Sexual violence, ethnic minorities, and cultural ...Nupur Agrawal Masters of Social Sciences in...

Title Sexual violence, ethnic minorities, and cultural barricades tosupport service utilization : a case study of Hong Kong

Author(s) Agrawal, Nupur Deepakbhai

Citation

Agrawal, N. D.. (2016). Sexual violence, ethnic minorities, andcultural barricades to support service utilization : a case studyof Hong Kong. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam,Hong Kong SAR.

Issued Date 2016

URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/246726

Rights

The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)and the right to use in future works.; This work is licensed undera Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.0 International License.

BARRICADESFACEDBYSUPPORTSERVICESWHENSERVINGEMVICTIMSAgrawal1

Sexual Violence, Ethnic Minorities, and Cultural Barricades to Support Service Utilization:

A Case Study of Hong Kong

Nupur Agrawal

Masters of Social Sciences in Nonprofit Management

MNPM 7013 University of Hong Kong Advisor: Dr. Lori Noguchi


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This capstone project would not have seen the light of day without the help, guidance, and constant support by the following people. Thank you for inspiring me in your own unique ways:

• My capstone advisor, Dr. Lori Noguchi, for your patience, guidance, and expertise in helping me navigate through the research process, for being a critique and a supporter, and for teaching me lessons to keep for a lifetime.

• Professor Cecilia Chan and Dr. Yu Chan, for giving me the opportunity to attend University of Hong Kong and believing in me to receive the scholarship.

• The Simatelex Foundation Scholarship that enabled me to cover my educational expenses at HKU.

• My professors at HKU and Trinity University who taught and encouraged me to pursue research methods.

• University of Hong Kong (Department of Social Work and Social Administration), for being an unwavering support throughout this journey.

• My colleagues within the Nonprofit Management programme, your camaraderie made this experience memorable.

• All the professionals and organizations that I got to interview and speak with, for your earnest and genuine participation that shaped this project.

• My parents, Deepak and Minaxi Agrawal, for showing me that unconditional love and care exist and for always trusting me to pursue my dreams.


ABSTRACT

Safety from violence for women, especially sexual violence, still remains far from being achieved in the 21st century. According to the World Health Organization’s report (2015), approximately 35% of women worldwide have been a victim of sexual violence in some capacity either by an intimate partner, someone they know and/or a stranger. While this number is staggeringly high itself, it still does not represent those cases that never get reported, and/or cases from marginalized populations such as refugees, asylum seekers, ethnic minorities (EM), and LGBTQ communities. In Hong Kong, it is estimated that one in every seven woman is a victim of sexual violence during her lifetime. However, reporting from EM women is less than 0.1% per year. Due to such a low reported number, scholars and service providers have started conversations about the hindrances that EM women face in reporting the crime. However, little to no research has been conducted to understand what are the gaps in the service delivery system that hampers organizations and workers from assisting EM women in a satisfactory manner. This study focuses on two questions: what tools are currently available in the service delivery environment to empower organizations and their workers, and what additional tools are needed by these stakeholders to better serve EM women victims of sexual violence? I conducted an interview with seven workers from six organizations that serve EM clients. Among these organizations, only RainLily through its “WE Stand” programme, specializes in providing direct services for victims of sexual violence. All other organizations serve EM clients in various capacities. I decided to interview them because every so often, they serve victims of sexual violence. Only one organization has a semi-comprehensive model that helps train its employees on cultural sensitivity when working with EM and the issues faced thereof. For every other organization, the usual custom is to practice and learn.

This research found that, every interviewee strongly suggested the need for reliable and professional interpretation services, affordable and accommodating shelters that account for cultural differences, assistance with school application for the victim’s children, investing in therapists for prolonged counseling, empowerment programmes for the victim, the need for cultural sensitivity training for all staff, and rethinking government’s policies. There are some resources that are available to address these issues, and some that need to be incorporated across all social service organizations in Hong Kong to create a uniform platform to better assist EM victims of sexual violence.


INTRODUCTION

As of 2011, there were 451,183 people of ethnic minorities (EM) constituting an

overall 6.4% of the total population in Hong Kong. The by-census figures for the current

10-year census period should be launched later this year. EM are classified as people who

reported that they were of non-Chinese ethnicity. The majority of the ethnic groups

comprised mainly of Indonesians (29.6%), Filipinos (29.5%), Whites (12.2%), Mixed

(6.4%), Indians (6.3%), Pakistanis (4.0%), Nepalese (3.7%), Japanese (2.8%), Thais

(2.5%), Other Asians (1.6%), Koreans (1.2%) and Others (0.3%). The number of EM in

Hong Kong increased significantly by 31.2% over the past few years, from 343,950 in

2001 to 451,183 in 2011. The median ages of EM males and females were 35.6 and 33.4

years respectively. The sex ratio was 295 males per 1000 females (attributable to the fact

that approximately half the EM population in Hong Kong comprises of foreign domestic

helpers of whom almost 99% are females). Almost 87% of EM persons were born outside

of Hong Kong (Census and Statistics Department, 2011b).

Ethnic minorities in Hong Kong are uniquely defined and positioned. When

referring to EM, the general population usually classifies the term to encompass South

Asians residing in Hong Kong. However, according to the definition, the term should

encompass all persons who are of non-Chinese descent. Among the EM, Americans

(89.3%) and Europeans (86.1%) rank highly on neighborhood acceptance rates, with

South Asian minority ethnicities averaging at 63% (Hong Kong Unison, 2012). People in

Hong Kong have been consistently found less accepting of South Asians compared to

other EM groups.

Even though EM minorities make up almost 6.4% of the population, and their

numbers are only increasing, there are hardly any measures in place by the government

and the social organizations to cater to EM’s needs. For example, a survey by Hong Kong

Women’s Coalition on Equal Opportunities (2013) found that every one in seven women

in Hong Kong faces sexual abuse, with a woman being raped or assaulted every three

hours, and almost 90% of the cases going unreported. With these dire statistics, the


number of cases being reported by EM community is even fewer. Less than 0.1% EM

women reported being assaulted in 2015.

Understanding and combating sexual violence against women in Hong Kong is

only slowly gaining attention. In 1997, Association Concerning Sexual Violence Against

Women (ACSVAW) was set up to raise awareness about sexual violence against women

in Hong Kong. ACSVAW sought both, the government’s and the community’s support in

advocating and caring for the victims, and providing assistance to victims (ACSVAW

website). In 2000, ACSVAW set up RainLily, Hong Kong’s first one-stop crisis centre to

help protect victims of sexual violence. Thus, active steps toward helping victims of

sexual assault in Hong Kong have been established less than a score ago. Even more

recently have efforts been taken to understand the challenges faced by EM victims of

sexual violence. It was only in 2012 that RainLily initiated their “WE Stand” programme

targeting difficulties and plight of female migrant workers and EM women who are

victims of sexual violence. The report was published in April 2015. Kapai’s (2015) report

on Status of Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong 1991 – 2014, is the only other

comprehensive report available to date that tracks the difficulties faced by EM, especially

EM women, in trying to avail services in Hong Kong.

