Sheltered Content InstructionTeaching ELL with Diverse Abilities

Eschevarria & Graves (2007)

Student profile

• Students perform in school at # rates.• Teachers need to consider individual situations

in order to provide the best education?• Professional parents x migrant workers• Refugee camp x private tutor• Recent immigrant x US born• Primary language instruction support

• Grade level learner x gaps in the learning• Although very broad when in the school reality

the students fall under four categories:• Balanced bilingual, monolingual/literate in NL,

monolingual/preliterate in NL and limited bilingual.

• Important to evaluate ELL in native and English knowledge school experience, academic background and learning and behavior patterns

NL knowledge

• Students NL development range from low proficiency to above grade level skills in oral, reading and writing

• NL fluent + developed age appropriate skills=increased opportunities in developing language and literacy skills in English (Baca & Cervantes, 2004; Cummins, 1989;Lewelling & Peyton,1999;Reading and Writing language arts framework, 2000)

Program options• Sheltered Instruction – academic subject matter comprehensible while

developing English proficiency• Transitional Bilingual Education- uses native language to support

academic learning, may use sheltered approach to teach nonacademic subjects, student expected to make full transition in grade 3

• Developmental Bilingual Education-aims to capitalize on the benefits that result from full development of student’ NL (Cummins,1996). Students receive bilingual instruction throughout school life.

• Two-way immersion- 50/50 exposure. All students can be native-language models and second-language learners

• Newcomer programs-typically designed for middle and high. The goal is to acculturate students to life in US, assist them in acquiring beginning ELS and to develop core academic skills and knowledge.

English-Language Knowledge• CALP – cognitive/academic language proficiency• BICS- basic interpersonal communication skill(Jim Cummins, 2003, 1994, 1989, 1981)• Critics to Cummins’s ideas:Edelsky,1991;Romaine,1989;Rivera,1984;Troike,1984.

Baker(1993)calls BICS/CALP an oversimplification of the reality of the complexity of language competence. Research indicates that language competencies are influenced by a number of factors such as motivation and environment and are constantly evolving and interacting also distinct levels of language proficiency lacks empirical support.

• In spite of its limitations Cummins’s ideas are still widely accept because it provides a general understanding of student’s language needs and explicitly states that good command of spoken English can be deceiving and not translate into readiness for academic instruction in English.

• Assessment_ home language survey- gathers info on language usage in family settings and outside school.

• Native language proficiency evaluation- (Language Assessment Scale(LAS) and Idea Proficiency Test (IPT))

• Bias in assessment instruments and interpretation of results have been reported.

INSTRUCTION• Instruction programs are often based on some variation of the natural approach

(Krashen&Terrel,1983) It assumes that students acquire a second language in stages as it happens in the first language. It is believed that students have more receptive ability than expressive so the learning environment is built around a non-threatening, motivating language learning experience.

• Stages• Preproduction- communication mainly through gestures and actions (TPR)is used.• Early production- one or two words and short phrases, receptive vocabulary

developing, knows about a thousand words, can answer why, what, where questions limited

• Speech emergence- longer and complete phrases/sentences. May experience frustration. Able to contribute to discussions.

• Intermediate fluency- appear to be fluent, engage in conversations and produce connected narrative, contextual language support is critical for academic tasks

Intervention-3 tiered model

• Tier 1 – all students, preventive, proactive, core instructional

• Tier 2 – at risk students, high efficiency, rapid response, targeted group

• Tier 3 – individual students, assessment-based, high intensity of longer duration

Theoretical and Historical Foundations

• Due to the increasing number of ELL students in US schools there has been a need of qualified professional to address the students needs. In many states the ESL program does not go past teaching some English neglecting completely the importance of content learning. Teacher preparation programs as the ones established in Arizona and California still fails to prepare professionals in teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students (Crawford,1993;Zeichner,1993)

Theory to Practice• Humanistic learning theory- desires to allow students to build good interaction and feel

good about themselves. The affective well-being of the student is central in this approach. The focus of education is personality development, consideration and cooperation are the pillars. Cons-this approach may rob st. of direct explicit instruction needed to meet standards. Tendency to lower expectations for ELLs.

