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CNG Marine Transport: The Emergence of a Third Major Gas Transportation Industry John P. Dunlop, P.E. Vice President, Business Development, EnerSea Transport LLC ABSTRACT Demands from energy intensive markets for additional supplies of clean fuel to drive their economies are inspiring the development and implementation of new tools to unlock additional sources of natural gas. Compressed natural gas (CNG) marine transport now offers innovative and cost effective solutions for use in harvesting gas resources which are located beyond the economic reach of pipelines.

The breakthroughs and compelling development advantages that EnerSea has pioneered in the advancement of CNG technology have supported its widespread industry acceptance as the third major gas transport solution along with pipelines and LNG. Several major project initiatives have been recently announced by E&P operators. Also, many markets have expressed interest in receiving gas shipments via CNG versus LNG due to the attractive access that it provides to regional gas supplies, simple and highly cost effective CNG receiving terminals, and the safety and security from such terminals being located comfortably offshore.

This paper will present an overview of CNG's evolution from technological development to commercial application that has taken place in this emerging industry since Gastech 2002.

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SUMMARY Demands from energy intensive markets for additional supplies of clean fuel to drive their economies are inspiring the development and implementation of new tools to unlock natural gas volumes known to exist in stranded resources. Compressed natural gas (CNG) marine transport provides valuable, cost effective solutions for use in harvesting offshore gas resources located beyond the economic reach of pipelines.

EnerSea Transport's proprietary "Volume-Optimized" approach to CNG has been developed to overcome the historic shortcomings in CNG technology – i.e., high containment system weight and its cost per unit of gas stored and transported. The volume-optimized approach has led to a number of innovative features in the areas of gas storage design and gas handling processes, which significantly reduce the containment steel requirement and also provide many other cost and performance advantages.

The paper will also illustrates how this technology is currently being pursued in the development of a wide variety of projects around the world, including one range of applications where production from lean gas reservoirs can flow directly onto the ship and into storage without any significant in-field infrastructure investment.

INTRODUCTION Recent trends in both the overall growth of global energy demand and the preference for natural gas within the mix of fuel supply choices has spawned a resurgence in the development of natural gas projects as well as the acceleration of new and enhanced technologies to help connect stranded gas resources and consuming markets. The maritime transport industry is playing a critical role in these efforts through a dramatic increase in new construction of LNG carriers, including evolutionary designs, to support a concurrent wave of new LNG projects. EnerSea and other natural gas innovators are also playing a key role through their development of a new generation of designs for compressed natural gas (CNG) marine transport and storage systems that will represent a new commercial means for shipping natural gas and bridge the gap of efficient solutions that currently exists between pipelines and LNG solutions [1, 2].

Substantial progress has been achieved by the developers of CNG solutions and services since the last Gastech conference in 2002. Innovative concepts have been engineered and validated through independent evaluations and peer reviews. Maritime class societies have comprehensively examined and granted "class approval in principle" certifications for designs. Also, prototype testing programs have been undertaken to demonstrate the mechanical integrity of the systems and the robustness of process and control systems. Finally, and most notably, several major oil and gas companies and prospective gas offtakers are currently engaged in performing detailed technical/commercial evaluations of CNG solutions for consideration in their gas portfolios and for specific project development planning.

Fig. 1 – Prospective regions for CNG transport solutions. The mission of the se CNG development and implementation efforts is clear: provide a transportation tool that outperforms other available gas offtake solutions for regional applications.

Depending on the project gas rate, distance to market and quality of gas to be shipped, CNG systems have been estimated to have a total transport cost (i.e. terminals, carriers and storage) ranging from well under $1.50 to $2.50 per mmbtu.

MORE GAS SOLUTIONS PLEASE! Over the past three decades, beginning with the sticker shocks of the oil embargos in the 1970s and bolstered by a motivated environmental movement, natural gas has steadily gained popularity – and value – as a fuel of choice in industrialized countries having convenient access to supplies. Due to the relatively high front-end capital costs required to build transportation, processing, utilization and other infrastructure based on natural gas, and as communities become accustomed to its efficiency and environmental benefits, a mutual dependency is

created that discourages fuel switching back to more carbon-intensive fuels such as coal and oil. Such interdependency leads to disparities in the natural gas markets relative to other fuels as gas supply and energy demand levels shift.