While efforts are underway to understand how can EM victims be assisted to deal

with their trauma by receiving support and resources, capacity building initiatives to

equip organizations and government departments to better able to serve EM victims are

hardly implemented. Over the last decade, numerous reports, written and oral

submissions to Legislative Council, and thought pieces have voiced the need for training

for organizations and staff who work directly with EM. Suggestions have been made to

the government to liquidate resources to initiate and maintain this training process.

However, no substantial changes have occurred. While the lack of training though is

troublesome, it is also important to appreciate that no substantiate research has been

conducted to analyze the current gaps in service delivery, capacity restructuring and

building, and empowerment strategies required and needed by service organizations to

better deal with issues relating to EM victims, has been conducted.


This research seeks to understand the practices that are currently employed by

organizations that work with EM victims of sexual violence, and conduct needs

assessment to identify tools needed to build capacity within and for these organizations to

better serve EM victims of sexual violence. First, I will review the literature surrounding

sexual violence globally and in Hong Kong, including studies conducted to understand

sexual violence among EM communities. Secondly, I will describe my research

methodology, which will consist of one-on-one interviews with front-line workers and

staff of organizations that serve EM victims in Hong Kong. Third, I will discuss the

results of my interviews outlining and discussing current practices of service delivery and

those that are needed to build capacity to better serve EM victims of sexual violence.

Lastly, I will review the limitations of my research project and the potential topics for

further exploration.


LITERATURE REVIEW

Section I: Understanding sexual violence in a global context

The United Nations General Assembly, through their Declaration on the

Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) defined violence against women as any

act of,

“Gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or

psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of acts such as

coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in

private life.”

The Declaration was written to recognize that violence against women is an

obstacle to the achievement of equal citizenship of women in a world in which Human

Rights, Civil and Political Rights, and Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, are

guaranteed to all world citizens in an unbiased manner. Violence against women hinders

the ability of women to enjoy these rights fearlessly. Such violence further promotes the

historical idea of unequal power struggles between genders, leading to discrimination and

limited opportunities for women to advance in legal, social, political, and economic

spheres of the society. Recognizing such needs, the Declaration sought to set clear outline

and scope of violence against women, such that people, organizations, and countries can

have a robust understanding of their responsibilities and commitment to promoting

equality by eliminating violence against women.

Violence against women can take up physical, sexual, psychological, emotional,

and/or economic dimensions, inflicted by family, general population, or the State (report

by UN Statistics Division, 2015). Acts of violence against women include domestic

violence, child marriage, forced pregnancy, “honour” crimes, female genital mutilation,

femicide, sexual and other violence perpetrated by someone other than an intimate

partner (also referred to as non-partner violence), sexual harassment (in the workplace,

other institutions and in public spaces), trafficking in women and violence in conflict


situations. In 2005, WHO and other UN agencies conducted a general survey on

understanding and mapping the international prevalence of violence against women.

While the study faced a number of obstacles in receiving empirical data, a subset of the

forms violence against women phenomenon, sexual violence against women, faces even

more resistance and obstacles when measured. Countries that participated in conducting

national surveys on violence against (to see list, please refer to the report by UN Statistics

Division, 2015), found that more than a quarter reported lifetime prevalence of sexual

violence of at least 25%. While these numbers are daunting, they are still considered low

given that 40% of sexual violence cases go unreported.

The World Health Organization, a specialized agency of the United Nations that

is concerned with international public health, defines sexual violence as,

“Any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or

advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality

using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any

setting, including but not limited to home and work.”

While sexual violence is a globally prevalent crime, little research is available in

most countries about the nature and the extent of this crime. Available statistics suggest

that nearly one in three/four women experience sexual violence by someone they know

and almost one-third adolescent girls experience their first sexual encounter as being

forced (World Report on Violence and Health, 2002).

Force usually in the form of coercion is used to intimidate the victim. This force

can take various forms such as physical, psychological, intimidation, blackmail or other.

The absence of consent is universal when the perpetrator conducts a sexually violent act.

The victim either does not give consent, or is unable to give consent due to being drunk,

drugged, asleep, or mentally incapable of understanding the situation (World Report on

Violence and Health, 2002). Forms and contexts of sexually violent acts include:

a.) Rape. It is defined as a physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration

(however slight) of the vulva or anus, using a penis, other body parts or an


object. When two or more perpetrators commit the act, it is called gang rape.

An attempt to do rape is called attempted rape. There are a number of setting

in which rape takes place:

a. Within marriage of dating relationships

b. By strangers

c. During armed conflict

d. Unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including demanding

sex in return for favours

b.) Assault using coerced contact between mouth and penis, vulva, or anus.

c.) Sexual abuse of mentally or physically disabled people and children

d.) Forced marriage or cohabitation, including the marriage of children

e.) Denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt other measures to protect

against sexually transmitted diseases

f.) Forced abortion

g.) Violent acts against the sexual integrity of women, including female genital

mutilation and obligatory inspections for virginity;

h.) Forced prostitution and trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual

exploitation.

It is always a challenge while explaining sexual violence against women, to

policy makers, governments, and general community, primarily because sexual violence

can take multiple forms, can occur in various contexts, and most times, it is the victim’s

word against the perpetrator. There are multiple factors that increase women’s

vulnerability to being assaulted (World Report on Violence and Health, 2002):

a.) Age

Young women are at a higher risk than older women to be raped

b.) Consuming alcohol or drugs

Being under the influence greatly reduces the risk of being able to give

consent

c.) Having a history of being assaulted


Studies show that those who have a history of being assaulted as a minor, are

at twice as high a risk compared to the general population to be assaulted as

adults

d.) Having multiple sexual partners

There is still debate on whether having multiple sexual partners is the cause or

the consequence of sexual violence, but students show that young women who

have multiple sexual partners are an increased risk of sexual violence

e.) Being in the sex trade industry

It is a common belief that girls and women who work in the sex industry, do

so because they love intimacy. This notion feeds into the idea that these

women would say yes to sex, and when they don’t, are forced to do so using

violence.

f.) Being more educated and economically empowered (usually in cases of

intimate partner inflicted sexual violence)

With higher education, women become empowered to resist the patriarchal

norms, leading the men to resort to violent means of gaining control. This is a

twisted cultural phenomenon, where at once women are empowered to be

more educated, but in doing so, leave themselves vulnerable to men who are

insecure to resort to violent means.

g.) Being poor

Poverty has been an age-old reason for people to become victims. In cases of

sexual violence, being poor makes women vulnerable to finding whatever jobs

they can get, working late, and being asked to do favors in return for

employment or money.

