonous vault of a schoolroom," (5) and includes

"the inclined plane," (5) which means a gal}ery. There is no

referring to a classroom. Perhaps Gradgrind's school con"

tains a gallery and a floor, but it seems to have no classroom.

As we have seen in the preceding chapter, it was not until the

1860's and the 1870's that classrooms began to appear.

Anyway a schoolroom with a gallery was still a modern

type of schoolroom in the 1850's. Needless to say, the pre'

sence of a gallery indicates that simultaneous instruction

was given at Gradgrind's scho,ol; this method of instruction

was as modern as the gallery lesson. Judging from the set'

ting of Hard Ti'mes, the schoolroom of Gradgrind's school

seems to be similar to that of Figure 4 in the preceding

chapter.

To sum up we can say that the schoolroom and the teach"

ing method of simultaneous instruction at Gradgrind's school

were ofa modern and reformed type in those days. Concern"

ing these points, we can find no criticism from Dickens's de'

13

scriptions. But it is the schoolmaster, M'Choakumchild, and

his• }essons t•hat• Dickens- crit-icizes- s- o.m"e educat;onal points.

M'Choakumchild is described as the new type of school'

master that appeared in the mid-19th century. He was

admitted to one of the first schoolmasters who entered one of

the newly built training schools in 1851, graduating from it

in 1853. We can say that he was a product of the educa'

tional reform in the 1840's and the 1850's in England. Ob'

viously, Dickens was aware of some educational problems as'

sociated with the training schools.

Kay'Shutt}eworth, the Secretary of the Committee of the

Privy Council on Education, tried to increase the number of

able schoolmasters, as we have pointed out in Chapter I.

Right after his project for the establishment of national

training schools miscarried, Kay-Shuttleworth established

Battersea Training School at his own expense. His experi'

ment of the private training school enjoyed a great deal of

success. It produced distinguished schoolmasters. The

Duke of Sutherland employed three schoolmasters from

Battersea 'l}raining School. He appreciated their excellen-

ce.i The number of visitors to the training school increased

day by day, and a number of training schools imitating Bat'

tersea Training School were soon established. The routine

at Battersea Training School could be a model for the newly

established training schools.2

14

Following the onset of financial difficulties, and Kay'

Shuttleworth's need to devote himuself tA. the duty as ti.A.e First

Secretary of the Committee of the Privy Council on Education,

he made up his mind to hand over Battersea Training School

to the National Society. This devolution was completed in

1843.3

Consequently part of the daily routine at Battersea

Training School was changed. Let us compare the routine of

1841 and that of 1845. (See Tables 1 and 2.) Of all the sub'

'jects and activities in the routine of 1841, the following

subjects and activities are omitted in 1845: "Object lesson,"

"How to feed pigs, poultry, and milk cows," "Committing to

memory," and "Natural history of birds." With the excep-

tions of "Committing to memory" and "Natural history of

birds," the other subjects and activities are mainly concerned

with practical skills and actual experiences. On the other

hand, the following are subjects that were added to the 1845

routine: "Natural philosophy," "Penmanship," "Prob}ems of

work," "Chemistry," "English composition," "Dictation," and

"Principal (Liturgy)." About half of them seem to be non'

practical skills. Clearly, based upon the routine of Battersea

Training School which was a model to other training schools,

Dickens lists what M'Choakumchild studied at the training

school:

He [M'Choakumchild] and some one hun-

Half'past 5

Quarter to 6

Quarther to 7

Quarter to 8

8

After prayer

Haif'past 8

9 'te half" past• 9

Half`past 9. to

half'past 10

Haff'past 10 to

11.

ll to 12

l2 to 1

Quariter-past 1

2to3

Table 1. Daily Rout ine at Battersea {l!raining Schoo1 in 1/841.4

Rise,wash,dress,andmakeb()ds.

Householdwork,viz,,scouringandsweep'ingfioors,clefdninggrates,shoes,knives,&c.,pumpingwaterandpreparingvegetables.

Marchintogardenandcommencegarden'work,feedpigs,poultry,andmi!kcows.

Marchfromgarden,deposittools,andwash.

ReadingafScripturesanclprayer.anthespringhaffanhourwascommonly.eccupiedinafamiliarexpositionolrthepassageofScTiptureread.)

Superjntendentspresentreports.

