BAR International Series 2410 2012

Homines, Funera, Astra Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Funerary Anthropology 5-8 June 2011

‘1 Decembrie 1918’ University (Alba Iulia, Romania)

Edited by

Raluca KogălniceanuRoxana-Gabriela Curcă

Mihai GligorSusan Stratton

Published by

ArchaeopressPublishers of British Archaeological ReportsGordon House276 Banbury RoadOxford OX2 7EDEnglandbar@archaeopress.comwww.archaeopress.com

BAR S2410

Homines, Funera, Astra: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Funerary Anthropology. 5-8 June 2011, ‘1 Decembrie 1918’ University (Alba Iulia, Romania)

© Archaeopress and the individual authors 2012

ISBN 978 1 4073 1008 4

Cover image: Alba Iulia-Lumea Noua - Human Remains. Trench III/2005, Square B (-0,70-0,80m). Foeni cultural group (4600-4500 BC). Copyright Mihai Gligo

This work was possible with the financial support of the Sectorial Operational Program for Human Resources Development 2007-2013, co-financed by the European Social Fund, under the project number POSDRU/89/1.5/S/61104 with the title ‘Social sciences and humanities in the context of global development -development and implementation of postdoctoral research’.

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Shell adornments from the Hamangia cemetery excavated at Cernavodă – Columbia D. Techno-typological analysis

Monica Mărgărit Universitatea „Valahia”, Târgoviște, Romania

Abstract Although in the autochthonous literature the studies on the use of Spondylus valve adornments in the Neolithic are quite numerous they have been concerned strictly with the morphological description and the identification of similarities, in order to classify them into different typological categories. That is why we wish to propose a new type of study concerning these adornments, on the level of the Romanian research, developed according to five aims: - raw material used to identify whether we are dealing with a random selection or one dictated by cultural factors; - morphology and morphometry of the blank, in order to determine whether standard objects were produced to be used in composite ornaments, especially beads; - manufacturing techniques, following the two major operations of the reduction sequence – debitage and shaping; - the function of the objects, including use wear analysis, providing the possibility of answering the question of whether they served strictly as funeral offerings or were also used during life; - identification of similar objects from both Neolithic settlements and funeral contexts, in order to identify possible cultural markers. Key words Neolithic, adornments, Spondylus shell, typology, technology

The present study has been carried out on a set of 71 items made from Spondylus valves from the necropolis of Cernavodă – Columbia D (Constanța County), which are under the patrimony of the “Vasile Pârvan” Archeological Institute of Bucharest and the National Museum of History of Romania. We consider that the publication of these artifacts, despite the fact that they do not represent the entire finds assemblage from the Cernavodă necropolis (a part of the inventory discovered in the necropolis can be found at the National History and Archeology Museum of Constanța) and they come from old archeological excavations (Morintz, Berciu and Diaconu 1955; Berciu and Morintz 1957; 1959), which raises enough problems specifically related to their archeological context, may be an important contribution to our understanding of the Hamangia communities, given that, except for the necropolis of Durankulak (Todorova 2002), no other monographs have been published on the other Hamangia necropolises and settlements. The different stages of the manufacturing process have radically changed the natural shape of the Spondylus

valves and have provided, in the context of the Cernavodă necropolis, eight typological categories, belonging exclusively to the adornments’ group (Figure 1).

No. Typological categories Number of pieces 1 Tubular bead 52 2 Cylindrical bead 7 3 Biconvex bead 4 4 Three-lobed bead 3 5 Bracelet 2 6 Button 1 7 Perforated platelet 1 8 Arch-shaped pendant 1

Figure 1. Numerical weight of the different typological

categories made of Spondylus valve.