Being a victim of an act of sexual violence can lead to suicidal or depressive

thoughts after the incident, and can leave life-long physical and mental scars for the

victim. Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) is a one-stop crisis centre for

victims of sexual assault in the US. Their research outlines the following ways by which

victims suffer long-term effects of sexual violence:


a.) Most women who are raped experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

symptoms during the two weeks following the rape

b.) One third women report symptoms of PTSD even after 9 months of their assault

c.) One third women contemplate suicide following their assault

d.) One fifth women attempt suicide

e.) Approximately 70% victims experience moderate to severe distress

f.) Victims are more likely to use drugs compared to general public

g.) They face problems working at their jobs, schools, or in the home environment

h.) They face health issues if their perpetrator has been extremely violent. Seeking

medical attention is not always possible or timely, leading to life-long health

issues

i.) Chances of pregnancy or incurring STD/HIV run high, leading to further health

threats

From the discussions above, it can be inferred that while the crime of sexual

violence is globally present, with research suggesting that almost 25% of women in the

world are subject to being assaulted at least once in their lifetime, the attention and

resources being provided to understand the crime and to provide better alternatives for

the rehabilitation of the victims, are minimal at best. At an average, less than 40% of

women who are assaulted seek any sort of help, and among those who do, seek comfort

with family and friends (UN Statistics Division, 2015). But when the culture resorts to re-

victimization by asking insensitive questions such as, ‘what was she wearing at the time

of assault? Why was she out so late by herself? If she knew the guy, why didn’t she ask

him to stop? She is known for her promiscuous behavior, so maybe she enjoyed it? She

could have asked for help? She should have just kept her mouth shut and let be for the

honor of her family. Now who will marry her? If the perpetrator was her husband, how

does it account as rape?’ the victim starts to blame herself for the crime, has difficulties

seeking support for dealing with the trauma, and falls into a cycle of vulnerability.

Therefore, encouraging and supporting women when they voice out their concerns and

seek help, can be the best way for assisting in dealing with trauma. Below are some

difficulties that women face when reporting their crime (UN Statistics Division, 2015):


a.) Of the small percentage of women (less than 10%) that do seek state assistance

when reporting their assault, face barriers such as:

a. Lack of accessibility to services due to language, cultural insensitivity,

lack or funds

b. Fear of rebuttals from family and the community

c. Fear of denial by the perpetrator

d. Fear of shame and embarrassment

e. Fear of reliving the experience during narration

f. Fear of helplessness on the police’s part

g. Fear of losing child custody

h. Need for privacy

b.) Due to lack of consistent and effective laws protecting women against violence,

women are reluctant to report the crime. In countries when laws so exist, the serve

more of a reactionary response rather than a proactive response to preventing the

crime in the first place. Many times, laws are not duly implemented, leading to

discrepancies in judgment and appeal. At times, it takes months if not years

before the sentence is served, leading to a prolonged period of trauma for the

victim and her family.

In order for legal and cultural conditions to become better for the victims, laws need

to be participatory for the victims rather than discriminating against them; laws need to

be consistent and reliable; the time frame during court cases needs to be reasonable;

medical attention needs to be provided during the trial; medical and police staff needs to

undergo cultural sensitivity training; and schools need to provide gender-neutral

education to promote gender equality. When such changes occur over time, more victims

will take courage to voice the wrong that has happened to them, which might lead to an

initial increase in reporting. But with criminal laws being enacted judiciously to punish

the perpetrators, we can some day hope for the nonexistence of this crime.

Section II: Understanding sexual violence within the Hong Kong context


Hong Kong’s Social Welfare Department in consultation with the relevant

organizations and departments, defines sexual violence as,

“Sexual violence happens when a person is subjected to non-consensual sexual

act or non-consensual exposure to such act. The subjugation can take the form of

physical or non-physical force, threat of force, coercion, intimidation, duress or

deceit. It can also happen when the victim is unable to give consent owing to his /

her age, mental capacity, fear, the influence of alcohol, drugs or other substances.

It includes rape, attempted rape and marital rape, indecent assault, incest, being

forced to engage in masturbation or oral sex, buggery, and indecent exposure. It

may occur in public or in private place. The perpetrators can be members of the

family, relatives, acquaintance or strangers. A victim of sexual violence can be

any person regardless of his / her age, sex, race, occupation, marital status or

sexual orientation.”

Upon recommendations from the Subcommitte on Strategy and Measures to

Tackle Domestic Violence and Sexual Violence, these additions were approved to

the above definition of sexual violence,

“[it is to include] marital rape, indecent assault, sexual contact or behaviour with

sex workers without consent.”

Hong Kong is predominantly a patriarchiarchial society. This means that most

cases of sexual violence resported are of men violating women. From the databse

provided by the Social Welfare Department, of the 222 newly reported cases of sexual

vioelnce from January to March 2016, 98.2% victims are females (SWD website). Due to

vast gender inequality and gender based stereotypes (Shadow Report, ACSVAW, 2014),

sexual vioence remains unchecked in hong kong. Time and again, gender mainstreaming,

and prioritizing, anti-sexual violence and gender equality education in policy addresses

has been failed from government’s messaging in policy addresses (Shadow Report,


ACSVAW, 2014).

Handling sexual violence in Hong Kong is a multi-departmental and organizational job.

To facilitate the smooth functioning of this interface, procedures were developed in July

2002 (Social Welfare Department, 2007).

SWD outlines good practices a set of good practices for all personnel’s who are involved

in handling adult sexual violent cases are involved should follow. These are:

• Timely assistance

• Professionally attitude in delay with the victim’s needs

• Multi-disciplinary cooperation

• Confidentiality

• The victim of crime charter

• The reading of Victim’s right to know

• Enhancing Staff’s Capability

A case of sexual violence may be reported to the Police by the victim, victim’s family

members or relatives, or by the general public through a 999 call, in person to a police

station or hospital police post, or be made to an individual police officer, or by referrals

from medical practitioners, social workers, Legislative Councillors, District Councillors,

etc. The Duty Officers of respective police stations are designated to receive the report of

sexual violence cases.

During all times of the process either at the Police station, at the hospital, or anywhere,

the following principles are at play:

• To not further retraumatize the victim

• To deal with confidentiality any information pertinent to the case and to not

disclose any information relevant to the case to any unauthorized person

• Only relevant people can have access to information upon the consent of the

victim

• The victim should be bothered to the minimum in terms of taking statements


Care should be taken during the entire proceedings that the staff dealing with the victim

take utmost care regarding confidentiality and comfort of the victim. Proper

psychological assistance should be sought to be provided to help victims better deal with

their trauma.

Section III: Understanding Ethnic Minorities in a Global in Perspective

Adopted by consensus in 1992, the United Nations Minorities Declaration in its article 1

refers to minorities as,

“Based on national or ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic identity, and provides that

States should protect their existence. There is no internationally agreed definition as to

which groups constitute minorities. It is often stressed that the existence of a minority is a

question of fact and that any definition must include both objective factors (such as the

existence of a shared ethnicity, language or religion) and subjective factors (including

that individuals must identify themselves as members of a minority).”