Breakfast,

Monday' Mesday Wednesduy 1lkursday Friday Satu]1day

C•lasgesunited.

Ii'irst•class.

Seeonctclass.

Firstclass.

Secpndc:lass.

Classesiunited.

Readi.ng/inthe

Bibleanarela

ligiousinstruc'

tion.OldTes'

tamenthistory.

Mechanies.

A)tithmetic.

Mentalarithme'

tic.

Ei]ymology

Geographsi.

Readinginthe

Bibleandre"

ligious

-xnstruc-

tion..MleGospelt,

A:tfithmetic.

Mechanics.

Etymolog'y,.

rvIental

airithmetic.

GeographyL

Readi/nginthe

BfoIeandre'

ligious

illstruction.

'r'heAetsoftheApc)stleff.

Mechanics.

Arithmet/ic.

Mental

urithmetie.

Etymology.

Music.

ReadingintheBibleandre'

ligious

instruction.

[ftieEpi.codes..

jlrithmetic.

Mec,hanics.

Etymology,

Mental

arithmetic

Geography.

C)ommittiingto

Memorytexts

ofScriptume.

Mechanics.

A#rithmetic.

MIental

Arithmetie.

Etymology.

Geogrttphy.

Com]nittiligto

Memorytexts

ofScripltUre,or

exarninatJionon

theScriptural

reELdingoft•he

week.

Wee)dy

examinatioln.

Mt•to.

Mv.siLe,

Gardenworl<,feÅídingt;heanimals,&c.,Marchtothehouseat11,wash,andpreparefordinner.

Dinner..Monday [Ikesday We{lnesday Thursday Friday SeLturday

CIassesunited. Meehanical

drawning,

Mapdrawing. Mechnnical

drawning.

Commonandi.sometricaltersective.

Mapdyawing.

Weelky

examlinatiou.Ei

3 to ' 4

4to5

5

6

Quarter" past 6

7

8

920 mj.nutes

past 9

"irstclass. Algebra. Useoftheglobes.

econdclass. Grammar,

irstelass, Naturalhistony Grammar.

efbireds,

econdclass. Ditto. Committ•ingto

memoryarithme'

ticaltablesan(l

rulesofgrammEIMy

ormechanical

formulse,

March to garden"vvork, feed pigs, poultry, &G., and rniik cows.

March from garden, wash, and prepai'e for supper.

Suppem.

Drill and gyirtnastic exercises.

Copying musie or n/otes on geography, gT n"echanical formulae, in the

Another c'Lass practicing" singing ir{ the lower c}ass"room.

Readiirg o/f Scriptures and prayer.

Retire to rest.

Meehanical

drawing.

Mensuration

Algeb/ra.

Object le,gsort.

upper elass`room.

Use oÅí glabes.

Grammar.

eommining to

memory nrithme[ tical

tables and. rules

of t.rraMmar, or

mechanieal

tormulse.

During 'this period th

Algebra.

Grainrnair.

Commaittig

to

memolrv.

Ditto.

l)it//to.

e'History of England is read aloud.

SUNDAY

Aft•er tlivine service one of t•he sermon.s oll tke day is wr/itten from meltnory. Im the evenfng the compositions are res.d a/nd commente{l upo/n, and the

Cat.echism or some other portion ol the fo/rmularies of the Church is repeated, with texts ef Scrip'ture illtastsrating it.

Some of the elder students teach i'n the vi11ago Sun(lay'school.

-or

'Table 2. DailyReutineatBattersea5a.m. Rise,Wash,Dress,andMakeBeds. 11hip.m. I]IinneT.

6a.m. I}rayers, 2p.m. SeebndDivis

8a.m. Brealcfast. Stihoo1.

9.a.m. b'irstdivisienefTeachersgotethe VillageSckool. 4or5p.mDittol2`Neon DittG dittoreturnfrem VillageSehoel. School.