We have now witnessed strengthening gas prices over several years which have been sustained, at least in the U.S. and many other regions, due to the inability of domestic exploration and development programs to keep up with the rates of gas demand and reserves depletion. The only means other than pipelines to provide imported gas supplies – liquefied natural gas (LNG) – is projected to struggle to supply sufficient new volumes necessary to meet future U.S. gas supply needs due to its very high cost, the lack of terminal receiving capacity, and substantial project and permitting lead time [3].

Economies that do not have access to large natural gas resources and are more highly dependent on oil-based energy sources have also seen their fuel costs increase significantly in recent years with the precipitous rise in world oil prices. Many of these economies are seeking to introduce, or increase the prominence of, natural gas in their fuel mix for cost reduction, fuel diversification, and environmental benefits.

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Therefore, robust economic fundamentals are in place to motivate the innovation, development and deployment of additional gas solutions both old and new. These solutions include LNG technology refinements and efforts to commercialize CNG marine transport and gas-to-liquids (GTL) capabilities. All of the above solutions are based on long established technical principles, with current work focused on creating commercial services which are now more viable with recent technological improvements and higher commodity prices.

CNG technology in its simplest form (gas under pressure in a containment system) is very well understood. However, many attempts to design CNG marine transport systems over the years have failed to establish commercial viability due to inefficient processes, inadequate material sciences and weak product prices prevailing at the time.

Beginning in the 1990s, a new and high level of development activity resulted in significant technology and cost improvements for CNG, which has continued through the intervening years. Also, new high strength carbon steels have been developed to support the construction of lighter weight, less expensive gas containment systems.

Fig. 2 - EnerSea Transport's V-800 CNG Carrier.

The major breakthrough in this "modern CNG" era was achieved with the creation of "volume-optimized" CNG technology which was pioneered and patented by EnerSea in its VOTRANSTM (Volume Optimized Transport and Storage) system. These breakthroughs are summarized below, and described in more detail elsewhere [4, 5].

VOLUME-OPTIMIZED NATURAL GAS TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY (VOTRANS™) Natural gas is a complex fluid that exhibits non-ideal gas behavior when compressed above approximately 70bar [1000psi]. The non-ideal characteristics can be accommodated by adjusting the ‘Ideal Gas Law’ through the introduction of what is commonly referred to as the compressibility factor, or ‘Z-factor’. EnerSea’s Volume-Optimized Transport and Storage (VOTRANS™) technology recognizes the relationship between the design requirements of containment systems and the Z-

factor effect in gas storage design. By chilling gas to a suitably low temperature (e.g. -30ºC [-22ºF]), it is possible to compress great quantities of gas into tubular containers such that the ratio of the weight of the gas stored to the weight of the container is optimized.

Fig. 3 – Compressibility behavior of natural gas.

Achieving an optimum design requires the storing of this cool gas at relatively moderate pressures – about 95 to 125 bar [1400 – 1850 psi] depending on gas composition – which is about half that of traditional "ambient temperature" CNG designs. Increasing storage pressure much beyond this point actually creates suboptimal designs and disproportionately greater containment design requirements resulting in a higher cost per unit gas stored.

This critical design breakthrough means that the costs of the gas containment system itself plus its compression horsepower requirements, along with the ship hull design and cost to support this lighter container, can all be substantially reduced. These savings are somewhat offset by costs for refrigeration and insulation, but a net total cost improvement of 20 – 25+% can be demonstrated.

GAS HANDLING DESIGN The VOTRANS system also employs a more efficient means for handling the transfer of gas cargos into and out of storage. This is accomplished through a patented liquid displacement system that provides the ability to control pressure and temperature of the gas throughout the loading and offloading processes. By controlling back-pressure as gas is loaded into the containers, temperature extremes due to auto-refrigeration and heat of compression effects can be avoided. Then, the displacement fluid "piston" is reversed to push the gas cargo out of the containers at the delivery terminal, which again prevents auto-cooling and drop-out of natural gas liquids within the storage system.

This liquid displacement system also provides additional transport system design and cost efficiency advantages. For example, the evacuation efficiency of the VOTRANS system is increased to approximately 99%, compared to about 92-94% for traditional "blowdown" systems.

This capability also enables the storage and transport of ‘richer’ gas streams, such as gas associated with oil field production. The low temperature compressibility characteristic of ‘rich gas’ allows even more cargo to be stored at lower pressure and in lighter, less expensive containers than ‘lean gas’ cargos. Combined with the high energy content of rich gas, the transport economics can be extremely attractive for distances up to 5500km [3000nm].