• Theorists – Carl Rogers’ personality theory; Abraham Maslow’ hierarchy of needs; Ericson’s stages of psychological development, Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning; Marsh and Shavelson’s structure of self-concept; Woolfork’s affective domain.

• Developmental learning theory- development occurs naturally in stages. (Woolfolk,2004)Stages appears gradually and develop at different rates in # people. Inborn factors account to ability development. Students are not pushed or forced to skip a stage. They each follow their own pace. Cons- it may overlook st. ability to move to higher level of achievement because of language constrains rather than development stage readiness.

• See Sternberg and Williams for implications for teaching. Piaget for development of thinking and Vygotsky for theories of language development, general linguistic development and reading development.

• Social Interactionist Learning Theory- influenced by Vygotsky (1978) sociocultural view of learning considers the influence adults and older peers have in learning especially when modeling and using language to facilitate learning. Vygotsky viewed language as a child’s first tool for social interaction so the encounter with more capable others could provide the right amount of info and support to promote intellectual growth. Cons – some skills, content, info may be better learned if presented in a more explicit way rather than through discussion.

• Cognitive Learning Theory- there is no one learning theory. Cognitivists focus on factors as kinds of knowledge, information process model of learning; including perception, attention, memory, metacognition; dicovery learning; learning strategies and problem solving (Woolfolk,2004). Cognitive psychologists believe that people are active learners that initiates experiences, seek info to solve problems and reorganize knowledge to achieve new insights. Cons- difficult for ELL if they lack vocab as this approach requires a lot of language interaction. ELL benefits better from routines and structures that clue them into the teacher’s expectation.

• Behavioral Learning Theory – learning is manifested through behavioral changes that are observable and measured. Language is a skill as any other we learn. Language is learned by presented in a an attractive way and st. being rewarded once language occurs. Most know approach is operant conditioning( change behavior by manipulating antecedents and consequences) Cons- it tends to be teacher controlled leaving little space for learning through interaction and discussion. Inquiry and discovery learning are lost when lessons are teacher dominant.

Theories in 2 language acquisition• There are a number of important theories of second language acquisition

(Baker,1993;McLaughlin,1987), but the must cited is of Stephen Krashen. The monitor model comprises of 5 hypothesis :acquisition-learning, natural order, monitor, input and affective filter.

• Cummins’s contributions – As Crawford (1991) states, “Cummins’s contributions to understanding the relationship between first and second language development shattered a number of misconceptions about bilingualism”(p.105).

• BICS/CALP distinction that Cummins now refers to as conversational and academic language proficiency. He also offers other two notions relate to the distinction in language use: linguistic interdependence model and the range of communicative demands.

• Linguistic interdependence hypothesis- cognitive-academic learning done in L1 will transfer to L2.

• Communicative tasks- may be easier or more difficult depending on how it is designed and presented to the learner. Contextual support x xCognitive demands.

Factors that affect SLA• Snow (1992) said that, second language acquisition is a very complex process, its success or failure will not be

explained by a single factor or theory.”• Motivation, age, access to language, personality, first-language development, quality of instruction and cognitive

abilities are some factors that need to be taken into consideration.• Fillmore(1985)defends that recognizing the need to learn a second language and being motivated to do so are

ingredients to SLL.• Baker(1992)discusses two types of motivation: integrative(joining a language group, for example) and

instrumental(learning a SL for practical reasons).• The first involves developing personal relationships that are potentially long lasting so it may contribute for one to

become language proficient; and the second hat may not be as effective because tends to involve short-term goals.• Optimal age to learn a SL is still debatable, but recent research has indicated that younger learners have an

advantage in learning that is they are free from personality issues such as self-consciousness, mental rigidity, desire for perfect pronunciation. On the other hand adults may respond better to learning because they have advanced cognitive abilities and a larger repertoire of learning strategies. (Snow, 1992; Krashen, ,1982; Cummins, 1980)

• It means more than simply contact with native speakers of the target language. Learning will occur if successful exchanges with contextual clues to make the message understandable.(Snow,1992)

• Although extroverts seem to have a go on learning a SL there is no way to base long term language learning differences on introversion or extroversion. According to Fillmore,1985) the risk taker may have an advantage on becoming proficient in a SL.

