Session 8Session 8Appraisal of PersonalityAppraisal of Personality

ScheduleSchedule

Student tapesStudent tapes PersonalityPersonality 16 PF16 PF ProjectivesProjectives

DefinitionDefinition

Personality Personality comes from the Greek work comes from the Greek work persona –which referred to a role play by persona –which referred to a role play by an actor in a playan actor in a play

Difficult construct to define and measureDifficult construct to define and measure Assessment of personality been around Assessment of personality been around

for thousands of yearsfor thousands of years However, field of formal psychological However, field of formal psychological

assessment is less than 100 years oldassessment is less than 100 years old

Personality Research IncreasingPersonality Research Increasing

Butcher (1995) cited three reasons why Butcher (1995) cited three reasons why upsurge in last 20 yearsupsurge in last 20 years Increased research on the use of personality Increased research on the use of personality

assessmentassessment Personality assessment is more attractive to Personality assessment is more attractive to

professionals than it was in the pastprofessionals than it was in the past Increased use of personality assessment in Increased use of personality assessment in

forensic and industrial settingsforensic and industrial settings

Types of Personality AssessmentsTypes of Personality Assessments

FormalFormal Structured personality instrumentsStructured personality instruments

• MMPIMMPI• 16 PF16 PF• NEO-PI-RNEO-PI-R• MBTIMBTI

Projective techniquesProjective techniques• RoschachRoschach• TATTAT

Informal Informal ObservationObservation

Reliability of ObservationReliability of Observation Unsystematic errorUnsystematic error

Counselor off due to external stressors/eventsCounselor off due to external stressors/events Client is off for same or other possibilitiesClient is off for same or other possibilities Counselor misinterprets client response (disinterested) Counselor misinterprets client response (disinterested)

ConsistencyConsistency Test-retestTest-retest

• Compare observations between sessionsCompare observations between sessions Split-halfSplit-half

• Split the session in halfSplit the session in half Record observations at specific intervals during a session and Record observations at specific intervals during a session and

comparing themcomparing them• Receive trainingReceive training

Stattler (1993) found that reliability can be increased in Stattler (1993) found that reliability can be increased in observation when there are clear and precise definitions observation when there are clear and precise definitions of behaviors and a systematic method of observing.of behaviors and a systematic method of observing.

Validity IssuesValidity Issues When counselors are observing, they need to consider When counselors are observing, they need to consider

the the representativeness representativeness and and generalizability of their generalizability of their observation (Stattler, 1993).observation (Stattler, 1993).

The validity of observations may be restricted because The validity of observations may be restricted because only a sample of behaviors are observed. only a sample of behaviors are observed.

Remedy is to increase the amount of time the client is Remedy is to increase the amount of time the client is observedobserved

School counselors can observe on playground, in classroom, School counselors can observe on playground, in classroom, during lunch, and on playground for example.during lunch, and on playground for example.

Clients can be asked to keep a log (self-observation technique)Clients can be asked to keep a log (self-observation technique) Can have others observe and record behaviorsCan have others observe and record behaviors

Threat to validity issues that all information passes Threat to validity issues that all information passes through the individuals lens (biases and beliefs) which through the individuals lens (biases and beliefs) which may be very different from others’ reality. may be very different from others’ reality.

InterviewingInterviewing

Interview Interview Vacc and Juhnke (1997) found that Vacc and Juhnke (1997) found that structuredstructured

clinical interviews fell into two categories:clinical interviews fell into two categories:• Diagnostic assessmentDiagnostic assessment

The intent of interviews is to identify issues and possible The intent of interviews is to identify issues and possible disorders consistent with a diagnostic taxonomy (DSM-IV-R)disorders consistent with a diagnostic taxonomy (DSM-IV-R)

• Descriptive assessmentDescriptive assessment Utilized when the purpose is to describe aspects of the clientUtilized when the purpose is to describe aspects of the client

Counselors need to focus on the reliability and validity of Counselors need to focus on the reliability and validity of their interviewing techniques.their interviewing techniques.

Structured Personality InventoriesStructured Personality Inventories

Anastasi and Urbina (1997) suggested that there are four basic methods Anastasi and Urbina (1997) suggested that there are four basic methods of constructing self-report personality inventoriesof constructing self-report personality inventories

1.1. Content-related procedure-here the focus is on the content-relevance of the Content-related procedure-here the focus is on the content-relevance of the items (e.g., content scales of the MMPI-2).items (e.g., content scales of the MMPI-2).