VOTRANS systems are capable of transporting a very wide range of gas compositions and supply conditions with limited gas handling facilities installed on the CNG carriers. When a dry, sweet gas stream is supplied at a

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pressure adequate to charge the containment system, onboard gas handling facilities are minimal.

CNG CARRIER DEVELOPMENT STATUS

Design Evolution and Maturity Due to the status of this emerging industry, many potential beneficiaries are interested in understanding the ability of a marine CNG transport project to gain regulatory approvals. That issue has been addressed through many internal and external activities, including the 1st International Marine CNG Standards Forum held in June 2004 at Memorial University of Newfoundland, under the sponsorship of The Centre for Marine CNG (www.CMCNG.org). This event assembled a highly distinguished delegation comprised of CNG transport developers, energy companies, shipping companies, leading professional organizations (e.g. SIGTTO and ASME), maritime class societies, key maritime administrations (such as the U.S. Coast Guard and Transport Canada) and representatives from other governmental agencies. The official communiqué of the Forum noted that the state of guidance for classification and regulatory purposes is well advanced, and that alignment across the industry is a practical goal. The Forum leadership also recognized that the CMCNG is positioned to play an important role in advancing and facilitating the state of CNG transport technology towards practical standards and implementation.

The International Gas Carrier (IGC) Code provides the foundation for establishing a pathway to regulatory approval. Due to the fact that the IGC Code did not adequately anticipate large scale marine CNG transportation projects as it was developed, both ABS and DNV have now prepared guidelines (or ‘Rules’) to more fully address the critical features of safety review for classification. A ‘safety case’ approach, involving intense hazard identification and mitigation exercises as well as quantitative risk assessments, complements the codes and guidelines to ensure safe designs and operating practices.

Construction and commissioning operations require early consideration when generating both the ship design and the project management plan. In any case, if the containment system is too heavy, the ship may not be able to be completed in, or even enter, a drydock.

VOTRANS CNG carriers have been designed such that they can be completed in drydock. Its containers allow a lightship weight design that is sufficiently light to allow vessel float out with all equipment installed onboard.

Overall VOTRANS ship dimensions are driven by a need to maintain and repair the vessel over its entire service life. Maximum available drafts at repair facilities around the world constrain the design draft in the repair condition (basically lightship). The maximum lightship draft is, therefore, targeted to be substantially less than 8m based on the capabilities of the world's major repair shipyards.

CNG Carrier Development Status ABS granted ‘Approval in Principle’ for the design and operating plans for the "V-800" VOTRANS ship in 2003. The V-800 ships are notionally designed to carry a gas cargo of up to 22.7 million scm [800mmscf]. Fig. 4 – Notional ship capacity design envelopes for VOTRANS CNG carriers. Other ship designs can be easily scaled upwards or downwards, such as the V600 and V800 vessels shown above, or anywhere in between to provide for an optimally efficient fleet design for the transport service.

Market opportunity reviews have indicated that many applications can be optimally served with the use of CNG carriers having cargo capacities ranging from 15 to 30 million scm [approx. 500 - 1,000 MM scf].

Front-end activities for a number of CNG project opportunities have been initiated during 2004. For example, an early-phase project study for a Papua New Guinea-New Zealand CNG service has been launched by Oil Search Ltd., while a CNG Pre-FEED program for Husky Energy’s White Rose gas development in Atlantic Canada was also announced.

Concurrent with the above activities, the VOTRANS system is undergoing a multi-million dollar validation program which is now moving into its final phase of prototype testing. This validation program features both a functional testing program with the Gas Technology Institute and a full scale cold temperature fatigue and burst test program to qualify materials and the mechanical integrity of the CNG cargo cylinder design.

UNIQUE CAPABILITIES CNG transport is considered to be a cost effective tool for regional applications requiring the offtake and delivery of modest to rather substantial volumes of gas. The commercial envelope for competitive CNG projects can be roughly defined as follows:

• One-way transit distance: less than 350 to over 5500 km [<200 to 3000 nm]

• Gas rate: less than 3 to 30 million scm/d [< 100 – 1000 MM scf/d]

• Gas quality: lean (0.55 s.g.) to rich (0.75 s.g.)