Monday "Ihesday- Wednesaay

6 1 Gaxden Garden Garden

2 Do, Do. Do.

7 l Firstprinctpleof IPrineiFlal ftivateStudyefEe-

ATtthmetie clesia$ticalI{isiory

2 EnglishComposition De. Do.

9 1 DescriptiveMechanies Drill Garden

2 Do. De. bo.

10 1 ]Cr,M'Leod My,M'Leod Mensuration

2 Scripture De, Seript-ure

ll 1 GarcleH Garden NaturalPhiIosophy

2 De. Do. Denivation

12 i Chemistry Mathematical Seripture

Geography

2 Do. DescriptiveDe. Do,

2 } }Åíisure Derivatin ?.Tineiple

.t 2 Do, Mscell.Calcu}ation bo3 1 Grammar Mechanics PracticeofChaxxting

-2 Axithmetic Music ?roblemsonWork

4 1 Algebra IMusic Arithmetic

2 Descripticn .Arithmetie De.

5 1 Mic.M'Leoa, Scripture Leisure

2 Gramniar Do. Do,

7 1 Penmanship Leisure Drawing

2 Do. Do. Do.

Seeond Division of Teachers go te the Village

' ditto return from Village

Thursday

Garaen

De.Principal

Do,

English History

Darvtr. M'heod

EIement•ary Music

Grammeif

Mental Ai'ithmetic

MensuratioR and

Geometry

GrammarGaraen

Do. .Grammar &Derivation

Do.Seripture

Do.

Geegraphy

Do,

Penmanship

Do. '

6 lf2 p.m, Supper.

9 p..m. Prayers.

IO p.m, Retiiireterest.

Friday

Garden

Do,Principal (li'turgy)

English Composition

DrMDo.

Mechanics

Elementary Musie

algebra

Prinnipal

English Elistory

' Do,

Garden

IDo.

GIobes

Music

Music

.Arithmet/ic

Chemistry

Do, Mctation Class

I]>rawing

Do.

Saturaay

Garden --- Do.Leisure

Do,9to 10 Y2

Examination Papers

10 l/2 to 11 112 .

Garden

11 ll2 to 1

Examinatien Papers

Examination Papers

Do,Historical GeogTa,phy

Do,Househeld Work

Do.

ge"

18

dred and forty other schoolmasters, had been

lately turned at +uhe saLrrLe t'lme, in the t.;m.e, in the

same factory, on the same principles, like so many

pianoforte legs. He had been put through an

immense variety of paces, and had answered

volumes of head"breaking questions. Ortho gra'

phy, etymology, syntax, and prosody, biography,

astronomy, geography, and general cosmography,

the sciences of compound proportion, algebra,

landsurveying and levelling, vocal music, and

drawing from models, were all at the ends of his

ten chilled fingers. He had worked his stoney way

into Her Majesty's most Honorable Privy Council's

Schedule B, and had taken the bloom off the

higher branches of mathematics and physical

science, French, German, Latin, and Greek. He

knew all about all the Water Sheds of all the world

(whatever they are), and all the histories of all the

peoples, and all the names of all the rivers and

mountains, and all the productions, manners, and

customs of aH the countries and all their 'boundaries and bearings on the two and thirty

points of the compass. Ah, rather overdone,

M'Choakumchild. If he had on}y learnt a little

less, how infinitely better he might have taught

19

much more! (10)

Here we notice tii"iat Dickens exaggerates a tendency toward

the underestimation of practical skills which are found in the

difference between the routine of 1841 and that of 1845.

Dickens omits practical subjects and activities such as

"Household work," "Drill," and "Garden" in the 1845 routine.

At the same time, he adds such subjects as "Latin," "Greek,"

"French," "German," "Prosody," "Astronomy," "Biography,"

and "General cosmography." More than half of them seem to

be far from practical skills.

It is through this Dickensian caricature that Dickens

criticizes the contemporary educational tendency toward the

underestimation of practical skills and actual activities and

the cramming of too many subjects and too much information

into the newly devised training school curriculum.

The schoolmaster M'Choakumchild, as I said earlier, has

just qualified from such a training school. Sissy informs

Louisa of his way of lessons:

"And he [M'Choakumchild] said, Now, this school'

room is a Nation. And this nation, there are fifty

millions of money. Isn't this a prosperous nation?

Girl number twenty." (47)

He uses a figure even when he calls Sissy. After this ques'

tion he asks he-r two more questions with figures, such as

"fifty millions of money," "a million of inhabitants," and "a

20

hundred thousand persons." (47) M'Choakumchild's ques'

tions are filled 'y'iitii'i figures. F•igures are no muore tiiA-an

figures;' they often stand for abstract conception, far from

individual reality, so it is hard for Sissy to follow his lessons,

because Sissy has a warm heart that rejects cold abstraction

or generalization.

M'Choakumchild's teaching relies too much upon figures.