Quality of instruction and Cognitive Ability

• The level of instruction that the student will receive will impact learning outcomes. The daily routines, level of lesson prep., expectations of the students, use of teaching behaviors, instructional strategies, knowledge of the subject matter, understanding of the sociocultural factors and techniques for modifying instruction for ELL students will influence the language acquisition.

• Important cognitive processes in SLA are related to general cognitive abilities such as verbal memory, auditory perception, and categorization. Individuals with low cognitive abilities may learn a SL but proficiency levels will be equal or lower than those in first language.

SI in the content areas

• Although many teachers claim that SI is no more than good teaching and that they are already doing that, it is important to know that SI encompasses much more.

• Features that make SI more than simply good teaching: wait time, key vocabulary, adapted content, language objectives, clarification in L1, appropriate speech for proficiency level, supplementary materials, student background experience.

Ways to make content understandable

• The use of modeling, hands-on manipulatives, realia, commercially made pictures, teacher-made pictures, overhead projector, demonstration, multimedia, timelines, graphs, bulletin boards and maps help student understand content.

• One of SI benefits is that students are exposed to good models of English language while having the opportunity to practice language in academic settings.

Considerations for st. with learning disabilities

• Provide abundant guided practice for acquisition of concepts

• Adjust the pace of instruction• Allow extra time for task completion• Praise st’s efforts• Partner students w/ others sensitive to their

learning needs.• Provide alternative activities.

Affective issues• Provide reading and writing activities that promote success.• Ample practice and careful corrections• Focus on relevant background knowledge• Actively involve learners• Use alternate grouping strategies• Provide native language support • Focus on content and activities that are meaningful• Create roles in the classroom for family and community

members• Hold high expectations for all learners• Be responsive to cultural and personal diversity.

Learning Strategies• Learning strategy is a series of steps that can be repeated over

and over to solve a problem or complete a task. Some sts. Develop strategies of their own(Eschevarria&Graves,2003). The teacher needs to explicitly teach strategies when they do not develop it on their own. Learning strategy may be delivered through a mini lesson (15 min.) daily on the strategy. This process allows sts. To learn the strategy in a controlled practice situation. Learning strategy can be used in thinking, writing, reading and in content areas as well for language acquisition. Strategies can enhance language acquisition and SL listening and thinking skills.

Guidelines for Selecting a Learning Strategy

• First determine the knowledge or proficiency level of the student (traditional(Diagnostic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills; Curriculum Based Measurement)) and nontraditional (read few lines out loud) tests. Second determine the strategies that the student would use most (do not overload them with strategies. Stick to the essential). Begin by teaching the simplest and easier strategies first and introduce them in order. Finally use simple wording and few steps when teaching it.

• Research indicates that explicit instruction in learning strategy facilitate and improve proficiency for sts. With learning and behavioral challenges and for language(Gersten &Baker, 2000; Chamot and O’Malley,1994)

• Explicit instruction is :Sound lesson structure (opening, body, closing)+lesson preparation + extensive teacher-student interaction=enhanced learning.

Curriculum adaptation• Demonstrate sensitivity to cultural and linguistic diversity. Making lessons culturally relevant is described as

culturally and linguistically responsive teaching (Graves,1995,1998)• Provide relevant background knowledge (have a brainstorm at the beginning of the lesson to encourage them to

share what they already know about the topic; provide videos, internet resources, field trips, etc..)• Analyze material into content knowledge(determine important concepts for grade level and discard non-essential

details. Planning involves linking critical concepts and ideas into meaningful, connected units that build upon each other) and academic proficiency( talking, listening, reading, writing, thinking and studying are academic proficiency skills that are necessary for success in school (Genese et al.,200; Graves,1987) Objectives for each lesson may be divided in 3 categories: language skills, content skills and thinking/study skills (Short, 1994)

• Include language development and content vocabulary development activities (As ELL sts need adequate preparation for the content material, language and content vocabulary development are crucial for success(MsLaughlin,1992; Cummins,1989)

• Modify texts (graphing depiction, outlining the text, rewriting the text, using audiotapes, providing live demonstrations, using alternate books)

• Modify assignments (simplify objectives, sts draw maps or pictorial rep., pair and small group oral discussions reduce complexity and length of assignments.)