• Water depth of terminals: up to 3000+ m [10,000 ft.] (and unlimited with use of bow loading systems)

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Fig. 5 – Market sector for CNG transport applications

CNG targets the market sector of gas resources that lie beyond the economic reach of subsea pipelines and below the reserves threshold of LNG projects. Therefore, the CNG solution is not seen as competing head-to-head with LNG and other solutions in all applications, as illustrated in Fig. 5 above.

FIELDS OF POTENTIAL Implementation of large-scale marine CNG transport projects now appears to be imminent as confirmed by the announcements of a number of early stage engineering and project planning initiatives, and it is expected that the new CNG transport industry will achieve a sanctioned commercial project within the next two years.

Flexible Applications for CNG Transport Projects Direct Offshore Gas Offtake. CNG transport systems lend themselves as very elegant solutions for remote offshore gas developments that lack access to existing pipeline infrastructure and the technical or economic viability to support its own pipeline offtake.

The main reason for this capability is that CNG projects require only minimal gas processing and equipment on the offshore production facility, namely: normal production separation, moderate dehydration (typically less than 7 lbm/MM scf), and compression (if needed) to load the CNG vessel. All of these processes are similar to those usually needed for pipeline offtakes. Alternative solutions such as LNG and GTL have struggled to find commercial application in offshore production projects due to very extensive processing requirements and their exorbitant cost in an offshore application.

Fig. 6 – Example of a simple buoy-type gas terminal and cargo transfer system (courtesy Bluewater).

Another attractive feature for offshore CNG offtake projects is the relatively simple and cost effective means for transferring gas from the producing field to the CNG carriers. As illustrated in Fig. 6 above, the main infrastructure requirements for offtaking gas include a short subsea pipeline spur from the production facility (not shown), riser pipes and gas transfer buoys. A twin-buoy design will enable continuous gas production and offtake with a fleet of shuttling CNG carriers, one of which will always be on station to support uninterrupted operations.

Associated Gas. Proper management of associated gas in offshore oil production projects is becoming an increasingly challenging problem for oil and gas operators. With environmental regulations imposing ever greater restrictions on the ability to flare gas in many producing regions of the world, the number of viable gas solutions is limited if a convenient pipeline solution is not available. Underground injection for gas disposal, if technically possible, may be an option in some situations, although this process usually requires significant capital and operating costs for injection wells and gas processing and compression equipment. Meanwhile, the value of the gas resource is lost.

Offshore associated gas offtake via CNG is currently being evaluated in a range of applications worldwide. In late 2004, Husky Energy announced its intention to evaluate CNG offtake of associated gas from its White Rose oil field in offshore Newfoundland through a Pre-FEED program.

Also, the U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) has commissioned the Offshore Technology Research Center (OTRC) to undertake a comprehensive assessment of solutions for deepwater associated gas in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. The CNG offtake and transport system is one of the solutions being addressed in this important study.

The benefits of a viable CNG offtake solution for an associated gas project are twofold. First, a commercial means of monetizing the stranded gas resource is provided. Also, substantial value may be realized from an oil development that has been made viable by having a robust gas disposal solution.

Deepwater Applications. A highly attractive application for CNG projects is in the offtake of gas from deepwater oil and gas fields. As described previously, the facilities required to transport gas from an offshore platform are simple and cost effective. These same facilities – risers, short subsea pipeline connections and buoys -- are also very cost effective in deep and ultradeep water when compared to the overall cost of the field development and transport projects. CNG offtake applications are deemed to be technically viable and cost effective in water depths up to 3000 m [10,000 ft].

In the event that a floating production system (FPSO) is being employed in fairly benign waters, then the cost effectiveness of CNG may be further enhanced if a simple over-the-bow (or "bow-on") flexible gas pipeline transfer connection can be utilized. In such a case the CNG

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application and cost would be largely independent of water depth.

Emerging Gas Economies. CNG can be a highly attractive option for small-to-moderately sized and emerging gas economies that do not have pipeline access but still wish to introduce gas into their mix of fuel supplies. One major reason is the very low cost of the CNG delivery terminal compared to a comparably sized LNG facility. This is an added cost to the price of gas that must ultimately be borne by the gas offtaker. Furthermore, many of these markets, such as island communities, do not wish to have massive LNG facilities and operations encroaching on their limited and sensitive real estate (see OFFSHORE GAS DELIVERY SOLUTIONS, below).

In addition, new and emerging markets will usually experience significant gas demand growth over time as the new gas economy begins to grow and develop attendant infrastructure and gas-related industry. If additional gas supplies are available at the source, then the supply operator can accommodate the incremental gas demand in these markets by simply deploying additional CNG vessels, which effectively expands the transport capacity.