His teaching is as "overdone" as his learning at the training

school. In other words, his teaching and learning are onee

sided; they are lacking in Pestalozzian practical skills and

actlvltles.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746'1827), a Swiss advo-

cator for education of the poor, insisted upon "teaching meth'

ods designed to strengthen the student's own abilities":

Pestalozzi's pedagogical doctrines stressed that

instructions should proceed from the familiar to

the new, incorporate the performance of concrete

arts and the experience of actual emotional res-

ponses, and be paced to follow the gradual un"

folding of the child's development.

Pestalozzi's curriculum, which was modeled

after Jean Jacques Rousseau's (1712'78) plan in

Emile (1762), emphasized group rather than in-

dividual reeitation and focused on such participa'

tory activities as drawing, writing, singing, phys'

21

ical exercise, model making, collecting, map mak"

ing, and fie}d tv.'ips.6

Above all, "Object lesson" was advocated by Pestalozzi. In'

terestingly it was introduced into England as early as the

1820's, but was not widespread. ' Kay'Shuttleworth tried to devote himself to the Pesta"

lozzian policy of education and adopted "Object lesson" into

the original daily routine of Battersea Training School in

1841. As we have mentioned in the comparison between the

1841 routine and the 1845 routine, "Object lesson" was oMit-

ted in the 1845 routine after the training school was handed

over to the National Society. In the same way, "Object les'

son" was not included in the training sbhool curriculum of

Hard Times.

M'Choakumchild did not study "Object lesson." A}so, he

did not cultivate or experience "the performance of concrete

art$ and the experience of actual emotional responses," such

as "How to feed pigs, poultry, and milk cows," "physical ex'

ercise," and "field trips." Since M'Choakumchild did not

learn practical skills or experience such as participatory

activities, his teaching might wel} rely upon figures and fall

into "cold abstraction or generalization" which Sissy's warm

heart rejected.

Bitzer is an excellent pupil at Gradgrind's school.

Crammed with "cold abstraction or generalization," his heart

22

is thoroughly cold. In the opening schoolroom scene, when

Bitzer was told to defi'ne a horse, he answered:

"Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye"teeth, and

twelve incisive. Sheds coat in the spring; in mar'

shy countries, sheds hoofs, too. Hoofs hard, but

requiring to be shod with iron. Age known by

marks in mouth." Thus (and much more) Bitzer.

(7)

Truly he could give many facts about a horse. His definition

is not wrong at all. However, he only he knows many facts

about a horse in one-sided way. For example, his definition

does not include a horse's warmth, smells, movements, and so

on, which ordinary children would feel. His definition is

concerned withjust one aspect of a horse. He merely learns

many facts and much information by heart. In a sense,

therefore, his head is over"developed, while his heart re'

mains undeveloped. Bitzer's underdeveloped mind is wholly

unbalanced.

Bitzer's body is noteworthy as well. His body is ex-

ceedingly unwholesome and unanimated:

The boy [Bitzer] was so light'eyed and light'haired

that the self'same rays appeared to draw out of

him what color he ever possessed. His cold eyes

would hard}y have been eyes, but for the short ends

23

of lashes which, by bringing them into immediate

cont-Lnast witiifii sotvv.'ietiiAting paler tiifiian tiiAierr.]iselves, ex"

pressed their form. His short"cropped hair might

have been a mere continuation of the sandy freck"

les on his forehead and face. His skin was so un"

wholesomely deficient in the natural tinge, that he

looked as though, if he were cut, he would bleed

white. (7)

Bitzer's unwholesome body indicates that at Gradgrind's

school M'Choakumchild does not adopt "physical exercise"' or

"field trips" which Pestalozzi's curriculum emphasized.

Bitzer i$ no more sound in his body than in his mind. In this

sense, Bitzer is regarded as the antithesis of a midtVictorian

ideal, "A sound mind in a sound body."

Bitzer is regarded as a product or a victim of the un'

balanced education which M'Choakumchild gives. As his

name suggests appropriately, M'Choakumchild is a "chi}d's

spirit-`choaker.' "7 However, in a sense he is a product or a

victim of the unbalanced curriculum of the training school.

The training school's unbalanced curriculum produce such a

schoolmaster as M'Choakumchild, and he, in turn, produces

such an unwholesome boy as Bitzer.