2.2. Personality theory where the items are based upon the theory. Then conduct Personality theory where the items are based upon the theory. Then conduct construct validation procedures (e.g., Myers-Briggs Type Indicator; MBTI).construct validation procedures (e.g., Myers-Briggs Type Indicator; MBTI).

3.3. Empirical criterion keying method is when items are selected based upon Empirical criterion keying method is when items are selected based upon some external criterion. The MMPI is an example of this because the items some external criterion. The MMPI is an example of this because the items were selected that separated people who were considered to normal from were selected that separated people who were considered to normal from those people who were diagnosed with some form of pathology. Strong those people who were diagnosed with some form of pathology. Strong Interest Inventory was developed the same way because only items that Interest Inventory was developed the same way because only items that differentiated between people working in that occupation from people not differentiated between people working in that occupation from people not working in that occupation being used in coring each occupation scale.working in that occupation being used in coring each occupation scale.

4.4. Factor analysis examines the interrelationship of items and determining the Factor analysis examines the interrelationship of items and determining the similarities of the items that group together. The Neo Personality Inventory similarities of the items that group together. The Neo Personality Inventory (the Big Five) is an example. (the Big Five) is an example.

The MMPI-2 is the most widely used personality inventory.The MMPI-2 is the most widely used personality inventory. The NEO-PI-R is moving up in use (rich research base)The NEO-PI-R is moving up in use (rich research base) The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is that can be used in diverse settings.The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is that can be used in diverse settings.

MMPI-2MMPI-2 Designed by Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kraemmer, Designed by Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kraemmer,

1989 to replace the MMPI.1989 to replace the MMPI. Reasons for revisionReasons for revision

MMPI normed on (1930) were White, middle-class individuals from MMPI normed on (1930) were White, middle-class individuals from Minnesota. Minnesota.

MMPI-2 normed on 1980 census dataMMPI-2 normed on 1980 census data• Includes high proportion of individuals with advanced degrees and in higher Includes high proportion of individuals with advanced degrees and in higher

status occupationsstatus occupations• Racial biasRacial bias

Interpretation of MMPI-2 is complex and specific training is needed Interpretation of MMPI-2 is complex and specific training is needed in order to use the results appropriately. in order to use the results appropriately.

It could be dangerous in the hands of casual user. There is a It could be dangerous in the hands of casual user. There is a movement to have tests such as these only available to licensed movement to have tests such as these only available to licensed psychologists.psychologists.

Scores are Scores are tt scores values. scores values.

Psychometric ProperitesPsychometric Properites

Debate continues if MMPI-2 is as good as Debate continues if MMPI-2 is as good as MMPIMMPI

Test-retest reliability coefficientsTest-retest reliability coefficients Men r = .67 to .92Men r = .67 to .92 Women r = .58 to .91Women r = .58 to .91

NEO-PI-RNEO-PI-R

Researchers are saying that personality can Researchers are saying that personality can best be described by five factors based upon best be described by five factors based upon factor analysis (Digman, 1990; Goldber, 1994; factor analysis (Digman, 1990; Goldber, 1994; McCraie & John, 1992). McCraie & John, 1992).

Five FactorsFive Factors Factor I Surgency or Extra-version Factor I Surgency or Extra-version Factor II AgreeablenessFactor II Agreeableness Factor III ConscientiousnessFactor III Conscientiousness Factor IV Emotional Stability or NeuroticismFactor IV Emotional Stability or Neuroticism Factor V Intellect or an Openness to ExperienceFactor V Intellect or an Openness to Experience

NEO-PI-R ScalesNEO-PI-R Scales N Scale (Neuroticism) N Scale (Neuroticism)

Provides a measure of adjustment or emotional stabilityProvides a measure of adjustment or emotional stability High scores indicate a tendency to experience negative feelings such as High scores indicate a tendency to experience negative feelings such as

fear, sadness, embarrassment, anger, and guilt. fear, sadness, embarrassment, anger, and guilt. Although clinicians make distinctions between types of emotional Although clinicians make distinctions between types of emotional

distress (e.g., anxiety, anger, and depression). Developers have found distress (e.g., anxiety, anger, and depression). Developers have found that if individuals are prone to one of these emotional states, they are that if individuals are prone to one of these emotional states, they are more likely to experience the others. Thus, this domain measures a more likely to experience the others. Thus, this domain measures a tendency toward coping poorly with stress, difficulty controlling tendency toward coping poorly with stress, difficulty controlling impulses, and proclivity toward irrational thoughts. impulses, and proclivity toward irrational thoughts.

