Servia Book

SERVIA I: ANGLO-HELLENIC RESCUE EXCAVATIONS 1971-73Author(s): CRESSIDA RIDLEY, K. A. WARDLE, CATHARINE A. MOULD, Jill Carington Smith,Rupert Housely, Richard Hubbard, Jonathan Musgrave and Bill PhelpsReviewed work(s):Source: The British School at Athens. Supplementary Volumes, No. 32, SERVIA I: ANGLO-HELLENIC RESCUE EXCAVATIONS 1971-73 (2000), pp. iii-xxx, 1-370, 85-87Published by: British School at AthensStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40856111 .Accessed: 21/08/2012 03:50

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SERVIA I ANGLO-HELLENIC RESCUE EXCAVATIONS 1971-73

directed by KATERINA RHOMIOPOULOU AND CRESSIDA RIDLEY

by

CRESSIDA RIDLEY, K. A. WARDLE AND CATHARINE A. MOULD

With additional contributions by

Jill Carington Smith, Rupert Housely, Richard Hubbard, Jonathan Musgrave and Bill Phelps

Production Editor: Rayna Andrew

SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME NO. 32 Published by

THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS

2000

Published and distributed by The British School at Athens

Senate House, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HU

© The Council, The British School at Athens ISBN 0 904887 33 2

Printed at Alden Press Limited, Oxford and Northampton, Great Britain

Cressida Ridley 1917-1998

Cressida came to archaeology relatively late in life through participating in the field work of the local archaeological group in Wiltshire near her home. Of a generation when a formal higher education was still considered exceptional, especially for women, she nevertheless had all the instincts of a scholar and researcher from an early age. A keen intellect, a vora- cious appetite for information and an outspoken advocacy of truth and logic, could all have guided her in any one of several directions. Time and chance brought her to Greek prehistory via a distinction in the Postgraduate Diploma in European Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, London, under the guidance of Professor J. D. Evans. Awarded a Scholar- ship by the British School at Athens to begin her research into the Macedonian Late Neolithic, she worked hard to master modern Greek - spending many months in Thessaloniki under the tuition of Niki Harissiades and soon became a familiar visitor to the museums and collections of northern Greece where she recorded and drew hundreds of examples of the varied pottery of the period.

She joined in many of the excavations of the British School - Saliagos, Lefkandi, Sitagroi and Myrtos - learning the skills of the excavator while applying her own acute powers of observation and rigorous chain of argument to problems of stratigraphy.

Chance, too, brought her to Servia, to conduct with Katerina Rhomiopoulou, then in charge of the IZ1 Ephoria, the rescue excavations described in this volume, which proved so reward- ing that they provided material for years of study and evaluation. Practical and pragmatic, she solved most of the problems associated with any excavation without fuss, whether it was raising the funds, gathering a skilled team of archaeologists, searching out workmen to whom archaeological excavation and women directors were still a novelty, or organising the study of large quantities of varied material.

Throughout the excavation she felt and acknowledged a special debt to Yiannis Papadopoulos who had learnt excavation techniques with Bob Rodden and David Clark when they explored the early neolithic site near his village, Nea Nikomedeia, and became foreman to excavations at Sitagroi, Kastritsa, Assiros and Knossos, as well as Servia.

Once the excavations were completed in 1973, she made an extended visit to Greece each summer and autumn, helping on the excavations of others - at Assiros and Lefkandi in particular, and continuing the painstaking sorting and classification of the pottery and other finds from Servia, by now housed in the museum at Fiorina. Many of us who worked there with her remember with great affection the warmth of her welcome as well as the hours of work in the museum there - often in Spartan conditions since the central heating had hardly worked since the museum was built and winter comes early to this north western corner of Macedonia. For much of the time however, this was for Cressida a solitary task, undertaken with determination and single mindedness.

V

Little by little the work of study was completed, as clearly demonstrated by the ledgers of records of sherds counted and weighed, of registration cards in her distinctive spiky hand- writing, of files of drawings and negatives, all carefully indexed. By 1990 this record was complete and compilation of the report proper could begin: the present volume is the real reward of so much labour.

It was a privilege for us to help her in the final stages of preparing this report, to exchange views, to argue the case for different definitions and interpretations, to benefit from her excellent memory for detail - even without consulting the record - and from her insistence on logic and consistency. Her death in June 1998 was unexpected and premature: we could not conceive of such a determined and indomitable character not seeing the job through. She had, however, read, discussed and approved every section, corrected the grammar and helped choose the illustrations. Her energy and dedication started and maintained this project, her inspiration has helped us finish it.

K. A. Wardle

At Antiparos for the Saliagos excavations, July 1965.