The fundamental problem lies in the training school cur"

riculum. In Hard Times Dickens points out that the train"

ing school's unbalanced curriculum is a fatal flaw in the then

24

current reformed educational system in the mide19th century.

As far as iisiis view of the schsool ciurriculum is concerned, we

can say that Dickens maintains the Pestalozzian policy of

education, which Kay-Shuttleworth already adopted into the

original daily routine of Battersea Training School in 1841.

Four years after the publication of Hard Times, the New'

castle Commission criticized the training school principle and

observed that the course in training schoo}s tended to impart

information rather than to develop the faculties and to dis'

cipline the mind; the great feature of the course of study

pursued in training schoo}s was to cram.8

Graduates from Battersea Training Schooi seemed to

have a good reputation till KaytShuttleworth handed it over

to the National Society, but after that, those graduates came

to be regarded as full of knowledge "comparatively languid

and unbraced."9

In the Newcastle Commission one inspector suggested

that it would be far better if they could get schoo}masters

with less knowledge and more education and that qualified

schoolmasters tended to prefer to be in charge of higher level"

led subjects in higher grades leaving lower grades in pupil

teachers' hands.iO

Interesting}y this inspector's suggestion reminds us of

Dickens's critical remark that M'Choakumchild was "over"

done" and also of Sissy's feeling, "perhaps I tried to learn toe

25

much, and ... ifI asked to be allowed to try a little less, I

.m.ight have." (72)

Dickens's criticism on the training schools and qualified

schoolmasters in Hard Times was much to the point and anti-

cipated the investigation report of the Newcastle Commis-

sion.

26

Chapter M

"Another Thing Needful"i in Education

The problem of the training school's unbalanced cur"

riculum is closely connected with Gradgrind's philosophy.

Gradgrind declares his philosophy, or policy of education to

his children in the schoolroom at the beginning of Hard

Ti'mes:

"Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys

and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are J wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out

everything else. You can only form the minds of

reasoning animals upon Facts: nothing else will

ever be of any service to them. This is the prin-

ciple on which I bring up my own children, and

this is the principle on which I bring up these

chi}dren. Stick to Facts, sir!" (5)

For Gradgrind, `Facts' is "The One Thing Needful" (the title of

chapter 1 of book 1). He wants to teach the children no"

thing but facts. He wants them to stick to facts. He uses

the word. of`Facts' as many as five times in the short speech;

he intends to emphasize the importance of "Facts" through

frequent repetition, but too much repetition produces a con-

trary effect. We can say, "Ah, rather overdone, Gradgrind,"

27

after the example of Dickens's critical remark about M'Choa'

kumchild.

In the same way, the gentleman, who is regarded as an

inspector, as well as Gradgrind emphasizes "fact" and de-

cidedly rejects "fancy":

"But you mustn't fancy," cried the gentleman, quite

e}ated by coming so happily to his point. "That's

it! You are never to fancy."

"You are not, Cecilia Jupe," Thomas Grad-

grind solemnly repeated, "to do anything of that

kind."

"Fact, fact, fact!" said the gentleman. And

"Fact, fact, fact!" repeated Thomas Gradgrind. (9)

Here we can find the dichotomy between "fact" and "fancy."

This dichotomy is the fundamental structure of Hard Times.

All the elements of this novel are grouped into either of them,

and the story is developed into the sublation of this dichot'

omy ' that is, Gradgrind's philosophical conversion. It is

not until he finds the products of his educational philosophy

that he learns "Another Thing Needfu1."

Since their childhood, Gradgrind's children, Louisa and

Tom, have been already troubled with and complained about

their father's philosophy and teaching. For example, when

Louisa and Tom are taking a peep into a circus, their father

scolds (14) them and says to him:

28

"Thomas, though I have the fact before me, I find

it difficult to believe that you, with your educat;on

and resources, should have brought your sister to

a scene }ike this." (14)

Although Gradgrind has the fact before him, he can not be'

lieve that his son and daughter are taking a peep into a circus.

He can not understand the fact correctly. While they are

taken to their home, Louisa appeals:

"I was tired, father. I .have been tired a long

time " said Louisa. ' "Tired? Of what?" asked the astonished father.