The United Nations Office Of the High Commissioner of Human Rights (OHCHR)

recognizes the difficulty in coming to a well-defined definition of minorities given the

various situations and diversity within which they reside within the world. By their

definition they are a fraction of the population of the culture or the national fabric of

which they belong to. However at times, they can still be powerful despite of that. For

example, Muslims are the largest minority community in a country where Islam is not a

major religion. Such an occurrence lends the Muslim community in India a special voice.

Similarly, in the US African Americans make amongst the second highest noticeable

minority, with the recent achievement being the first African American President of the

US. To further clarify the nuances of meaning of minorities for States, Francesco

Capotorti, Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of

Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, offered a definition in 1977 (OHCHR

website),


“A group numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a State, in a non-

dominant position, whose members - being nationals of the State - possess ethnic,

religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the

population and show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards

preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language.”

Not only are there variations in how these minorities are accepted within the

greater communities surrounding them, there are also variations in how the minorities are

themselves spread within the nations where they reside. Some minorities stick to

themselves, while some spread out. But what remains uncontested is that minorities are

the non-dominant group.

Under such definition, women and girls are considered to be minorities as well

because viewed as citizens of the world, women and girls are the non-dominant group

compared to men, hence a minority. In the report that is a compilation of

recommendations of the first four sessions from 2008 to 2011 by the United Nations

Forum on Minority Issues (Compilation of Recommendations of the First Four Sessions

2008 to 2011), one the general consideration is that minority women often face unique

challenges and discrimination due to their status as belonging to a minority and as a

woman or a girl. Such an entitlement leads women to vulnerability both in public and

private lives, and without due recognition, such discrimination goes unnoticed; a

sentiment of gender education, discrimination, inequality, and stereotype that was voiced

by the ACSVAW in the previous section in regard to the situation in Hong Kong. The

recommendations also suggest the need to empower women and girls within the minority

groups, to protect their individualism and promote equality.

Section IV: Understanding Ethnic Minorities within a Hong Kong Perspective

Article 4 of the Hong Kong Basic Law states that,


“The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall safeguard the rights and freedoms

of the residents of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and of other persons in

the Region in accordance with law.”

This suggests that not only does the law protect Hong Kong residents, but the law

also protects other persons leading to the idea of equal treatment and non-discrimination

(Kapai, 2015). In July 2008, Race Discrimination Ordinance was enacted which has been

operational since July 2009. This Ordinance is intended to enhance the protection of the

rights of EM, and in particular to protect them against discrimination, unequal treatment,

harassment or vilification based on race in a range of contexts (Kapai, 2015). RDO

defines ‘race’ as “race, color, descent or national or ethnic origin of the person.” This

definition and distinction is as close to a definition of ethnic minority as it comes to on a

global platform.

Majority of the people in Hong Kong are ethnically Chinese (Han Chinese)

(Home Affairs Department, Hong Kong SAR website). The 2011 Population Census

found that almost 6.4% of the population in Hong Kong by the way of self-identification

is non-Chinese. Indonesians and Filipinos make the majority of this population at

approximately 30% each (2011 population census thematic report: ethnic minorities).

While there are more women to men (1000 females to 295 males), most of these females

are foreign domestic workers and are EM when it comes to being awarded their rights

and equality compared to men, women are still at a disadvantage.

EM face a variety of troubles within Hong Kong. Some of such troubles are

(Yuen Long Town Hall website):

• Language barrier – even though English is the second official language of the

state, not every government office accepts forms in English. There is heavy

emphasis on Cantonese as the official and unofficial language of the land and

discrimination and preference is given to those who can converse in the native

language. EM persons who do not understand the language are at a disadvantage,

not just for employment, but at availing services as well.


• Cultural differences – not enough training is employed within government and

educational institutions to appreciate cultural differences. EM are different in their

outfits and traditions compared to their Chinese counterparts. Unless due credit

and appreciation is given to each member community in the society, differences

would only grow

• Education – EM children have limited opportunities to speak Cantonese or

Mandarin at home or at work. There are also limited schools that accept EM

children due to language barrier and cultural stigma, even though government

suggests that no child be barred from entering school because of prejudice.

• Vicious cycle of poverty – due to unequal display of opportunities, and the above

said reasons; there are not many jobs available for EM persons to gain willful

employment, leading to dilapidated living situations and vicious living conditions.

• Discrimination and stereotyping – due to age old myths and media perceptions of

certain ethnic groups, these EM feel alienated and discriminated within their own

nations.

EM are not necessarily non-residents within the said country. Of the 6.4% of the non-

Chinese EM population in Hong Kong, while some may be non-residents, most of them

are the residents of Hong Kong, but are considered EM because they are the non-

dominant group when compared with the larger dominant ethnically Chinese group.

Section V: Understanding Ethnic Minorities facing Sexual Violence Within a Hong

Kong Context

While one in every seven women reports being assaulted in Hong Kong every

year, less than 0.1% EM women report being assaulted every year in Hong Kong. Of the

6.4% EM population in Hong Kong, 0.1% number is staggeringly low. In most EM cases,

as it is in greater the greater Hong Kong community, the cases hail from work places and

within families and marriages, making it difficult for the victim to report the cases for the

added fear of retribution, fear of loss of job, and due to loss of the important relationship

(Hedy Bok for SCMP, 2013).


However, various other factors go into the staggering low number of reporting by

the EM women. The fear of cultural and communal retribution is the highest factors that

stop these women from reporting the crimes. They are usually on dependent visas and

fear that if they are to report the crime, they would not find suitable jobs, their husbands

or families would disown them and they’d be deported back to their home countries,

where situations at times are worse than in Hong Kong. Other times, when they wish to

speak out, they are unaware of the resources available to them. Due to inadequate

language translation services, educational attainment, and social dexterity, they are

socially handicapped to take charge of their own lives and give into the Stockholm

syndrome by feeding through their abuser.

Since the EM communities in Hong Kong are so small, the sense of privacy is not

really awarded unless deliberate steps are taken. Sexual violence and its reporting in

those situations is not a crime that gets much attention nor does it raise eyebrows as an

unusual phenomenon when it is a common household occurrence.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Since the focus on EM community is recent, policy makers, researchers, and social

professionals are concerned with the needs of the EM victims of sexual violence.

Therefore, attention to capacity building and needs of those who are serving the EM

victims of sexual violence hardly get noticed. This study aims to understand the needs

and service providers to better understand how to best enhance their capacities so that

those who serve EM are first served best themselves. This research attempts to answer

the following research questions:

RQ1: The current strategies in use by the service providers in this sector

RQ2: Tools that can be used by the service providers to enhance their

capacities when dealing with EM victims of sexual violence


RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Using logic model as the framework for this research, I conducted interviews with

service providers who deal with EM victims of sexual violence in some capacity.