Contents

List of Figures xi List of Tables xv List of Plates xvii List of Abbreviations xxi List of illustrations on CD-ROM xxiii

Preface, by K. A. Wardle xxvii

Chapter i The Excavation, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley and K. A. Wardle i 1.1 Introduction i 1.2 The Prehistoric Site 5 1.3 Initial Observations by A. J. B. Wace and 5

M. S. Thompson 1.4 A Research Campaign led by W. A. Heurtley 7 1.5 The Rescue Excavation of 1971-73 10 1.6 Excavation and Recording Methods 14 1.7 Comparative and Absolute Chronology 14

Chapter 2 The Stratigraphy and Phases, by C. A. Mould and K. A. Wardle 1 7 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 The Middle Neolithic 22

2.2.1 Phase One 23 2.2.2 Phase Two 25 2.2.3 Phase Three 30 2.2.4 Heurtley's Stratum I - 'en' 1-4 33 2.2.5 Phase Four 34 2.2.6 Heurtley's Stratum II - 'en' 5 42 2.2.7 Phase Five 42

2.3 The Late Neolithic 44 2.3.1 Phase Six 44 2.3.2 Phase Seven 47 2.3.3 Heurtley's Stratum II - 'ln' 1 54

2.4 The Early Bronze Age 54 2.4.1 Phase Eight 55 2.4.2 Heurtley's Stratum III - 'ln' 2, eba 58 2.4.3 Phase Nine 58 2.4.4 Phase Ten 61

2.5 Phase Eleven 62 2.5.1 The Human Skeleton from the Phase Eleven Pit, 64

F20/B-F20/D, by]. Musgrave 2.6 Post- Roman Occupation 69

Chapter 3 The Architectural Remains, by C. A. Mould and K. A. Wardle 7 1 3.1 Introduction 71 3.2 Middle Neolithic Structures 71

3.2.1 The size of buildings 72 3.2.2 The orientation of buildings 72

vii

viii CONTENTS

3.2.3 Location of buildings 75 3.3 Late Neolithic Structures 75

3.3.1 The architecture and size of buildings 75 3.3.2 The orientation of buildings 76 3.3.3 Location of buildings 77

3.4 Early Bronze Age Structures 77 3.5 Building Techniques 79

3.5.1 Walls 79 3.5.2 Buttresses 86 3.5.3 Roofs 86 3.5.4 Floors 86

3.6 Ancillary Features 91 3.6.1 Yards 91 3.6.2 Storage Areas 91 3.6.3 Hearths and Ovens 92 3.6.4 Pits 95 3.6.5 Ditches 97

3.7 Summary 97 3.8 Parallels and Comparisons 98

3.8.1 Early Neolithic 98 3.8.2 Middle Neolithic 99 3.8.3 Late Neolithic 102 3.8.4 Early Bronze Age 103 3.8.5 Defensive Features 104

Chapter 4 The Small Finds 107 4.1 Introduction, by K. A. Wardle 107 4.2 The Stone Small Finds, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley and 112

K. A. Wardle 4.2.1 Polished cutting tools - chisels, axes and adzes 112 4.2.2 Polished stone objects with shafthole *

137 4.2.3 Ground stone tools - pestles and cutting tools 139 4.2.4 Querns 146 4.2.5 Other grindstones/whetstones 151 4.2.6 Palettes 155 4.2.7 Pounders 157 4.2.8 Polishers and burnishers 159 4.2.9 Waisted weights 162

4.2.10 Fragments of stone vases 171 4.2.11 Ornaments 173 4.2.12 Pivots/ Sockets 182 4.2.13 Miscellaneous 182

4.3 The Clay Small Finds 191 4.3.1 The Figurines, by W. W. Phelps 192

The Spinning and Weaving Implements, by]. Carington Smith 207 4.3.2 Sherd disks 207 4.3.3 Spindle whorls 214 4.3.4 Pierced disks 222 4.3.5 Ring weights 223 4.3.6 Spools 227 4.3.7 Loomweights 233 4.3.8 Mat impressions 240

CONTENTS ix

4.3.9 Needles and a button 248 4.3.10 Anchors 248

Additional Clay Small Finds, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley 264 and K. A. Wardle

4.3.11 Ornaments 264 4.3.12 Slingbolts 266 4.3.13 Spoons 266 4.3.14 Stamp/burnisher 267 4.3.15 Disks 267 4.3.16 Plaques 271 4.3.17 The 'pillar-like' objects 271 4.3.18 Miscellaneous small finds 272 4.3.19 Worked small finds 274 4.3.20 Impressions in daub 275