"I don't know of what - of everything I

think." (14)

Gradgrind can not understand her appeal. At home Tom

grumbles about "all the Facts" and "all the Figures" that they

are crammed with:

"I wish I could collect all the Facts we hear so

much about," said Tom, spitefully setting his teeth,

"and all the Figures, and all the people who found

them out; and I wish I could put a thousand bar'

rels of gunpowder under them, and blow them all

up together! However, whenI go to live with old

Bounderby, I'11 have my revenge." (43)

To sum up, Gradgrind can not discern at all what their child"

ren' s speech and action meant, that is, their earnest needs

29

and desires.

Torr.]. grows into "quite a yoi.,.ng gentleman of pleasure"

(74). Bitzer, who gets a job in Bounderby's bank, notices

that Tom has stolen some money from the bank. When

Bitzer runs Tom down, Gradgrind is completely dejected and

entreats Bitzer to overlook Tom, but Bitzer rejects Grad'

grind's entreaty and displays decisively the result of what he

has mastered at Gradgrind's school:

"Bitzer," said Mr. Gradgrind, broken down, and

miserably submissive to him, "have you a heart? "

"The circulation, sir," returned Bitzer, smiling

at the oddity of the question, "couldn't be carried

on without one. No man, sir, acquainted with the

facts established by Harvey relating to the circu-

lation of the blood, can doubt that I have a heart."

"Is it accessible," cried Mr. Gradgrind, "to any

compassionate influence?"

"It is accessible to Reason, sir," returned the

excellent young man.

"And to nothing else." (213)

Gradgrind's daughter Louisa also shocks him about his

education. Louisa gets married to Bounderby unwillingly

because her father recommends her to do so, so that her bro-

ther can get ajob at the bank. Her married life is of course

not happy. When Harthouse tempts her, she escapes from

30

him and returns to her father for help:

"Al! that I know is, your philosophy and yoiL'.r

teaching wi}1 not save me. Now, father, you have

brought me to this. Save me by some other

means! "

He tightened his hold in time to prevent her

sinking on the floor, but she cried out in a terrible

voice, "I shall die if you hold me! Let me fall upon

the ground!" And he laid her down there, and

saw the pride of his heart and the triumph of his

system, lying, an insensible heap, at his feet.

(165)

Once Tom, Bitzer, and Louisa have grown up, they prove

that Gradgrind has been completely mistaken. Thus Grad-

grind grows to realize that "a wisdom of the Heart" is what he

has neglected:

"Some persons hold," he pursued, still hesitating,

"that there is a wisdom of the Head, and that there

is a wisdom of the Heart. I have not supposed so;

but, asIhave said,Imistrust myself now. Ihave

supposed the head to be all'sufficient. It may not

be all'sufficient; hew can I venture this morning to

say it is! If that other kind of wisdom should be

what I have neglected, and should be the instinct

that is wanted, Louisa-." (168)

31

Here is described the conversion of Gradgrind from a keen

a(lvocatav of "a wisdem of the Head" to a si.,.pporter of harmony

between "a wisdom of the Head" and "a wisdom of the Heart."

M'Choakumchild was boastfu1 of his teaching ability:

"Bring to me, says M'Choakumchild, yonder baby

just able to walk, and I will engage that it shall

never wonder." (41)

The converted Gradgrind would never employ a schoolmaster

like M'Choakumchild at his school. In other words, Grad'

grind humanizes his former utilitarian philosophy of "Facts"

and "Figure,"2 so that he can acknowledge Slearly's phi'

losbphy:

"People mustn't be amuthed. They can't be

alwayth a learning, nor yet they can't be alwayth

a working, they an't made for it. You mutht have

uth, Thquire. Do the with thing and the kind

thing too, and make the betht of uth; not the

wurtht!" (218)

In Gradgrind's conversion and Slearly's philosophy we can

find Dickens's enlightened and humanistic view of education.

Also we can find that Dickens's criticism on the training

school's unbalanced curriculum, which has been pointed out

in the preceding chapter, springs from this humanistic view

of education.

In conclusion, we can say that in Hard avmes Dickens

32

maintains the sublation of the dichotomy between "Figures""

"Facts"'"a wisdAvrr.i. of the Head" and "Wonder"'"Fancy"-"a

wisdom of the Heart." In plain words, he ascertains the

importance of a harmonious balance between body and mind,

and between head and heart. In this sense, Dickens aims at

education for a well'rounded person; that is to say, the integ"

ration of intellectual, moral, and physical education. This

concept of education is far froM old'fashioned, but a funda'

mental and universal ideal which we should make greater

efforts to attain in our times.