Section I: Participants

Social workers, administrators, volunteers, and staff members, who work directly

or indirectly with EM victims of sexual violence, were interviewed using an

extensive questionnaire. Relevant permission and letter of anonymity were sought

and signed with the organizations, foundations and participants that were

interviewed. Approximately, 10-15 interviews will be conducted for this study.

Section II: Materials

Participant demographics were collected for background information, while

guaranteeing anonymity. A questionnaire for conducting interviews was

constructed, which deals with questions regarding training provided by the

organization, number of EM victims served, best practices on the organizational

and governmental level to address EM victims and tools needed for enhanced

delivery of services by the trained professionals.

For the full set of demographic and interview questions, please refer to Appendix

A.

Section III: Procedure

Participants were contacted based on their working history with an organization

that serves EM victims of sexual violence or simply EM clients. Of those who


answered their emails or phone calls, in-person interviews, phone interviews, or

email interviews were scheduled.

Participants were given consent form, which outlined the aim of the study,

potential risks, and guaranteed anonymity. Written and verbal consent was sought

to record the interview. The interviews usually took place at the time and place at

the discretion of the participant. Each interview lasted approximately 30-45

minutes.

Section IV: Logic Model

Due to a number of reasons, ethnic minority (EM) victims of sexual assault do not seek support services. While research has been conducted to understand why such behavior is displayed, little research as been conducted to understand, what tools will benefit the frontline responders in assisting EM victims.

Priorities Organizations and support staff that deals with EM victims

Situation


•

Tim

e –

to

cond

uct

back

grou

nd

rese

arch

•

Res

earc

h B

ase

– to

bui

ld

foun

datio

n to

un

ders

tand

ing

the

situ

atio

n •

Mat

eria

ls –

fo

rmat

ion

of

inte

rvie

w

ques

tions

•

Equi

pmen

t/tec

hnol

ogy

– re

cord

ing

devi

ce fo

r the

in

terv

iew

s

•C

ondu

ct –

in

terv

iew

s w

ith

soci

al w

orke

rs,

adm

inis

trato

rs,

and

volu

ntee

rs

•D

eliv

er –

a

sym

path

etic

un

ders

tand

ing

of

the

curr

ent

situ

atio

n w

ith E

M

vict

ims

•Fa

cilit

ate

– di

scus

sion

th

roug

h in

terv

iew

s w

ith

the

conc

erne

d pa

rties

•A

genc

ies –

or

gani

zatio

ns

that

agr

ee to

pa

rtici

pate

•

Parti

cipa

nts –

so

cial

wor

kers

, ad

min

istra

tors

, an

d vo

lunt

eers

•C

reat

ing

awar

enes

s re

gard

ing

need

fo

r too

ls fo

r en

hanc

emen

t for

se

rvic

e pr

ovid

ers

•G

athe

ring

know

ledg

e an

d da

ta o

n ar

eas

on

conc

ern

•C

ondu

ctin

g an

d tra

nscr

ibin

g in

terv

iew

s to

as

sess

atti

tude

s an

d ga

ther

dat

a

•R

ecog

nizi

ng th

e ar

eas

of c

once

rn

and

sugg

estin

g be

st p

ract

ices

for

enha

ncem

ent

•Fa

cilit

atin

g in

the

deci

sion

-mak

ing

and

train

ing

proc

ess

for f

ront

-lin

e re

spon

ders

•

Cre

atin

g a

deliv

erab

le, t

hat

can

assi

st se

rvic

e pr

ovid

ers

whe

n th

ey’r

e w

orki

ng

with

EM

vic

tims

•C

reat

ing

a be

tter

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

an

d co

ncer

n fo

r EM

vic

tims

by

the

supp

ort

serv

ice

sect

or

•Im

prov

ing

serv

ice

utili

zatio

n ex

perie

nce

of E

M

vict

ims

•C

reat

ing

equa

l op

portu

nity

to

acce

ss th

e su

ppor

t se

rvic

es fo

r all

ethn

iciti

es

•Pr

omot

ing

gend

er

equa

lity

•

Bui

ldin

g sa

fer

envi

ronm

ents

for

wom

en to

live

a

life

of d

igni

ty a

nd

to s

eek

and

rece

ive

help

in

times

of c

risis

Inpu

ts

Act

iviti

es

Part

icip

atio

n Sh

ort T

erm

M

ediu

m T

erm

L

ong

Ter

m

Out

puts

O

utco

mes

Ass

umpt

ions

E

xter

nal F

acto

rs

•Pr

evio

us re

sear

ch lo

okin

g sp

ecifi

cally

at E

M

vict

ims

has

been

con

duct

ed, b

oth

from

the

serv

ice

user

and

pro

vide

r per

spec

tives

•

EM v

ictim

s ar

e at

a c

ultu

ral d

isad

vant

age

to

seek

sup

port

serv

ices

•

Nee

d fo

r too

ls o

f enh

ance

men

t by

the

fron

tline

se

rvic

e pr

ovid

ers

•O

rgan

izat

ions

and

par

ticip

ants

will

be

will

ing

to

parti

cipa

te in

the

stud

y

•D

elay

in p

erm

issi

on fr

om th

e re

spec

tive

orga

niza

tion

•U

nwill

ingn

ess/

time

cons

train

t of t

he p

artic

ipan

ts to

resp

ond

to

the

inte

rvie

w

•R

estri

ctio

ns p

lace

d by

the

law

in a

cces

sing

info

rmat

ion

and

cond

uctin

g in

terv

iew

s

Eva

luat

ion

Lite

ratu

re re

view

– c

olle

ctio

n of

dat

a th

roug

h in

terv

iew

s – c

ondu

ct q

ualit

ativ

e an

alys

is o

f the

tran

scrib

ed in

terv

iew

s –

iden

tify

the

conc

ern

area

s and

bes

t app

roac

h to

furth

er tr

aini

ng o

f the

per

sona

ls –

repo

rt th

e fin

ding

s to

rele

vant

sta

keho

lder

s


Section V: Stakeholders

Below are the main stakeholders that will be impacted the most through this study:

• Victims; EM minority victims of sexual violence – service utilization by

EM victims not only provides the background information for the study, but

the hope is that the subsequent results will be most beneficial to them

• Social workers, staff, and administrators – while training and policies

outline how service delivery to EM victims should be conducted, frontline

responders might need more tools to enhance their skills. Providing

feedback on what works the best and what does not, as well as additional

resources needed to better serve the concerned population will be result in

improved delivery of services

Victims; EM minority victims

of sexual violence

Social Workers, staff, and

administrators

Volunteers

Community

Organizations and Foundations

Government and Policy Makers


• Volunteers – many times, volunteers want to help, but do not know how

they can be helpful because of unavailability of adequate tools for training

and capacity building

• Community – when all sections of a society feel that they have equal rights

and access to services, overall upliftment takes place

• Organizations and Foundations – government contracts out the production

of service through these channels to better serve the population. Receiving

feedback and providing them the results of the study might help them in

adequately training heir staff, workers, and volunteers

• Government and Policy Makers – the current framework of service delivery

operates under the policies made by this group. For effective change,

policies will ultimately have to be revised.