E (Extroversion) E (Extroversion) Concerns the individual’s tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, and Concerns the individual’s tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, and

talkative.talkative. High scores are associated with being upbeat, energetic, and optimistic. High scores are associated with being upbeat, energetic, and optimistic. Costa and McCrae (1992) found that introverts are not unhappy, hostile, Costa and McCrae (1992) found that introverts are not unhappy, hostile,

and shy. Their studies indicated that introverts are reserved rather than and shy. Their studies indicated that introverts are reserved rather than unfriendly, independent as compared to follower, and even-paced as unfriendly, independent as compared to follower, and even-paced as compared to sluggish. compared to sluggish.

NEO-PI-R ScalesNEO-PI-R Scales O (Openness)O (Openness)

Measures the degree of openness to a variety of experiences.Measures the degree of openness to a variety of experiences. Elements associated with openness are an active imagination , aesthetic Elements associated with openness are an active imagination , aesthetic

sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, and intellectual curiosity. sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, and intellectual curiosity. Perhaps the most controversial of the domains have labeled this factor Intellect Perhaps the most controversial of the domains have labeled this factor Intellect

and contend that the openness label does not adequately address the factor.and contend that the openness label does not adequately address the factor. A (Agreeableness)A (Agreeableness)

Measures the tendency to be sympathetic, a desire to help others, and a belief Measures the tendency to be sympathetic, a desire to help others, and a belief that others will reciprocated and assist them. Low scores on this scale are that others will reciprocated and assist them. Low scores on this scale are associated with a tendency to antagonistic, egocentric, and skeptical of others’ associated with a tendency to antagonistic, egocentric, and skeptical of others’ intentions.intentions.

Costa and McCrae (1992) argued that extremes at either end were problematic. Costa and McCrae (1992) argued that extremes at either end were problematic. Low scores are associated with narcissistic, antisocial, and paranoid behaviors, Low scores are associated with narcissistic, antisocial, and paranoid behaviors, while high scores are associated with dependency problems.while high scores are associated with dependency problems.

C (Conscientiousness)C (Conscientiousness) Related to the individual’s ability to control impulses. Related to the individual’s ability to control impulses. This domain measures self-control and the ability to plan, organize, and carry out This domain measures self-control and the ability to plan, organize, and carry out

tasks.tasks. Low scores are associated with being more lackadaisical in the pursuit of goals. Low scores are associated with being more lackadaisical in the pursuit of goals.

Extremely high scores indicate fastidious behaviors, compulsive neatness, and Extremely high scores indicate fastidious behaviors, compulsive neatness, and workaholic tendencies. workaholic tendencies.

Validity CheckValidity Check

Three questions that address the validity Three questions that address the validity of the profile:of the profile:

1.1. Did you respond honestly?Did you respond honestly?

2.2. Did you respond accurately?Did you respond accurately?

3.3. Could a family member fill out for R?Could a family member fill out for R? Form for menForm for men From for menFrom for men

Strengths and WeaknessesStrengths and Weaknesses

WeaknessesWeaknesses Problems with identification of pathologyProblems with identification of pathology Instrument was normed on normal adultsInstrument was normed on normal adults

StrengthsStrengths Valid predictor in virtually all occupations Valid predictor in virtually all occupations

(concurrent validity-when ran with another (concurrent validity-when ran with another established instrument)established instrument)

Does not result in adverse impact for job Does not result in adverse impact for job applicants from minority groupsapplicants from minority groups

The 16 PFThe 16 PF The Cattell 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model defines basic, The Cattell 16PF (16 Personality Factor) model defines basic,

underlying personality, without regard to application or the underlying personality, without regard to application or the environment.  environment. 

These PFs are considered relatively unchanging features that These PFs are considered relatively unchanging features that strongly influence human performance.  strongly influence human performance. 

But the way in which the human being performs is mainly influenced But the way in which the human being performs is mainly influenced by environment.by environment.