33

Conclusion

The schoolroom of Gradgrind's school has a gallery and

simultaneous instruction is given there. The presence of a

gallery and simultaneous instruction indicate that Grad"

grind's school was a modern and reformed type in the 1850's.

Dickens seems to have no criticism against the structure of

the schoolroom and the teaching method of simultaneous in-

struction. It is the schoolmaster, M'Choakumchild, and his

lessons that Dickens regards as a serious problem.

M'Choakumchild is described as a new type of schoolmas'

ter in the mid"19th century. He is one of the first school'

masters who was admitted to one of the newly built training

schools in 1851 and graduated from it in 1853; he is a product

of the educational reform of the 1840's and the 1850's in Eng'

land. His teaching relies upon figures too much; his teach'

ing at Gradgrind's school is as "overdone" as his learning at

the training school. In other words, his teaching and learn'

ing are one'sided and lacking in balance.

Bitzer is an excellent pupil at Gradgrind's school.

Crammed with "cold abstraction or generalization," his heart

is thoroughly cold. His unwholesome body indicates that at

Gradgrind's school M'Choakumchild does not adopt "physical

exercise" or "field trips" which Pestalozzi's curriculum em'

phasized. Bitzer's body is no more sound than his mind. In

34

this sense, Bitzer is regarded as the antithesis of a mid'

Victorian jdeal, "A sound mind in a sound body."

Bitzer is a product, or a victim, of the unbalanced educa'

tion which M'Choakumchild has given. As his name sug"

gests rightly, M'Choakumchild is a "child's spirit'`choker.' "

In a sense, however, he himself is a product, or a victim, of

the one"sided curriculum of the training school. The

training school's curriculum produces such a schoolmaster as

M'Choakumchild, and he, in turn, produces such an unwhole"

some boy as Bitzer.

In Dickens's opinion, the fundamental source of the prob"

lem lies in the training school curriculum. The training

school's unbalanced curriculum is a fatal flaw in the con'

temporary reformed educational system. As far as his view

of the school curriculum is concerned, we can say that Dic'

kens maintains the Pestalozzian policy of education, which

Kay'Shuttleworth already incorporated into the original dai'

ly routine of Battersea Training School in 1841.

The problem of the training school's unbalanced cur-

riculum is closely connected with Gradgrind's philosophy.

Gradgrind eventually undergoes a conversion from a keen ad'

vocate of "a wisdom of the Head" to a supporter of harmony

between "a wisdom of the Head" and "a wisdom of the Heart."

In other words, he humanizes his former utilitarian philosot

phy of "Facts" and "Figures."

35

Thus Dickens insists upon the sublation of the dichotomy

be+.ween "Figiu,res"'"F.q.cts"""a wisdo.r.n. of the Head," and "W, on"

der"""Fancy"""awisdom ofthe Heart." He ascertains the im'

portance of a harmonious balance between body and mind,

and between head and heart. As an ideal, Dickens believes

in education for a well'rounded person; that is to say, the

integration of intellectual, moral, and physical education.

This concept of education is far from old"fashioned, but a

fundamental and universal ideal which we should still make

great efforts to attain in our times. As a novel about edu"

cation, Hard Times is even now today worth reading and

studying, since it is filled with useful and profound sug'

gestions for approaching fundamental and essential problems

of education.

In this paper, I dealt with the curriculums ofthe training

schools in the 1840's and the1850's; it is necessary that the

training school curriculums of the 1860's and the 1870's

should be analyzed, of which I am going to make a further

study in the future.

36

Notes

Introduction

1 Herbart Sussman, "Industrial," A Companion to Vie-

torian Literature and CuZture, ed. Herbert E Tueker (Ox'

ford: Blackwell. 1999) 251.

2 Harriet Martineau, "The Eaetory LegisIatione' A

Warning Against Meddling Legislation (Manchester, 1855),"

in Hard Times, ed. Fred Kaplan and Sylvere Monod (New

Yerk; Norton, 20el) 310.

3 John Ruskin, "A Note on Hard Times," (London, 1862),

Hard Times, ed. Fred Kaplan and Sylvere Moned (New

York; 2001) 356.

4 F. R. Leavis, The Great Z}Tadition (Lendon: Penguin,

1948) 279.

5 Cf. David Lodge, Language of Fietion-' Essays in

Critieism and Verbal Analysis of the Engfish Novel, 2nd ed.