Tubular beads - 52 pieces made of Spondylus valves were included in this typological category (Figure 2.1-2). They have a straight profile, with rectilinear parallel margins, and differ only in the shape of the section: rectangular (20), circular (21), flat-convex (10) and triangular (1) (Figure 2.3-6). The morphometric values illustrate a standardization of the blank, in terms of the beads’ diameter and perforations (Figure 3). There are significant differences in the beads’ length (Figure 4), yet, according to the graph several series can be distinguished with pieces of quite similar length. The items from the Cernavodă necropolis have reached us in their final stage of use, which has largely eradicated the marks made by their mode of production. So, in the case of these tubular Spondylus shell beads we cannot positively identify their method of production. However, we believe that sawing was used, at least during a final manufacture stage. Through simple percussion (although we cannot exclude it), fractures

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cannot be controlled, or, in this case quite standardized blanks would be needed. The surface of the pieces is shaped, by extremely fine polishing. The perforation was carried out through rotation (Figure 5.3-4), from only one side (10 items) (Figure 5.1); in some cases, there was an intervention from the other extremity as well, in order to enlarge the perforation (42 items), which resulted in slightly flared walls on both extremities (Figure 5.2).

The morphology of the extremities presents, for most of the pieces, a concave facet (Figure 5.6). Moreover, for some of the pieces the concave extremity seems to correspond, in length, to a smooth and fine surface (Figure 5.7-8). We can suggest that this is the area affected by the wearing of the pieces.

Figure 2. 1-2: tubular beads made of Spondylus valve;

3: rectangular section; 4: circular section; 5: flat-convex section; 6: triangular section.

Figure 3. Dimensions of the tubular beads (diameter).

Figure 4. Dimensions of the tubular beads (length).

Cylindrical beads – the seven pieces have rectilinear parallel sides and irregular extremities (Figure 6.1-3). All the items have a circular section and the perforation was made starting from both extremities. As far as the manufacturing technique is concerned, it is identical to the one used for the tubular beads. Our opinion is that they were obtained by cutting some long tubular beads (maybe after they were broken), as their extremities are

irregularly cut and their perforations are asymmetrical, hence the conclusion that they derive from already finished pieces. Morphometrically, their dimensions are very similar (Figure 7), maybe deliberately pre-established, in order to allow the assembling of the pieces into composite elements.

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Figure 5. 1: bead presenting a perforation executed from just one extremity (50x, 30x); 2: bead presenting a perforation realized starting from both extremities (30x, 30x); 3-4: interior perforation presenting a few circular striations, illustrating the perforation technique (50x); 5: perfectly smooth (lisse) interior perforation (30x); 6: extremity with a concave facet (50x); 7-8: smooth (lisse)

aspect of the extremity, on the level of the concavity (100x, 150x).

Figure 6. 1-3: cylindrical beads; 4-6: biconvex beads; 7: side shaping detail (50x); 8: perforation detail (50x).

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Figure 7. Morphometry of the cylindrical beads made of

Spondylus valve.

Figure 8. Morphometry of the convex beads made of

Spondylus valve.

Biconvex beads – the morphology of the pieces is circular, with rectilinear parallel extremities and convex sides (Figure 6.4-6). The surface of the items was rigorously shaped (Figure 6.7), so as to obtain convex margins, at the same time destroying the marks of the debitage stage. The perforation is perfectly

cylindrical (Figure 6.8). The morphometrical data (Figure 8) illustrate the more obvious (marked) variations in the dimensions of the pieces, by comparison with the previous typological group.

Figure 9. 1-2: three lobated beads; 3: polishing detail on the level of the lobes (50x); 4: fracture on the level of the perforation (50x);

5-6: three lobated beads perforation detail (30x). Three-lobed beads – they have a triangular (2) or trapezoidal (1) section, with convex extremities and convex-concave sides (Figure 9.1-2). Their morphometry illustrates clearly standardized dimensions: length ranging between 30.5 and 31.5 mm;

maximum width between 8.2 and 11.3 mm and maximum thickness, between 4.7 and 6 mm. During a first stage, a rectangular blank was extracted from the valve. However, we cannot reconstitute the

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debitage method, because of the subsequent interventions. The three-lobed morphology was obtained using oblique, progressively deepened cuts. The lack of the characteristic marks specific for these cuts demonstrates that the polishing of the piece was achieved during a subsequent stage (Figure 9.3). The perforation was carried out with the tool held obliquely in relation to the surface of the piece, from both sides, which determined the splayed morphology of the perforation’s walls (Figure 9.5-6). On two pieces the natural color of the valve (red) is still preserved,

demonstrating what would have been the true visual impact of the Spondylus shell pieces. The way the wall of one of the perforations broke (Figure 9.4) and also the inner deformation of this wall in the other pieces proves the way in which the pieces were held together. The lower face has a strong polish; moreover, the area is very smooth and fine when touched, from which we conclude that it could be the area of contact and rubbing with material.