• Study resource guides (maximize use of visual aids and other materials)• Facilitates curriculum adaptation (teachers can develop methods to facilitate curriculum adaptation that avoid

excessive consumption of time: sts rewrite texts, highlighting main points, and cooperative effort among teachers in order to maximize outcomes.)

Adjusting discourse to enhance learning

• “It is not only the quantity of exposure to language that affects learning but the quality, as well.”(Wong-Fillmore&Valadez,1986)

• Research has shown that in most classrooms sts have little opportunity to use language in a variety of ways. In a teacher dominated setting teachers tend to offer a “ passive language learning environment, limiting sts opportunities to produce language and develop more complex language and thinking skills.” (Ramirez, Yuen, Ramey,& Pasta, 1991)

The Discourse of Sheltered Instruction

• Sentence length and complexity of sentence structure(syntax) should be controlled.• Speech should be at natural but slower rate than normal, and enunciation should be

clear.• Use of idioms should be avoided, or meanings should be made clear.• High-frequency vocab should be chosen when possible, and vocab range should be

controlled.• Full referents should be used rather than pronouns.• Emphasis should be placed on key words, phrases, and concepts by intonation or by

using pauses to set them apart from surrounding material.• The same words and phrases should be repeated several times instead of using a

variety of expressions.• Direct rather indirect questions should be used.• Instructions should convey one idea or action each and should be presented in

correct, temporal sequence.• Repetition, restatements, and redundant grammatical structures should be used.

Instructional Conversations• The teacher implements components of sheltered instruction to enhance

comprehension of the subject matter while delivering whole group instruction. Small group though can provide much more individualized engagement in meaningful discourse. Instructional conversation is one approach to be used.

• The goal of IC is to create rich language opportunities for sts during which they can think, reflect, express ideas, and argue positions as they develop new understanding around a text.

• Theoretical roots of IC are found in the works of Vygotsky(1978,1962). His writings place great importance on the role of social context and verbal scaffolding. Vygotsky call language a vehicle of intellectual development, and he suggests that a great deal of development is scaffolded by a more competent person.

• According to Tharp and Gallimore (1988) sts who do not perform well in school (minorities, children of poverty) need language and literacy development conversations in school and through IC sts can achieve it.

10 elements that provide a framework for teachers in planning and implementing ICs in

their classrooms• Thematic focus• Activation and use of background knowledge and relevant

schemata• Direct teaching• Promotion of more complex language and expression• Elicitation od bases for statements or positions• Fewer know-answer questions• Being responsive to student contributions• Connected discourse• A challenge but nonthreatening atmosphere• General participation, including self –selected turns

Self-eval and collaborative implementation

• Adequate teacher preparation and support are critical and yet in short supply. Research suggests that well-prepared teachers have a greater impact on st achievement than do the influences of st background factors such as poverty, language, minority status (Darling-Hammond,2000). Here are some prep guidelines for teachers:

• Understand the subject matter deeply and flexibly• Know about learning (teaching strategies, decision-making strategies about the content

to cover and the best way to do so, assessment strategies, language acquisition theory)• Know about curriculum resources and technologies• Know about collaboration-their collaboration with other teachers, sts collaborating

together and collaborating with parents• Be able to analyze and reflect on their practice, to assess the effects of their teaching,

and to refine and improve their instruction.• An important element of teaching ELLs is for teachers to engage in reflection, goal

setting, and collaboration with others who can lend support, contribute fresh ideas and assist in analyzing ways to improve sts comprehension.