4.4 The Shell Small Finds, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley 276 and K. A. Wardle

4.4.1 Beads 277 4.4.2 Bracelets 278 4.4.3 Pendants 281 4.4.4 Polisher 284 4.4.5 Unworked shell 285

4.5 Ornaments of stone, clay and shell, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley 285 and K. A. Wardle

4.6 The Metal Small Finds, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley 288 and K. A. Wardle

4.7 The Glass Small Finds, by C. A. Mould, Cressida Ridley 290 and K. A. Wardle

Chapter 5 The Environment and Agriculture 293 5.1 The Environmental Setting of the Prehistoric Settlement, 293

by Richard Hubbard 5.1.1 Introduction 293 5.1.2 Basic considerations underlying palaeoecological 294

reconstruction 5.1.3 The palaeoecological evidence 294 5.1.4 Clearances 295 5.1.5 Human Use of the Natural Resources 296

5.2 The Carbonised Plant Remains, by Rupert Housley 301 5.2.1 Introduction 301 5.2.2 The botanical remains 302 5.2.3 Discussion 307 5.2.4 Botanical discussion of the species of plants recovered 316

5.3 The Agriculture of Prehistoric Servia, by Richard Hubbard 330 and Rupert Housley

5.3.1 Introduction 330 5.3.2 Analytical Considerations 330 5.3.3 Neolithic agricultures of the southern Balkans 331 5.3.4 Comparison of en and mn agricultures 335 5.3.5 Local adaptations and indigenous origins 335 5.3.6 Early agriculturalists: primitive or sophisticated? 336

5.4 Malacological investigations at Servia: a fool's errand? 337 by Richard Hubbard

x CONTENTS

5.5 A Middle Neolithic Dendrochronological Snippet, 339 by Richard Hubbard

5.6 The Archaeobotany of Early Neolithic Servia, 340 by Richard Hubbard

5.6.1 Some general considerations 340 5.6.2 Archaeobotanical investigations 342 5.6.3 Analytical results 343 5.6.4 Notes on certain taxa 349 5.6.5 Early Neolithic agriculture in Greece 352

5.7 Insect Remains, by Richard Hubbard 355

Bibliography 357

list of Figures

i . i The location of the prehistoric mound at Servia 2 1.2 Location of Heurtley's and 1971-73 excavation trenches. 8 1.3 Stratigraphie sections of 1930s excavation. 9 1.4 Area of excavation, 1971-73. 12 1.5 Stratigraphie section: Phases One-Eleven. 13

2.1 Phase One, Area F, Structures 1-3. 24 2.2 Phase Two, Area F, Structures 1-3. 26 2.3 Phase Three, Area F, Structures 1-4. 31 2.4 Phase Four, Area F, Structures 1-4. 35 2.5 Phase Four, Area H, Structure 6. 38 2.6 Phase Four, Area D, Structure 7 39 2.7 Phase Five, Area F, Structure 1. 43 2.8 Phase Six, Area F, Structure 1. 45 2.9 Phase Seven, Area F, Structure 1. 48

2.10 Phase Seven, Area F, Structures 2, 5-7. 49 2.1 1 Phase Seven, Area H, Structure 3. 51 2.12 Phase Eight, ditches in Areas D, E, F, G and H. 57 2.13 Phase Nine, Areas F and G. 59 2.14 Phase Ten, Areas F and G. 63 2.15 Phase Eleven, Areas F and G. 65 2.16 Heurtley's excavation (after Heurtley 1939, fig. 45). 70

3.1 Reconstructions of Phase Four, Structure 7. 73 3.2 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for Phase Four Structure 7. 80 3.3 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for Phase Four Structure 7. 81 3.4 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, from Phase Four F20/A. 82 3.5 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, from Phase Seven Structure 83

5- 3.6 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, from Phase Seven Structure 2. 84 3.7 Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for ln Phase Seven in area of 85

Structure 4. 3.8 Clay daub preserving impressions of reeds (SF177) and other roofing material. 87

Phase Four destruction levels. 3.9 Rafter, supporting reeds, u/s from F20/A. 88

3.10 Close-set reeds (Phragmites australis), packed with clay and then faced. 88 3.1 1 Reconstruction of the Phase Seven beamed floor in Structure 2. 90 3.12 Phase Four oven (?) to s of Structure 1 (F20/C). 94 3.13 Phase Nine hearth from F20/B. ne

4.1 Hafting diagram. IXa 4.2 The distribution of axes and adzes by length. 1 16 4.3 Stone chisels and chisel manufacture. 118 4.4 Stone axes. 1Xg

xi

xii LIST OF FIGURES

4.5 Stone axes. 120 4.6 Stone adzes. 121 4.7 Stone adzes. 122 4.8 Stone adzes. 123 4.9 Stone shafthole objects: axe and macehead. 137