Figure 10. 1: bracelet made of Spondylus left valve; 2: bracelet made of Spondylus right valve; 3: percussion marks of the margins

(30x); 4: interior aspect of the bracelets (200x). Bracelets – only one of the pieces is integrally preserved, having a circular morphology, with convex-converging edges (Figure 10.1); on the other hand, for the second item, its fragmentation no longer allows us to reconstitute its morphology (Figure 10.2). The outer diameter of the whole piece is of 78.6 mm, its height is of 21 mm and its inner diameter is of 66 mm; for the fragment we were only able to identify its height at 33.5 mm. The edges of the pieces seem to have been obtained through debitage by percussion (Figure 10.3), after which the surface was polished completely. On the lower faces, they present an intense polish, with striations perpendicular on the extremity, which may have appeared from the wearing of the item (Figure 10.4). In order to make the entire bracelet the natural shape of the valve was used, preserving an area of the cardinal plateau, with its teeth and cardinal grooves, to give it a special aesthetic appearance. Button – its morphology is slightly rectangular, with a convex-concave section (Figure 11.1-2). It is 16.6 mm in diameter and 4.71 mm thick. The piece was rigorously finished, so that we do not know the technique used to remove it from the valve. The perforation was carried out through bilateral rotation. Inside the perforation there is an obvious secondary

perforation, which was abandoned (Figure 11.3). Maybe the axis along which the perforation was first begun was not convenient and it was modified. The inner wall of the perforation is deformed on the rim (Figure 11.4), and the surface situated in between the two facets of the perforation coming from both sides is smooth, strongly polished (lisse) (Figure 11.5). It seems to be a very worn-out piece. Perforated platelet – its general morphology is trapezoidal (Figure 12.1-2). Its section is convex-concave, its extremities convex-concave, and its edges rectilinear convergent. The morphometric data are: 30.74 mm high, 36 mm wide and 5.30 mm thick. Just as in the case of the other items made of Spondylus valve, the marks of the debitage that led to obtaining the blank have not been preserved. The perforations were realized through circular rotation from both sides (Figure 12.4). There are three such perforations and a fourth attempt, unfinished (Figure 12.3). This last one is very important because it clearly illustrates the execution technique. Towards the extremities, on the upper side, the perforations present a depression (Figure 12.5), which may have appeared due to intensive wear and which is also an indicator of the way the item was suspended. The entire surface of the piece was rigorously polished.

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Figure 11. 1-2: button made of Spondylus valve; 3: button perforation detail (50x); 4-5: perforation wear detail (50x, 50x).

Figure 12. 1-2: perforated platelet; 3: abandoned perforation (50x); 4: perforation detail (50x); 5: wear of the perforation wall (50x).

Figure 13. 1: arc-shaped pendant; 2: pendant perforation detail (30x); 3: wear of the perforation walls (30x).

Arch-shaped pendant – it presents a rectangular section, with convex-concave margins, a pointed proximal extremity and an irregular distal extremity (Figure 13.1). Its dimensions are: length 54 mm,

average width 10.64 mm, average thickness 10.21 mm. The surface of this piece is intensely polished, so that we cannot identify the technique used for extracting a blank out of the valve. On the distal level, a perforation

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was carried out through rotation from both sides (Figure 13.2). The perforation has splayed walls and their morphology seems to prove that the tool used to make the perforation was held in an inclined position, so that the axis of the perforation is decentered as well. The distal wall of the perforation is strongly affected and deformed, with a concave morphology of the walls, which allows us to suppose that this is the area in which the item moved along in contact with the attached thread (Figure 13.3). The shape of this piece distinctly resembles that of a boar canine. Conclusions Raw material. In the necropolis from Cernavodă the adornments made of Spondylus valve represent the most common category. Other raw materials were used sporadically, either to create items belonging to other typological groups, such as bone (a ring) or marble (one pendant), or to imitate adornments made of Spondylus (Figure 14). The use of imitation materials may be due to the difficulties encountered in obtaining these valves, and is demonstrated by the use of marble (a tubular bead and a bracelet) and limestone (a button). The ratio of the adornments in the assemblage under analysis for different categories of raw material is as follows: No. Raw material category Number of pieces 1 Spondylus 71 2 Marble 3 3 Bone 1 4 Limestone 1