Such simple and cost effective scalability is a benefit unique to CNG transport projects and a very efficient means of employing capital for capacity on a "just-in-time" basis.

Multiple Gas Markets & Supplies. As mentioned above, the low cost CNG delivery terminals lower the capital cost entry barrier to introduce new gas supplies into many markets. Therefore, it may be possible for gas supply operators to employ a marketing strategy for accessing multiple markets that exist in the transport catchment area. These could be developed initially or sequentially as market demands evolve or supply reserves increase.

Likewise, the low cost CNG loading terminals may allow for the development and offtake of gas supplies from a complex of offshore gas fields.

GAS PRODUCTION STORAGE SHUTTLE SYSTEM CONCEPT (GPSS) In 2004, EnerSea joined with Kerr-McGee Corporation to lead a feasibility project of an innovative ultra-deepwater field development concept. This work involved a large multi-discipline team in an eight-month effort co-funded by the Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA) [6].

As industry continues to push the frontier boundaries of ultra-deepwater and remote location discoveries, EnerSea has addressed the challenge by taking the VOTRANS CNG carrier and expanding it into an all-in-one deepwater gas production and transport vessel named a ‘Gas Production Storage Shuttle’, or GPSS™.

Fig. 7 - Gas Production/Storage Shuttle (GPSS) conceptual scenario.

This shuttling concept (Fig. 7) offers gas developers the ability to eliminate much of the infrastructure traditionally required for remote gas field development, such as expensive ultra-deepwater pipelines and dedicated production facilities.

The GPSS is analogous to an FPSO used in oil service with the added capability of transporting its gas product to market. It combines all of the features and advantages of the VOTRANS CNG carrier, including proprietary gas containment and gas handling technologies, along with direct operational control and support for the subsea gas field and processing systems for the produced fluid onboard. The shuttle vessel concept also serves as the storage facility for gas and liquids and, when filled to capacity, disconnects from its production buoy/mooring to deliver the gas to market. Using a pair of loading buoys and multiple vessels operating in a shuttling fashion allows for uninterrupted production from remote fields.

Throughout early field life, reservoir pressure provides the energy to push the lean gas fluids through the gas handling facilities and into the shipboard storage. As pressure declines, the GPSS has been designed to allow the installation of a compression module to continue reservoir evacuation and extend economic field life.

The study concludes that the innovative GPSS system is technically feasible as a production and transportation solution for remote or deepwater gas field developments.

RISK MANAGEMENT CNG transport solutions offer unique risk management capabilities through use of the above mentioned features. Firstly, projects can be started "small", often with less than 1 Tcf of reserves, and with sufficiently high confidence levels to underpin project economics. The "small project" can then be used as an effective long term production test, which is seldom allowed these days prior to the project investment decision. Transport capacity

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may then be scalability increased via deploying one or more additional CNG carriers into the fleet to quickly and cost effectively capture the upside production capacity and market opportunities.

Approximately 85 – 90% of a CNG transport project's assets are re-deployable. If after a CNG project has been developed into service and a commercial or political problem arises that shuts down the ability to market the gas, then it may be possible to redeploy the CNG carriers into another service and effectively salvage the majority of capital invested in the transport project, and possibly the gas field development as well if the fallback market is within reach of the supply source.

Likewise, if the gas resource or supply is rendered unavailable for technical or other reasons, then the CNG transport project can again be largely redeployed to another local supply or into another service worldwide.

OFFSHORE GAS DELIVERY SOLUTIONS The benefits and attraction of moving natural gas receiving terminals and their related operations offshore and away from sensitive areas, such as communities and industry, is increasingly becoming a welcome development to many constituencies.

Gas Supply Imperative. With the U.S. and other energy intensive economies facing substantial forecasted shortages in their natural gas supply (e.g. National Petroleum Council's 2003 study, Balancing Natural Gas Policy – Fueling the Demands of a Growing Economy), many energy experts believe that such shortfalls can only be satisfied by dramatic increases in the volumes of natural gas imports.

Land-based Terminal Concerns. Although industry is seeking to realize such imports through a massive development of new build LNG terminal capacity, wining approvals for new LNG receiving and storage terminals has never been an easy task. In fact, the last greenfield LNG import terminal in the U.S. was built over twenty years ago and most new terminal proposals can expect to face considerable resistance.