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of the research was to answer two research questions:

RQ1: The current strategies in use by the service providers in this sector

RQ2: Tools that can be used by the service providers to enhance their

capacities when dealing with EM victims of sexual violence

Based on the qualitative analysis of seven interviews from six different

organizations, it is understood that there are hardly any tools that are in place currently

that provide any sort of training for the service providers that assist them toward being

better prepared to deal with EM clients. Organizations and administrators usually tell

their staff to learn from their South Asian peers or to learn as they go as they deal with

EM clients, usually leaving the service providers to fend for themselves and short of

breath as they attempt to assist EM victims of sexual violence.


However, when asked what tools they needed to enhance their capacities when

dealing with EM victims of sexual violence, service providers for the first times felt that

their needs were heard. Below are their recommendations:

a. Professional Translational Services:

Due to inadequate use and availability of language interpretation and

translation services, service providers believe that victims relive their

trauma when explaining their story repeatedly to their translators.

• Reports of issues with the professionalism of translators are also

surfacing, where interpreters chime in with their suggestions or

comments, making the victim more vulnerable to feeling ashamed,

fearing retribution, and not willing to divulge full details of their

trauma

• At times, victims come in with a language requirement that is not

frequently offered by the service organization, and by the time the

organization makes an effort to find an appropriate interpreter, the

victim loses the courage to come forward a second time

• High turnover with the translators leads to inconsistency with the

interpretations and the victim having to retell their story each time

• Lack of psychosocial support in native language is also a factor that

hinders the progress made by a front-line workers with their appointed

victim

Thus, service providers almost unanimously voiced that there is a dire

need for interpretation training for themselves and for the interpreters.

With a uniform, consistent, and formal training model, translation services

would enable service providers serve the victims better. Service providers

would be able to understand the trauma better, be able to identify the

needs of the victim and direct him/her to receive appropriate help; and

eventually be able to instill a trust relationship with the victim despite the

language barrier.


b. Accommodating Shelters:

Victims of sexual violence can seek temporary accommodation services

following their assault, during their trial, and/or immediately after the verdict

is delivered. These services are provided by the Social Welfare Department

(SWD) and by subsidized and non-subsidized non-governmental

organizations (NGOs). However, service providers expressed the following

concerns about the accessibility and state of shelters for victims’ use:

• Shelters are not designed to accommodate and cater for the cultural

differences and needs of the EM victims. For example, Muslim women

need to be able to cook meals using halal meat, while Hindu women

need to be able to cook vegetarian meals. The kitchens at these shelters

are not equipped to provide for such needs.

• Many times the only shelters available to accommodate the victim are

in areas where the victim or the perpetrator used to or currently live.

This poses threat to privacy and feeling safe. There are also times when

victims are asked to shift through the

• Shelters are not equipped to provide for translation services

• Travel allowance is minimal or absent for victims to travel to and from

the shelters, leading to increased risk of Stockholm syndrome practiced

by the victim

• Shelters do not have enough capacity to provide for all the victims,

which leads to victim relocation. Service providers at these shelters

then have to start the counseling process with the victims all over again.

Service providers thus struggle with lending a sense of normalcy to the

victim

Thus, service providers voiced that in order for them to help in

rehabilitation and relocation of the victims, the state and availability of

resources within shelters needs to improve. With more accommodating

shelters, the victims would be more comfortable seeking assistance, and


the service providers would be in a better position pull the victim from

danger and harm.

c. Schools for Children:

It is extremely difficult for children of ethnic minorities to seek admission

into schools and universities in Hong Kong. It becomes even more

difficult when an EM mother who is a victim is seeking admission for her

child after being separated from the child’s father or provider/being

ostracized by her community.

• Local schools which provide affordable education are very stringent in

their rules on accepting non-native students

• There are schools local schools that are designed to admit EM and

non-native students. However, victims are usually reluctant to admit

their children into those schools which are closer to their residence for

fear of retribution from other parent families (EM communities are

small and victims fear loss of privacy)

• Even after a local school accepts an EM student, the parent is unable to

assist the child at home because of unfamiliarity with Chinese

language. This pushes the parent to seek private tuition assistance,

often at a steep price

Service providers believe that due to financial, skills-based, and

communal pressure to provide for a better life for the child, the victims

often tend to stay with the abuser or not seek assistance believing that their

children would not be cared for in the current educational system in Hong

Kong. With provisions in schools to admit non-local students, and having

a variety of these schools, it would be easier for social workers to assist

the victims when the victims are not torn between choosing a better life

for themselves versus deciding to keep shut for the sake of their children.

d. Investing in Therapists:


Not all victims seek support in similar ways. Service providers believe that

just as every victim and his/her story is different; the ways in which these

victims seek counsel is different. Social workers especially are slowly

recognizing and advocating for more inclusion of therapists within the

service sector to empower the victims.

• Due to cultural boundaries and sensitivity, many victims feel the need

to express themselves through channels that do not involve verbal

speech. These methods could include art, dance, physical fitness

activities, and/or vocational training.

• Therapists can spend more time in the personal healing process of the

victim and relieve the burden of from social workers

• Victims tend to be more comfortable with the therapists because with

the therapist it is often seen as an involved process and the time spent is

continual, making the recovery from trauma a more plausible aspect for

the victim

Many service providers voiced that in the current system, therapists play a

very minimal role. The government does not recognize their contribution

and the NGOs are too short on resources to hire additional therapists.

However, in their working the with victims, service providers believe that

after the victim comes forward to seek assistance, the victim has to go

through another battle of overcoming the trauma and restarting her/his life;

a process which at times is more if not equally arduous for the victim.

During this process therapists can playa vital role, and currently, they are

being underutilized.

Resources available: there are not any organizations that provide services

through therapists. Usually, therapists are recruited from social work

university departments or private clinics. However, there is no formal path

or forum through which assistance can be sought for therapists. Many


times, they are called in through personal contacts or other informal

channels.

e. Evaluating Government’s Policies:

The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) is a statutory body set up in

1996 to work towards the elimination of discrimination on the grounds of

sex, marital status, pregnancy, disability, family status and race. Under

such purview, EOC also aims to eliminate sexual harassment, and

harassment and vilification on the grounds of disability and race. While

the EOC and the other governmental departments are implementing

policies in place for a more inclusive society, the laws and channels of

execution of those laws are problematic at the least.

• Currently, the government expects the mainstream organizations

within the Social Welfare Department to implement and carry out most

of service delivery actions for EM victims

• These organizations/centres such as the Integrated Family Service

Centres (IFSCs) are located within each district in Hong Kong.