Figure 14. Numerical weight of the adornments on different

categories of raw material. Study of primitive societies has proved that raw material acquisition techniques are so strongly integrated in the cultural tradition that a change in one domain triggers a chain of mutations. On an archeological level the proofs are not so obvious, yet some discoveries allow us to infer the existence of similar constraints. For the Danubian Neolithic, in the

sites from Bavaria and Austria, adornments made of local gastropods are sporadically used, and the material selected comes from just one species, Theodoxus fluviatilis, despite the fact that they are easy to gather in the proximity of the site. Nevertheless, adornments made of Spondylus, despite coming a significant distance, from the Mediterranean area, are frequent. This highlights a clear cultural choice (Jeunesse 2002). Probably, at least as far as the adornments are concerned, the most appreciated blanks were those that presented particular aesthetic qualities and were hard to acquire (Dubin 1995). Unfortunately, we cannot reconstitute the selection criteria of the Neolithic societies in order to identify the significance attributed to each type of blank. It is obvious that, in the inventory from the necropolis of Cernavodă, the pieces made of Spondylus gaederopus valves are the most charged with symbolical connotations. The two valves are different in shape and thickness (Borrello and Micheli 2004). The left valve (the upper one), is quite fine, more rounded and shaped like a lid, having small ears on each side of the ligament and a relief of prominent thorns all over its surface. On the right valve (the lower one), which is longer and thicker, concentric lamellas, in relief, are developed. These different morphological aspects have generated constraints and have determined their selection in order to create a certain type of object, just as the material presented in this article suggests. The issue of the origin of the species has not yet been solved: Seferiades (1996, 2000, 2010) or Halstead (1993) consider they are of Mediterranean origin, denying the existence of this species in the Black Sea. In contrast, Todorova (2002) speaks about the possibility of a Black Sea origin. A practice often encountered within a number of prehistoric communities is that of using fossil species, but the differentiation between the living valves and the fossil ones can only be made using isotopic analyses (Shakelton and Elderfield 1990; Vanhaeren et al. 2004). The studies carried out so far seem to demonstrate that, at the level of the European Neolithic, the blanks used were bivalves coming from the Mediterranean Sea and not from fossil deposits or from the Black Sea. The identification of the source location of the raw material used to create these adornments is crucial because an adornment can provide indicators on the limits within which these human groups moved, or in connection to their exchange networks, more than any other artifact category. Imports could represent the direct import of raw material or of the finished pieces, via a direct exchange or through group to group (kula-like exchanges, as those from Polynesia). The archaeological evidence indicate the existence of centers specialized in the processing of Spondylus valves, most likely on the modern territories of Greece, Montenegro, Albania and Croatia (Seferiades 2010). Actually, we can invoke a similar situation among the

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populations of the Trobriand Islands (Malinowski 1989). The small perforated disks of the necklaces circulating in the Islands’ kula exchange system are manufactured in just two centers. In other territories, the rarity and the importance of this valve obligated the communities to recycle the raw material, as in the situation of the fragmentation of the pieces – see the case of Hârşova (Romania) (Galbenu 1963) or Omurtag (Bulgaria) (Gaydarska et al. 2004). We cannot neglect the special socio-economic or religious importance of this bivalve, considering its pan-European presence at the level of the Neo-Eneolithic. The number of the sites containing in their inventory objects made of Spondylus is estimated at about 200, ranging from the Early Neolithic (the Starčevo and Vinča cultures) to around 4300 B.C. (Dimitrijević and Tripković 2006). It is also interesting to note that, according to the distribution map of the Spondylus pieces published by Todorova (2000), they are grouped in the Black Sea Region and the Carpathian Basin and not in the areas in proximity to their natural habitat. Technical transformation scheme. It takes several stages to manufacture an adornment: - blank production, consisting in the extraction of a segment of raw material; - shaping, which concerns the outlining of the shape of the future object; - perforation, which confers, in most of the cases, the status of adornment; - finishing, completing and beautifying the object. The material under analysis highlights a great variety of ways in which the Spondylus bivalve was transformed: from bracelets, which allow the recognition of the valve’s morphology and laterality, to tubular, cylindrical, biconvex, three-lobed beads, pendants, perforated platelets, buttons, for which the identification of the anatomic morphology becomes impossible. At the level of the Hamangia culture, there seems to be a constant preference for certain typological categories. In the first place, by far, are the tubular beads, present in the necropolises from Durankulak (Todorova 2002), Cernavodă and Limanu (Voinea, Neagu and Radu 2009), but also in settlements - Ceamurlia de Jos, Cheia (Voinea, Neagu and Radu 2009). They are followed by bracelets (in necropolises – Durankulak, Cernavodă, Mangalia and Limanu and settlements – Ceamurlia de Jos, Medgidia (Voinea, Neagu and Radu 2009). Other shapes, such as different types of pendants or perforated platelets, seem to appear in a smaller proportion (Voinea, Neagu and Radu 2009), as in the necropolis from Cernavodă. Tsuneki (1989), who studied the process of bead manufacturing for the site of Dimini (Greece), considers that the tubular beads were made out of the right valve of the shells, which, according to the same author, is much better suited to cutting off the small objects. The observation also appears to be valid in the case of the cylindrical or biconvex beads. The debitage