(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984) 145 .

Chapter I

1 CharlesDickens, Hard Times (New York: Nerten,

2001) 63. Page references for quotation from this novel are to

this edition.

2 Laura Nove, "Education, Elementary," VietoriaR Bri"

tain: An Eneyelepedia, ed. Sally Mitchel (New York: Gar"

37

land, 1988) 241.

3 !ndjvidiv,.al inst•riv,.ct•ion means tthati "tJhe dominant,

pedagogy comprises the `individualized' (i.e. in tum) pro'

cessing of learners" (David Hamilton, Towards a Theory of

Sehooling [London: Falmer, 1989] 109).

4 Richard D. Altic, Vietorian People and ldeas (New

York: Nerton, 1973) 157.

5 Hamilton5.

6 Hamilton15.

7 It is necessary to discriminate between schoolrooms

and classrooms. "A schoolroom is a room in which a school is

held" ("Schoolroom," 0ED). Aclassroom is "a room, as in a

school or college, in which classes are held" ("Classroom," The

Random House Dictionary of the English Language,unabridged ed. 1973). The date ofthe earliest citation ofthe

word "classroom" in The 0xford English Dietionary is 1870.

8 Hamilton le4.

9 Hamilton 101.

10 Hamilton 104.

11 Hamilton 100.

12 According to the Minutes ofAugust and December,

1846, there are descriptions about "Queen's Scholar" as fol-

lows:

...the Lord President authorized one or more ofHer

Majesty's Inspectors, together with the Principal of

38

a Normal Schoel under inspection, te submit to his

Lerdv.s• hip, fropa.- ameng t•he .nupil teacher.s w..hay had

suceessfu11y terminated their apprenticeship, a

certain number ofthose who, upen competition in a

public examination, to be annually held by such

Inspectors and Prineipal in each Inspector's dis"

trict, might be found most proficient in their

studies and skilfu1 in the art of teaching, and con'

cerning whose character and zeal for the offiee of

teachers the Inspeetor of the distriet could give the

mest favourable report.

t------t---------t---------e------------t"------i-------

... the pupil teachers to whom such exhibitions

should be awarded. should be thenceforth denomi'

nated `Queen's Scholars.' (James Kay'Shuttleworth,

Four Periods of Public Edueation [London: Rout`

ledge and Thommes, 1993] 538.)

Chapter ll

l Harunobu Miyoshi, Igirisu Koukyouiku no Rekishi"

teki Kouzou (Tokyo: Aki Shobou, 1984) 185.

2 H. C. Barnard} A Short Htstory ofEngZish Educatiott,

from Z760 to Z944 (Lendon: Lendon UP, 1947) 117.

3 John Lawson, A Soein1 History in England (London:

Methuen, 1973) 285.

39

4 JamesKay-Shuttleworth,FourPeriodsofPublieEdu'eation (London: Rout]edge and Thoemmes, 1993) u62, 363.

5 John Lawson, A Soeial History in England (Lendon:

Methuen, 1973) 289.

6 "Petslozzi, Johann Heinrich <b. Jan. 12, 1746. Zu'

rich '--in d. Feb. 17, 1827, Brugg, Switz.)," The New Eneyele-

paedia Britanniea: Maeropaedia, 15th ed. 1985.

7 Jane Vogel, Allegory in Diekens (Alabama: U ofAla'

bama P, 1977) 43.

8 John Manning, Diekens on Edueation (Toronto: To'

ronto UP, 1959) 150.

9 PhilipCollins,DiekensandEdueation (Londen:

Macmillan, 1936) 151.

10 Asher Tropp, The Sehoof Teaehers: The Growth of

the Teaehing Profession in England and J7Vales from 1800 to

the Present Da.v (New York: Macmillan, 1965) 102.

Chapter M

1 The title ofchapter 1 ofbook 3 of Hard Times.

2 As Gradgrind himself recognizes, when utilitarian

education is put into practice, onlv. "a wisdom ofthe Head" is

emphasized and "a wisdom of the Heart" is often neglected.

David Lodge also remarks in his critical essay of Hard Times

as fo11ows: "The dominant philosophy of utilitarianism, par-

ticularly as it expresses itself in education, results in a dama-

4e

ging impoverishment ef the moral and

indiviA-uia!" (Led`.re 145).

emotional life of the

41

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