Residents of a particular district can only seek services provided by

their respective IFSC outlet. Such a restriction on service delivery

creates a barrier on the EM victim seeking support because the victim

may be concerned with privacy issues and might want to seek services

at an IFSC that is located elsewhere

• One reason for such a fragmented use of IFSC is that there is no

national database or system of reporting that is used. Even if a victim

is granted the permission to seek assistance at a distant IFSC, the

victim has to retell the trauma, because multiple IFSC are not

connected in their client database, creating an environment of re-

victimization and reliving the trauma for the victim

• Non-mainstream organizations that are better equipped to deal with

cultural nuances and differences, can only refer victims to the IFSC

and the Child Protection Services (CPS) through the mainstream


organizations, which in turn only recognize victims within the married

couple and the child; forgoing any victim in other familial

relationships such as sister-in-law

Service providers believe that these laws and their associated channels

need to be revised and tools need to be in place to take into account the

discrepancies in the current system. Relevant stakeholders such as

themselves, the EM community and other similarly valued

organizations need to be a part of the discussion to revise these

policies and to make it better suited to address the needs of the EM

victims.

f. Encouraging Cultural Sensitivity:

Most service providers believe that the lack of cultural sensitivity training

and on-going training aimed at equipping workers to better deal with EM

victims of sexual violence is the major hindrance in providing adequate

and sustainable assistance.

• Most social service organizations have an internal training system,

which is often not based on empirical training methods or research.

This training, which occurs sporadically, lacks expertise in being able

to speak of the nuances of EM culture and traditions. This makes the

training fall short of its promised deliverables and does not equip front

line workers adequately

• Improper recognition of the cultural differences leads to improper

training and risk assessment

• Restricted funding is available to assist workers for their development

in understanding EM issues

• Lack of unified collaboration among organizations that work toward

EM victims and their issues leading to a lack of assessment of service

gaps and acknowledgement of common problems and better utilization

of resources


Service providers thus believe that organizations, government, and other

agencies not only need to come up with a unified and standard system of

educating regarding cultural differences that workers face through their

clients everyday, but to also provision for regular training sessions to

update all workers on the new findings.

Only through collaborative approach, training, sensitivity, and

understanding will the workers themselves feel confident and prepared to

address the needs of their clients. While the service providers wish to do

more, there seems to be a lack of opportunities and recognition of issues

that hindrances their performance and enhancement.

g. Empowering Victims:

Service providers believe that the current system lacks avenues of

empowering EM victims to rebuild their lives. Most times, EM victims not

only fight their physical and mental trauma, but also have to battle with

their social communities where the culture of victim blaming is highly

prevalent. Under such circumstances, it becomes essential that service

providers are able to assist their clients as the victims attempt to move past

the trauma.

• The presence of vocational training centres that can accommodate

non-local residents is scarce. This means that even if an EM victim

were to go to such a training centre, she/he would not be able to

understand the discourse

• Lack of support groups where EM victims can confide in and

empower their fellow women are few and sparse

• EM victims usually reside in areas where their native community

predominantly resides. Inability to change residences to safeguard

privacy further leads to desperation and depression


• Inability for EM women who are currently residing in Hong Kong on

dependent visa to gain lawful employment or apply for independent

visa. Fear of being deported or not being able to work to self-sustain

themselves creates hinders EM victims to come forward.

• Lack of culturally sensitive counseling, therapists, and a welcoming

environment even within the greater Hong Kong community leads to

feeling rejected and uncared

Service providers unanimously believe that irrespective and despite all their

efforts to assist EM victims of sexual violence, the workers are at times unable

to provide hope to the victims because there are hardly any channels of

rehabilitation and inclusion within the society. A victim of any crime,

especially that of sexual violence needs to be empowered to seek control of

her/his life again. Support groups, welcoming communities, right to earn a

decent living, right to live in a country/jurisdiction without the fear of being

deported or being forced to live within ethnic communities where victims are

faced with societal shame and mockery, and avenues of vocational training

provide such channels of empowerment to the victim. Workers believe that

presence and addition of these channels would significantly improve their

service delivery and outcomes.

DISCUSSION

It surprised me that all seven responders from six organizations voiced that

there was not a comprehensive training model that prepared front line responders to deal

with EM victims of sexual violence. However, this is not all uncommon. Hong Kong

Unison is a non-governmental organization founded in 2001 that serves EM Hong Kong

residents and their families. HK Unison submitted a paper to the Legislative Council

Panel on Welfare Services Subcommittee on Strategy and Measures to Tackle Domestic

Violence and Sexual Violence on October 6, 2015 outlining concerns that not all frontline

responders were “prepared” to handle Ethnic minority cases. Their submission voiced the


following concerns regarding frontline responders being held back when encountering

EM victims, which resonated with the concerns that the service providers voiced during

the research interview as well (LC Paper No. CB(2)35/15-16(02)):

• Due to perceived racial, cultural and religious differences

• Not knowing how to provide immediate support

• Instead of trying to understand the other culture, they seek out other agencies to

provide support

• Even if other agencies are sought out to seek support, they have to comply to rules

outlines by the “Procedural Guide for Handling Adult Sexual Violence Cases”

regardless of whether the case pertains to a victim of EM because these guidelines

are believed to be applicable universally in Hong Kong

• Frontline workers are often not culturally sensitive when dealing with EM,

lending barriers of language, ethnicity, culture, and immigration to play a major

role aggravating the issues at hand

The current state of affairs in the service delivery industry in Hong Kong

resembles what Salamon (1987) calls the three-failures theory. He suggests that in a

society, markets, governments, and the nonprofits, works in a cyclical manner to

compensate for each other’s shortcomings to keep the society moving and to cater to

people’s needs. In Hong Kong, the biggest shortcomings of the government’s are

unobservables in regulating and providing information of procedures for assisting EM

victims of sexual violence and failure to subsidize the services at a reasonable price and a

training schedule. However, from the NGO sector perspective, there are multiple failures

too that the government compensates for, such as philanthropic amateurism, paternalism,

and insufficiency of funds. There are times when NGOs tend to only think of their

services and not the whole service sector, making their vision and approach to deal with

issues at hand very narrow. In such times, the resources and the information of the

government comes in useful to see the bigger picture and to handle more issues at one

time.


The biggest issue that the frontline workers face today is not the lack of

mechanism or channels or even laws that stop them from being able to serve the EM

victims of sexual violence in a better way. Rather it is the implementation and the due

acceptance of the gravity of the issue that EM are an essential part of Hong Kong’s

communal fabric, and as such, are and should be protected and warranted the same rights

as every one else. The diversity and variance within the EM further adds to the

differences with which this community is addressed within the greater Hong Kong

legislation.

Only when we empower those who serve will we be able to empower

those who are in turn served by them, thus creating a chain reaction. Therefore,

empowering the service providers should be of highest priority, if we are to bring about a

change in the marginalized community and uplift the minorities. The recommendations

brought forth by the service providers should be taken into account by policy makers and

government officials when revising or making new laws, and/or when creating training

modules so that the needs of those who will be delivering the policies will be taken into

account and maximum output can be achieved.