may have been realized according to two variants: percussion into increasingly smaller blanks up to the desired dimensions or sawing in order to extract the blank of the future piece directly. Once the pre-form is finalized, perforation from one side followed, and in some cases, was enlarged from the other side as well. Despite study under the microscope, the specific striations of a perforation through rotation are only visible in a few cases (Figure 5.3-4). That is why the specialists propose the use of the alésage technique, meant to regularize the perforation and to enlarge it, and which finally creates a perforation with straight walls and a strongly polished (lisse) aspect (Bonnardin 2009). This morphology is also visible in the case of the biconvex beads, which present a perfectly cylindrical perforation. The tool used to carry out the action of regularization has not been identified so far. The finishing of the surface and of the extremities was very rigorous and was achieved by polishing on a fine abrasive surface. The same stages of the chaine operatoire are also valid for the platelet, the pendants or the button made of Spondylus valve from the necropolis of Cernavodă. Tsuneki (1989) claims that the bracelets from Dimini were manufactured from the left valve of a Spondylus shell. However, some specialists consider that this model is not observed by all cultures. In the Hamangia culture, the individual bracelets were massive, made of the right valve, while for the Eneolithic, the individual bracelets were thin, and made of the left shell (Chapman, Gaydarska and Slavchev 2008). This hypothesis is not confirmed in the case of the Cernavodă necropolis (Hamangia culture): while for the whole bracelet the left valve was used, in the fractured piece a right valve seems to have been used. For the first stages of the production process we will again consult the study of Tsuneki (1989) from Dimini, as we lack these pieces of information: - percussion of the diverse elements in relief; - abrasion of the external surface of the valve to reduce its thickness and eventually to assure its interior opening; - if the opening is not large enough, one can apply percussion on the fracture margins (Figure 10.3), and such a percussion is visible on our items as well, under the form of slight removal scars, largely overlapped by the subsequent stages of the shaping; - finishing (probably polishing) of the external surface. The technical methods used by the inhabitants of the Trobriand Islands to process the Spondylus valves appear similar to those identified in Neolithic contexts. For the Trobriand Islanders each stage is strongly ritualized and sexually divided, starting with the process of gathering the bivalves. One starts by breaking the valve in small fragments, using a special kind of stone (imported). This action is carried out exclusively by men. The women rub the pieces on a grind stone to reduce their thickness and to give them the shape of a disk. Then the disks are placed into a wooden cylinder, which facilitates the next operation,