Land-based projects are encountering stiff local opposition despite extensive planning, engineering and community outreach programs. While the general history of LNG terminals reflects a sterling safety record and operational designs are engineered to a very high level of safety, the disaster at the Skikda LNG facility in Algeria in 2003 has added fuel to the antagonist's fire in the LNG terminal debate. In addition, in the post “9-11” world where geopolitical mischief is unpredictable and undertaken with deliberate intent and design to defeat safety features, even greater emphasis and scrutiny is placed on the security aspects of terminal locations and operations.

Moving Offshore. One solution for addressing the above concerns over gas terminal operations which is gaining in popularity is to simply move such facilities offshore and safely away from people and property.

The U.S. Congress and President Bush recognized this value through the passage of the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002. This legislation extended the Deepwater Ports Act of 1974 to enable offshore ports to accommodate "compressed and liquefied natural gas" imports in addition to existing oil provisions.

Industry has been quick to realize the attraction of offshore solutions for the import of natural gas. Upon passage of the MTSA, ChevronTexaco immediately submitted an application for its Port Pelican offshore LNG terminal and El Paso similarly submitted an application for its Energy Bridge gas terminal (now operated by Excelerate Energy).

Both applications received their initial approvals within the time frame mandated by the new legislation - 356 days.

CNG Offshore Gas Receiving Terminals VOTRANS CNG transport systems provide a complete offshore solution – both for receiving and delivering gas cargos. Loading and offloading operations are able to take place through relatively simple buoy-type transfer systems located at safe distances offshore from the gas sources and markets, respectively. Simple subsea flowlines make up the rest of the system.

Fig. 8 – Safe and secure offshore CNG terminals

These offshore terminal locations and operations provide several benefits to all stakeholders in the gas project chain, including: safety, security, cost effectiveness and flexibility.

Safety & Security. VOTRANS gas terminals can be situated sufficiently away from shore to ensure the protection of people and property. The terminals will also be located outside of heavy ship traffic lanes and ports, where the large majority of ship collisions occur. Having completed the initial complement of hazard identification, comparative risk and operability studies for the VOTRANS system, the overarching consensus of the reviewers, including ship classification societies, is that these fleets can meet and possibly exceed the level of safety established by the maritime LNG industry.

Cost Effectiveness. The cost of an offshore CNG terminal will typically be only a small fraction of that for an onshore LNG terminal, making gas imports a more practical consideration for a wider span of gas-starved markets. Offshore LNG terminal cost estimates have

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been reported to be well in excess of $750MM, while an offshore CNG terminal will be in the $20-60MM range. By avoiding port approaches, delays and demurrage costs caused by traffic tie-ups will also be eliminated.

Importantly, CNG offshore terminal permit applications, as already demonstrated by the similar Energy Bridge gas port, are expected to be relatively quicker and much less costly to develop, process and implement than for onshore LNG projects.

Flexibility. VOTRANS transport solutions have great scalability and redeployment capabilities, both in the transport capacity (i.e. fleet) and in supply and market access (terminals). These unique features can provide risk management solutions for reservoir, commercial and political uncertainties, as well as strategic tools to take advantage of growth opportunities in gas supply resources and/or market demand.

SUMMARY CNG transport solutions offer gas developers and markets a unique set of strengths and capabilities for providing value, flexibility and risk management. Combined with the mature state of technical designs and validation efforts, along with growing regulatory acceptance and industry activities to undertake project development planning, CNG delivery solutions are well advanced towards becoming a powerful new tool in gas operators' development kits.

REFERENCES: [1] Dunlop, J. and White, C., CNG Transport Technology is Delivering on Promises; SPE84254, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Conference, Denver, October 2003. [2] Hussain, Tom, CNG Arrives … Finally; Fairplay International Shipping Weekly, 16 September 2004, pp. 16-19. [3] White, C., et al, The Impact of Compressed Natural Gas Shipping upon Offshore Gas Development, OTC15070, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 2003. [4] National Petroleum Council, Balancing Natural Gas Policy – Fueling the Demands of a Growing Economy; November 2003. [5] White, C., et al, CNG Carriers Applied to Remote, Marginal Gas Development; Proceedings from the Royal Institution of Naval Architects' Conference – Design & Operation of Gas Carriers, London, September 2004. [6] Dunlop, J. and White, C., Stranded Gas Finds a Boat Ride, Hart’s E&P Magazine, September 2004, pp. 45-46.