A toolkit that summarizes the tools and resources needed as identified by

the service providers themselves, to enhance their capacities when dealing with EM

victims of sexual violence is developed to assist organizations and frontline workers with

their everyday work. A digital copy of the toolkit can be obtained by writing to the author

at [email protected].

LIMITATIONS

There are nine EM client-serving organizations in Hong Kong. I was only able to

seek interviews with six of these organizations. There were few members that were

reluctant to speak with me due to the environment and the flexibility that prevailed within

their organizations. The Social Welfare Department was unable to answer for the study.

Language barrier and time constraint were among the most limiting factors that delayed


the progress of this study. Service providers that works with EM clients are pressed for

time and are often over-worked, leaving them little time for anything else, even for

training, mush less a research study. It was also difficult given that the course of my

study at HKU was 8 months and the capstone was designed to take place within these

months. It is difficult to break into this industry, build trust, and initiate honest and

genuine conversations with service providers about their needs within a small time frame

of a few months. For future researchers, I would suggest conducting such a study over a

period of at least 12 or more months to allow trust to be built and time to elapse.

Another limitation was that most interviews were conducted in English, Hindi, or

Urdu. Care can be taken next time by conducting interviews in pairs where one person is

a native East Asian who is well versed in Cantonese or Mandarin since most service

providers are comfortable in these languages.


REFERENCES

Association Concerning Sexual Violence Against Women. Retrieved from

http://www.rainlily.org.hk/en/關於我們/

Association Concerning Sexual Violence Against Women. (2015). WE Stand Programme

for Female Migrant Workers and Ethnic Minority Women. Retrieved from

http://www.rainlily.org.hk/en/出版刊物/reports/?p_id=6263&lang=en

Bok, H. (2013, January 21). Hong Kong's official rape statistics vastly lower than grim

reality. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from

http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/article/1133059/hong-kongs-official-rape-

statistics-vastly-lower-grim-reality

Census and Statistics Department, (2011b). Thematic Report – Ethnic Minorities. Hong

Kong Special Administrative Region. Retrieved from:

http://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/B11200622012XXXXB0100.pdf

Heise L, Pitanguy J, Germain A. (1994). Violence against women: the hidden health

burden. World Bank, Washington, DC, (Discussion Paper No. 255).

Home Affairs Department. The Demographics: Ethnic Groups. The Government of Hong

Kong Speacial Administrative Region. Retrieved from

http://www.had.gov.hk/rru/english/info/info_dem.html

Hong Kong Unison. (2012). Racial Acceptance Survey Report. Retrieved from

http://www.unison.org.hk/DocumentDownload/Researches/R201203%20Racial%

20Acceptance%20Survey%20Report.pdf?subject=Enquiry%20for%20Research%

20hard%20copy

Hong Kong Women’s Coalition on Equal Opportunities. (2013). Survey on Women’s

experience of violence in Hong Kong 2013. Retrieved from

http://www.afro.org.hk/enews/201305/afro201305e.htm

Jewkes R., Penn-Kekana L., & Levin J. (2002). Risk factors for domestic violence:

findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science and Medicine.

Jewkes, R., Sen P., Garcia-Moreno, C. Sexual Violence. In: Krug E., Dahlberg, L.,

Mercy, J.A., Zwi, A.B., Lozano, R. World Report of Violence and Health.

Geneva, Switzerland: The World Health Organization. 2002: 147-181. Retrieved


from: http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/

violence/global_campaign/en/chap6.pdf

Kapai, P. (2015). Status of Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong 1997 – 2014. Centre for

Comparative and Public Law, University of Hong Kong. University of Hong

Kong: Faculty of Law. Retrieved from

http://www.law.hku.hk/ccpl/pub/EMreport.html

Krug, EG et al., eds. (2002) World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World

Health Organization.

Legislative Council Panel on Welfare Services (6 October 2015). Subcommittee on

Strategy and Measures to Tackle Domestic Violence and Sexual Violence. LC

Paper No. CB(2)35/15-16. Retrieved from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr14-

15/english/panels/ws/ws_dv/papers/ws_dv20151006cb2-35-2-e.pdf

Legislative Council Panel on Welfare Services (19 January 2016). Subcommitte on

Strategy and Measures to tackle Domestic Violence and Sexual Violence. LC

Paper No. CB(2)673/15-16. Retrieved from http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr15-

16/english/panels/ws/ws_dv/papers/ws_dv20160119cb2-673-1-e.pdf

Minorities Under International Law. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High

Commissioner. Retrieved from

http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Minorities/Pages/internationallaw.aspx

Omaar R., & de Waal, A. (July 1994) Crimes without punishment: sexual harassment and

violence against female students in schools and universities in Africa. African

Rights, Discussion Paper No. 4.

Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network. Sexual Violence Can Have Long-Term Effects

on Victims. Retrieved from https://rainn.org/statistics/victims-sexual-violence

Salamon, L., M. (1987). Of Market Failure, Voluntary Failure, and Third-Party

Government: Toward a Theory of Government-Nonprofit Relations in the

Modern Welfare State. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly,16, 29-49.

doi: 10.1177/089976408701600104.

Shadow Report to the CEDAW Committee. On Sexual Violence in Hong Kong SAR,

China. By Association Concerning Sexual Violence Against Women

(ACSVAW), and RainLily. Retrived from


http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/CHN/INT_C

EDAW_NGO_CHN_18341_E.pdf

Statistics on Child Abuse, Spouse/Cohabitant Battering and Sexual Violence Cases,

Social Welfare Department. The Government of Hong Kong Special

Administrative Region. Retrieved from

http://www.swd.gov.hk/vs/english/stat.html

United Nations Forum. United Nations Forum on Minority Issues. Compilation of

Recommendations of the First Four Sessions 2008 to 2011. Retrieved from

http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/MinorityIssues/Forum_

On_Minority_Pub_en_low.pdf

United Nations General Assembly. (2013). Declaration on the Elimination of Violence

against Women. Retrieved from

http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm

United Nations Statistics Division (2015). The World’s Women 2015: Trends and

Statistics. Chapter 6: 139-162. Retrieved from

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/chapter6/chapter6.html

World Health Organization, Department of Reproductive Health and Research, London

School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, South African Medical Research

Council (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women:

prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual

violence. Retrieved from http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-

violence-against-women/facts-and-figures#notes

Yeun Long Town Hall. Difficulties that Ethnic Minorities Face In Hong Kong. Retrieved

from http://www.sscem.org/napalese.php?page=page_8

Sexual violence, ethnic minorities, and cultural ...Nupur Agrawal Masters of Social Sciences in...

Documents

Transcript of Sexual violence, ethnic minorities, and cultural ...Nupur Agrawal Masters of Social Sciences in...