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namely rubbing the shell pieces onto the surface of a grind stone until the final shape is obtained. The pieces are perforated in the center using a bow (Malinowski 1989). Functional hypotheses. The fact that most of the pieces from the necropolis of Cernavodă present traces of wear indicates that they were worn during life as well. So, it can be supposed that they were not created exclusively to be deposited as funerary items. The degree of wear of the pieces deposited in Neolithic tombs has been noticed by other specialists as well (Beldiman, Lazăr, Sztancs 2008; Polloni 2008; Sohn 2008). The wear marks are a valuable source of information. Their morphology, their location and their intensity allow us to think about the system used to tie the pieces together. According to the experiments conducted by Rodière (1996), an object can change its color through use. It seems that the yellowish shade that can be observed on some parts of the jewelry, where it should normally be white, may be the result of rubbing on the skin. The fact that this feature is limited to the zone in which the surface is smoother and finer seems to confirm this. The constant presence of a large number of rounded edges presenting a small concavity, along with a smooth longitudinal facet that feels very fine when touched probably results from the prolonged rubbing between the piece, the thread on which it was tied, and the garment or the skin. The strong morphometric homogeneity (based on the identified series) in the production of the tubular Spondylus elements suggests, as we identified also in other cases in the specialist literature (Bonnardin 2008; 2009), that these elements were embroidered into composite ornaments. In the case of the doubly perforated elements (three-lobed beads), or in the case of the button, we can suppose that they were sewed due to the presence of wear exclusively in between the perforations, which, in addition, are deformed, in some cases up to a fracture. Sewing or a similar attachment system is also recognizable in the case of the trapezoidal Spondylus platelet, as the wear depression, marking the passage of the thread, only affects one face of the item. The archaeological context determines the informative potential of the objects. Moreover, if the adornment preserves its original position on the skeleton, it becomes possible to identify the morphology of a composite adornment, as well as its function in the bodily decoration (necklace, bracelet etc.), as is the case, for instance, of the funeral inventory of tomb no. 1 from Sultana – Malu Roșu (Beldiman, Lazăr, Sztancs 2008). As many of these pieces were sewed, it has been possible to reconstitute even types of garments, bonnets or hairdressing (Bonnardin 2009; Lenneis 2007). It would be interesting to determine if the quantitative and typological weight of the funeral inventory corresponds to that of the settlement (the world of the living). Unfortunately, in most cases, such parallels are

impossible. Additionally, the existence of funerary goods in only some tombs raises questions about the existence of hierarchies with these prehistoric groups, and whether such hierarchies were hereditary or acquired. In the world “of the living”, adornment has innumerable functions (ethnic belonging, social status, exchange element, means of communication, amulet etc.), but in “the other world” was its function the same? As an answer to this question, we invoke the simplest hypothesis, that of an adornment accompanying the deceased. Thus, it could be an element that belonged to the deceased and was worn by him/her throughout his/her life. In the second case, the adornment may have been deposited following a ritual, signifying the status (the social identity of the individual during his life) or protecting the individual in his new status, which would confirm the rites of passage within the Neolithic societies (Van Gennep 1996). The strong spiritual charge accompanying these items is demonstrated, for instance, by the presence in the Eneolithic cemetery of Varna I of a large number of bracelet fragments, which cannot be amalgamated to obtain complete items. This may mean that a part of the object was kept to circulate in the world of the living (or were deposited elsewhere), while the other part was deposited in the world of the dead (Chapman, Gaydarska and Slavchev 2008). Acknowledgements This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2011-3-0133. References Beldiman, C., Lazăr, C. and Sztancs, D.-M. 2008. Necropola eneolitică de la Sultana-Malu-Roşu, com. Mânăstirea, jud. Călăraşi. Piese de podoabă din inventarul M1. Buletinul Muzeului „Teohari Antonescu“ 11 (anul XIV), 59-72. Berciu, D. and Morintz, S. 1957. Șantierul arheologic Cernavodă (reg. Constanța, r. Medgidia). Materiale şi Cercetări Arheologice III, 83-92. Berciu, D. and Morintz, S. 1959. Săpăturile de la Cernavodă (reg. Constanța, r. Medgidia). Materiale şi Cercetări Arheologice VI, 99-114. Bonnardin, S. 2008. From traces to function of ornaments: some Neolithic examples, in L. Longo and N. Skakun (eds.), Prehistoric Technology 40 Years Later: Functional Studies and the Russian Legacy, 297-308. Oxford, Archaeopress, British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 1783. Bonnardin, S. 2009. La parure funéraire au Néolithique ancien dans les Bassins parisien et rhénan Rubané, Hinkelstein et Villeneuve-Saint-Germain. Paris, Société Préhistorique Française, Mémoire XLIX.

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