The Shell Bitumen Handbook

Fifth Edition

The authors

Dr John Read

John began his career working for a consultant testing housebefore moving on to Lafarge Aggregates. After a period oftime running asphalt plants on mobile contracts he beganstudying for his PhD at the University of Nottingham andafter graduating he was appointed as a full time academicmember of staff.

In 1997 John became the Technical Manager for CrodaBitumen where he was responsible for managing both theQC and R&D laboratories and in 1998 John became the Tech-nical Development Engineer for Shell Bitumen where he was

responsible for the development and commercialisation of new innovative products.He was also involved in the day-to-day support of customers.

John is currently the Cluster Technology Manager for Shell Bitumen with responsibil-ity for supplying technical services within the UK and Ireland.

John sits on many asphalt and bitumen related committees and has published over 50technical papers, publications and articles.

Mr David Whiteoak

David has worked in the road construction industry for over 30years. He began his career with Lothian Regional Councilworking in a wide variety of areas, from traffic managementto site supervision. In 1977 he left Lothian Region to studyCivil Engineering at Heriot-Watt University graduating witha BSc Honours Degree in 1980.

He joined Shell in 1980 working in the Bitumen Group atThornton Research Centre where he investigated variousaspects of the performance of bitumen and asphalt, carryingout technical service activity for customers and the develop-ment of new products including Cariphalte DM.

In 1986 he joined the technical department of Shell Bitumen UK and it was during thistime that David wrote the 4th edition of the Shell Bitumen Handbook. Following thepublication of the handbook in 1990 David had a three-year assignment in the Elastomersgroup of Shell International Chemical Company before returning to Shell Bitumen as theTechnical Manager in 1994.

David is currently the New Technology Manager for Shell Bitumen responsible for anumber of activities including the execution of technical service and R&D activity carriedout at the Pavement Research Building. This is a purpose-built laboratory established inconjunction with the University of Nottingham and opened September 2001.

The Shell BitumenHandbookFifth Edition

Published for Shell Bitumen by

Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD

www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400

Japan:Maruzen Co. Ltd, BookDepartment, 3–10 Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103

Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria

This title has been previously published as

Mexphalte Handbook, First Edition, 1949

Mexphalte Handbook, Second Edition, JarmanA.W. (ed), Shell-Mex and B.P. Ltd, London, 1955

Mexphalte Handbook, Third Edition, 1963

The Shell Bitumen Handbook, Fourth Edition,Whiteoak, D., Shell Bitumen UK, Chertsey, 1990

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 3220 X

# Shell UK Oil Products Limited, 2003

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,

without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,

Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the state-

ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that

such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. While

every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in

this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted

in this respect by the authors or publishers.

Typeset by Academic þ Technical Typesetting

Printed and bound in Great Britain by The University Press, Cambridge

Foreword

In editing the text of this book, I have had considerable assistance frommany people. They are listed in the acknowledgements. However, anumber of people warrant special mention. David Rockliff of Rock40Cand Ian Walsh of Babtie were pestered by me on a number of occasionsand always responded with expertise, courtesy and efficiency and I amvery grateful to these two giants of the industry. However, there aretwo other gentleman without whom this enterprise would never havebeen completed. The first is Dr John Read who never failed to helpme through either his own encyclopaedic knowledge or his vast networkof contacts on the many occasions when I needed answers or text orwhatever. The other is the main reason why this book came intobeing, Dave Whiteoak. Dave is known in our industry as the font ofknowledge on all subjects associated with bitumen. In addition, allwho have met him consider him to be the nicest guy you could wishto meet. He produced the 1990 edition and without him this new bookand the opportunity which it affords all of us to enhance our knowledgeof asphalt technology would simply not exist.Whilst editing this text, I was constantly reminded of the enormous

contribution which has been made by Shell Bitumen to asphalt tech-nology. Indeed, this book demonstrates that continued commitment.This new edition reflects many of the very significant advances whichhave taken place in the period since the last edition was published. Iam confident that you will feel that this is a worthy addition to yourasphalt book shelf.

Dr Robert N HunterTechnical EditorNovember 2003

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Acknowledgements

John and David would personally like to acknowledge all of the help given to themin writing this book by their colleagues in the Shell European Bitumen TechnicalTeam:

Mr Theo TerlouwDr Martin VodenhofMr Pierre-Jean Cerino

Mr Eivind Olav AndersenMr Koen SteernbergMr Mike Southern

The authors and editor also wish to gratefully acknowledge the contributionsmade by the following people:

Mr Fredrik AkessonMr John AtkinsMr John Baxter of the Road Surface

Dressing AssociationMr Andy BroomfieldDynapac International High Comp

Centre, SwedenMr Jack Edgar of Hunter & EdgarMr Terry FabbMr Jeff FarringtonMr Derek FordyceDr Mike GibbMr Ray GuthrieDr Tony Harrison of the Refined

Bitumen AssociationMr Bryan HaytonMs Delia HarversonMr Alistair JackMr Colin Loveday of TarmacMr John Moore of Gencor

International LtdDr Cliff Nicholls of TRL Ltd

Dr Mike NunnMr Tony PakenhamMr Mike PhillipsMr John Richardson of

Colas LimitedMr David Rockliff of Rock40CMr Robert Thomas of the Institution

of Civil Engineers LibraryDr Todd ScholeMr Martin SchoutenMr Andrew Scorer of Miles

Macadam LtdMr Andy SelfMr Dave StricklandMr Nick ToyMr Colin UnderwoodMr Willem VonkMr Ian Walsh of BabtieMr Maurice White of the Quarry