The underlying personality is there all the time, but the way in which The underlying personality is there all the time, but the way in which people understand themselves is affected by intelligence, and by people understand themselves is affected by intelligence, and by culture, upbringing and education, which may have taught people culture, upbringing and education, which may have taught people either to emphasis or suppress aspects of their personality.  either to emphasis or suppress aspects of their personality. 

Presumably if a person can understand what his or her personality Presumably if a person can understand what his or her personality is, s/he can then make better use of the strengths, and make is, s/he can then make better use of the strengths, and make allowances for the resultant weaknesses.  allowances for the resultant weaknesses. 

Because personality is relatively unchanging through adult life, this Because personality is relatively unchanging through adult life, this understanding will be of long-term value.understanding will be of long-term value.

The 16 PFThe 16 PF

THE 16 PERSONALITY FACTORSTHE 16 PERSONALITY FACTORS Each factor can be measured on a scale, Each factor can be measured on a scale,

determined by completing a questionnaire, determined by completing a questionnaire, and the word pairs indicate the extremes and the word pairs indicate the extremes of each scale.  The letter codes were of each scale.  The letter codes were ascribed to each scale as a shorthand ascribed to each scale as a shorthand notation.notation.

The 16 PF ScalesThe 16 PF Scales

Bipolar Dimensions of PersonalityBipolar Dimensions of PersonalityWarmth (Reserved vs. Warm; Factor A)Warmth (Reserved vs. Warm; Factor A)Reasoning (Concrete vs. Abstract; Factor B)Reasoning (Concrete vs. Abstract; Factor B)Emotional Stability (Reactive vs. Emotionally Stable; Factor C)Emotional Stability (Reactive vs. Emotionally Stable; Factor C)Dominance (Deferential vs. Dominant; Factor E)Dominance (Deferential vs. Dominant; Factor E)Liveliness (Serious vs. Lively; Factor F)Liveliness (Serious vs. Lively; Factor F)Rule-Consciousness (Expedient vs. Rule-Conscious; Factor G)Rule-Consciousness (Expedient vs. Rule-Conscious; Factor G)Social Boldness (Shy vs. Socially Bold; Factor H)Social Boldness (Shy vs. Socially Bold; Factor H)Sensitivity (Utilitarian vs. Sensitive; Factor I)Sensitivity (Utilitarian vs. Sensitive; Factor I)Vigilance (Trusting vs. Vigilant; Factor L)Vigilance (Trusting vs. Vigilant; Factor L)Abstractedness (Grounded vs. Abstracted; Factor M)Abstractedness (Grounded vs. Abstracted; Factor M)Privateness (Forthright vs. Private; Factor N)Privateness (Forthright vs. Private; Factor N)Apprehension (Self-Assured vs. Apprehensive; Factor O)Apprehension (Self-Assured vs. Apprehensive; Factor O)Openness to Change (Traditional vs. Open to Change; Factor Q1)Openness to Change (Traditional vs. Open to Change; Factor Q1)Self-Reliance (Group-Oriented vs. Self-Reliant; Factor Q2)Self-Reliance (Group-Oriented vs. Self-Reliant; Factor Q2)Perfectionism (Tolerates Disorder vs. Perfectionistic; Factor Q3)Perfectionism (Tolerates Disorder vs. Perfectionistic; Factor Q3)Tension (Relaxed vs. Tense; Factor Q4)Tension (Relaxed vs. Tense; Factor Q4)

Limitations of StandardizedLimitations of Standardized Personality Inventories Personality Inventories

Majority are self-reportMajority are self-report Fake good or badFake good or bad Socially desirable respondingSocially desirable responding

Projective TechniquesProjective Techniques

Intent is that clients will have hard time Intent is that clients will have hard time faking their responsesfaking their responses There are no right or wrong answersThere are no right or wrong answers

Born out of psychoanalytic period (1900s)Born out of psychoanalytic period (1900s) Used mainly in clinical settingsUsed mainly in clinical settings Extensive training necessary to interpretExtensive training necessary to interpret

Five Projective CategoriesFive Projective Categories

AssociationsAssociations Inkblots, word associationsInkblots, word associations

ConstructionConstruction Stories or biographiesStories or biographies

CompletionsCompletions Of sentences or cartoonsOf sentences or cartoons

Arrangement or selectionArrangement or selection Toys or verbal optionsToys or verbal options

ExpressionExpression Drawing or danceDrawing or dance

Exner’s Comprehensive SystemExner’s Comprehensive System

Based on RorschachBased on Rorschach LocationLocation

• Section of inkblot focused uponSection of inkblot focused upon DeterminantsDeterminants