Products AssociationProfessor Alan WoodsideDr David Woodward

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Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Preamble 11.2 The earliest uses of bituminous binders 11.3 The growth of bitumen consumption in

Europe 21.4 Sources of binder 3

Chapter 2 Manufacture, storage, handling and

environmental aspects of bitumens 11

2.1 The manufacture of bitumen 112.2 Delivery, storage and handling temperatures

of bitumens 162.3 Health, safety and environmental aspects of

bitumens 20

Chapter 3 Constitution, structure and rheology of

bitumens 29

3.1 Bitumen constitution 293.2 Bitumen structure 353.3 The relationship between constitution

and rheology 373.4 The relationship between broad chemical

composition and physical properties 38

Chapter 4 Specifications and quality of bitumens 43

4.1 Penetration grade bitumens 434.2 Oxidised bitumens 454.3 Hard bitumens 464.4 Cutback bitumens 464.5 Bitumen quality 474.6 The CEN bitumen specifications 544.7 The SHRP/SUPERPAVE bitumen

specification 54

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Chapter 5 Polymer modified and special bitumens 61

5.1 The role of bitumen modifiers in asphalt 625.2 The modification of bitumen 645.3 Multigrade bitumens 815.4 Pigmentable binders 845.5 Fuel-resisting binders 865.6 Thermosetting binders 875.7 Cost–performance relationships for modified

binders 89

Chapter 6 Bitumen emulsions 91

6.1 Emulsifiers 926.2 The manufacture of bitumen emulsions 966.3 Properties of bitumen emulsions 976.4 Classification and specification of bitumen

emulsions 1066.5 Modification of bitumen emulsion properties 1076.6 Uses of bitumen emulsions 1116.7 Bibliography 117

Chapter 7 Mechanical testing and properties of bitumens 119

7.1 Standard specification tests for bitumens 1197.2 The Fraass breaking point test 1247.3 Viscosity 1257.4 The bitumen test data chart 1297.5 Temperature susceptibility –

penetration index (PI) 1367.6 Engineering properties of bitumen 1377.7 Other bitumen tests 152

Chapter 8 Durability of bitumens 157

8.1 Bitumen hardening 1578.2 Hardening of bitumen during storage, mixing

and in service 1598.3 Bitumen ageing tests 168

Chapter 9 Adhesion of bitumens 171

9.1 The principal factors affectingbitumen/aggregate adhesion 171

9.2 The main disbonding mechanisms 1749.3 Methods of measuring and assessing

adhesion 1779.4 Improving bitumen/aggregate adhesion 185

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Chapter 10 Influence of bitumen properties on the

performance of asphalts 189

10.1 The influence of bitumen properties duringconstruction 191

10.2 The influence of bitumen properties on theperformance of asphalts in service 195

Chapter 11 Aggregates in asphalts 219

11.1 Origins and types of rock 21911.2 Aggregate extraction 22211.3 The European aggregate Standard 222

Chapter 12 Types and applications of different asphalts 231

12.1 Coated macadams 23412.2 Hot rolled asphalt 23812.3 Thin surfacings 23912.4 Choice of asphalts on major carriageways 242

Chapter 13 Specification, composition and design of asphalts 245

13.1 Recipe specifications for bases and bindercourses 246

13.2 Recipe specifications for surface courses 25013.3 Design of bases and binder courses 25513.4 Design of surface courses 25913.5 Guidance on the selection of mixtures 265

Chapter 14 Asphalt production plants 267

14.1 Types of mixing plant 26814.2 The addition of recycled asphalt pavement 27514.3 Additive systems 27614.4 Production control testing of asphalts 276

Chapter 15 Transport, laying and compaction of asphalts 279

15.1 Transportation 27915.2 Use of tack coats 27915.3 Pavers 28015.4 Additional screed systems 28515.5 Paving operations 28615.6 Compaction 29215.7 Specification and field control 302

Chapter 16 Testing of asphalts 305

16.1 Fundamental tests 307

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16.2 Simulative tests 32216.3 Empirical tests 32916.4 Determination of recovered bitumen properties 332

Chapter 17 Properties of asphalts 337

17.1 Stiffness of asphalts 33717.2 Permanent deformation of asphalts 34017.3 Fatigue characteristics of asphalts 344

Chapter 18 Design of flexible pavements 351

18.1 The importance of stiffness 35318.2 The structural elements of a flexible pavement 35318.3 Factors involved in pavement design 35618.4 Empirical and semi-empirical pavement design 35818.5 Analytical pavement design using the

Shell Pavement Design Method 366

Chapter 19 Surface dressing and other specialist treatments 371

19.1 Surface dressing 37119.2 Slurry surfacings/microsurfacings 40319.3 High-friction surfaces 40619.4 Foamed bitumen 40719.5 Application of a coloured surface treatment 41119.6 Recycling asphalts 41319.7 Grouted macadams 415

Chapter 20 Other important uses of bitumens and asphalts 419

20.1 Airfield pavements 41920.2 Railway applications 42420.3 Bridges 42620.4 Recreational areas 42720.5 Motor racing tracks 42820.6 Vehicle testing circuits 42820.7 Hydraulic applications 42920.8 Coloured surfacings 43020.9 Kerbs 432

Appendix 1 Physical constants of bitumens 433

A1.1 Specific gravity 433A1.2 Coefficient of cubical expansion 433A1.3 Electrical properties 433A1.4 Thermal properties 436

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Appendix 2 Conversion factors for viscosities 437

Appendix 3 Blending charts and formulae 438

Appendix 4 Calculation of bitumen film thickness in

an asphalt 442

Index 445

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Shell Bitumen’s polymer modified plant at Stanlow, Cheshire, UK

The Shell Bitumen Handbook

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