• Form and movement of the blotForm and movement of the blot• Color and shadingColor and shading

Content in items of scoringContent in items of scoring• Common responses compared to uncommonCommon responses compared to uncommon

Interpreting the resultsInterpreting the results• Reliability significantly higher than with other systemsReliability significantly higher than with other systems

Construction TechniquesConstruction Techniques Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Examinee constructs a story based on a picture shown to him/her by examinerExaminee constructs a story based on a picture shown to him/her by examiner Total of 31 cardsTotal of 31 cards

• 30 black and white30 black and white• 20 specific pictures20 specific pictures

19 pictures19 pictures 1 blank1 blank

Psychometric propertiesPsychometric properties Quantitative scoring systems that yield acceptable inter rater reliability (r = .80).Quantitative scoring systems that yield acceptable inter rater reliability (r = .80). Normative dataNormative data

Strenghts/WeaknessesStrenghts/Weaknesses Lack of sleep and hunger can affect performanceLack of sleep and hunger can affect performance Pictures are somewhat out of datePictures are somewhat out of date Clinicians interpretations can be quite controversialClinicians interpretations can be quite controversialLike other projective instruments because so subjective in interpreting results Like other projective instruments because so subjective in interpreting results

seek other source of information to confirm or disconfirm (convergent or seek other source of information to confirm or disconfirm (convergent or divergent validity). divergent validity).

Completion TechniquesCompletion Techniques Rotter Incomplete Sentence BlankRotter Incomplete Sentence Blank

Involves providing a stimulus to the examinee and he/she then Involves providing a stimulus to the examinee and he/she then completes the taskcompletes the task

Three levels of test:Three levels of test:• High schoolHigh school• CollegeCollege• AdultAdult

Client completes 40 sentencesClient completes 40 sentences• Scored for conflict, positive response or neutral responseScored for conflict, positive response or neutral response

Aiken (1996) suggested research finding indicate that the Rotter Aiken (1996) suggested research finding indicate that the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank can be used as a screening tool for Incomplete Sentence Blank can be used as a screening tool for overalloverall adjustment. adjustment.

The new manual provides new information on reliability and The new manual provides new information on reliability and validityvalidity

Norms have been updated as wellNorms have been updated as well

Arrangement or Selection Arrangement or Selection TechniquesTechniques

Sandplay Sandplay Controversy if diagnostic or clinical assessment or Controversy if diagnostic or clinical assessment or

therapeutic tooltherapeutic tool Society for Sandplay Therapy has supported it as Society for Sandplay Therapy has supported it as

psychotherapeutic (Mitchell & Friedman, 1994)psychotherapeutic (Mitchell & Friedman, 1994) Most research individual case studiesMost research individual case studies

Three more promising techniquesThree more promising techniques Family does a collective drawingFamily does a collective drawing Use of puppets with the familyUse of puppets with the family Use of puppets in diagnostic interviewsUse of puppets in diagnostic interviews

• Focuses is on analyzing the form and content of the child’s Focuses is on analyzing the form and content of the child’s play with the puppets.play with the puppets.

Expression mTechniquesExpression mTechniques

House-tree-personHouse-tree-person 3 separate drawings of a house, tree, and a person3 separate drawings of a house, tree, and a person

House reflects the home situationHouse reflects the home situation Tree represents relationship of self to the environment, and the Tree represents relationship of self to the environment, and the

person represents the self.person represents the self. Kinetic-House-Tree –PersonKinetic-House-Tree –Person

All on one paperAll on one paper Allows understanding of the of the interconnections among the Allows understanding of the of the interconnections among the

three figures and the action of the person.three figures and the action of the person. Kinetic-Family-DrawingKinetic-Family-Drawing

Family doing something togetherFamily doing something together Allows for clearer understanding of family dynamicsAllows for clearer understanding of family dynamics

Strengths/Limitations of Projective Strengths/Limitations of Projective MeasuresMeasures

More difficult to fakeMore difficult to fake Useful with nonverbal Useful with nonverbal

and/or child clientsand/or child clients Opening into world Opening into world

that other techniques that other techniques do not providedo not provide

Higher proportion of Higher proportion of errorserrors

Lack normative dataLack normative data Validation information Validation information

is meager is meager Not tests—clinical Not tests—clinical

toolstools