4.10 Cylindrical pestles and cutting tools. 141 4.11 Cylindrical pestles and cutting tools. 142 4.12 Querns. 147 4.13 Querns. 148 4.14 Grindstones. 152 4.15 Stone palettes. 156 4.16 Stone pounders. 158 4.17 Stone polishers and burnishers. 159 4.18 The distribution of the various weights of the waisted weights. 162 4.19 Waisted weights. 164 4.20 Stone vase fragments. 172 4.21 Stone beads. 175 4.22 Stone bracelets and pendants. 178 4.23 Selected miscellaneous stone ornaments or 'blanks'. 180 4.24 Stone pivots/sockets. 183 4.25 Miscellaneous stone objects: Disks; possible tools ; utilized river pebbles. 186 4.26 Miscellaneous stone objects: utilized slab; pulley-shaped object; curiously- 187

shaped river pebbles; truncated conical fragments. 4.27 en figurines. 194 4.28 en female figurine. 195 4.29 Figurines of mn and stylistically mn type. 199 4.30 LN and other figurines. 204 4.31 Sherd disks. 210 4.32 Spindle whorls and clay ring weights. 219 4.33 Clay pierced disk and pierced plaque. 222 4.34 Ring weights. 225 4.35 Spools. 229 4.36 Loomweights. 238 4.37 Anchors. 261 4.38 Clay beads. 265 4.39 Clay bracelets; pendant; slingbolts; burnisher and disk. 268 4.40 Clay 'pillars'. 271 4.41 Miscellaneous clay objects: reused sherd; cylinder; weight (?); spoons. 273 4.42 Shell beads. 277 4.43 Shell bracelets of Spondylus gaederopus and Glycimeris. 279 4.44 Shell drop pendants and perforated shells. 283 4.45 Bronze axe fragment; bronze earring; iron earring and bronze needle. 290

5.1 The representation of selected tree and shrub fruits, spices, and possible crop 299 plants at Servia, in the form of presence analyses, plotted against a radiocarbon time-scale.

5.2 The charred remains of cereals. 319 5.3 The charred remains of legumes. 322 5.4 The remains of other crops, fruit-bearing plants and selected weeds. 326 5.5 Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of cereal grain, chaff and 327

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

weeds for the ethnographic data from Amorgos. 5.6 Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of cereal grain, chaff and 328

weeds for the archaeobotanical data from Servia. 5.7 Plan of the mn burnt lower storage area in trench Do/C showing the 329

archaeobotanical samples in relation to the excavated structures and artefacts. 5.8 Graphs comparing the major agricultural components of prehistoric Servia with 332

those of Sitagroi-Photolivos in se Macedonia and Bulgaria. 5.9 en plant remains from Servia-Varytimides. 345

5.10 Scatter diagram of Indices of Heterogeneity and Rubbish Indices for the Servia- 346 Varytimides samples.

5.11 Triangular cereals/chaff/weed seeds graph of the Servia-Varytimides analyses, 349 showing the 1 Standard Error limits arising from the sampling statistics.

list of Tables 1.1 Charcoal samples processed by the British Museum in 1974 and 1977. 16 1.2 Charcoal samples processed by the British Museum in 1980-81. 16 1.3 C14 determinations from neolithic Servia and representative dates from other 19

Aegean neolithic sites. 1.4 C14 determinations from eba Servia and other Aegean sites. 20

2.1 Concordance of phasing designations: 1930 and 1971-73. 21

3.1 Dimensions of the MN structures. 74 3.2 Dimensions of the LN structures. 76 3.3 Dimensions of the eba structures. 78 3.4 Features defined as ovens or hearths. 93

4.1 The main groups of objects by material and phase. 111 4.2 The main groups of the stone objects. 113 4.3 The main groups of the clay objects. 191 4.4 Numbers of sherd disks found in each phase. 207 4.5 Pierced sherd disks from Servia-Varytimides. 208 4.6 Pierced sherd disks from the main site. 209 4.7 Numbers of fully pierced sherd disks from the main site found in each phase. 209 4.8 Sites where anchors have been found. 250 4.9 The shell objects by phase. 276

4.10 The distribution of ornaments in each Phase. 286

5.1 Neolithic Balkan charcoals: presence analyses. 298 5.2 Carbonised plant remains from the earliest mn and from the mn lower 303

storage areas. 5.3 Carbonised plant remains from the Phase Four mn destruction levels. 304 5.4 Carbonised plant remains from mn post-destruction, ln levels, eba 308 ditches and Phase Eleven levels. 5.5 Contextual, location and phasing details for the archaeobotanical samples. 310 5.6 Measurements of cereal grains. g 18 5.7 Measurements of Lathyrus seeds. 321 5.8 Measurements of lentil seeds. o2i 5.9 Measurements of other individual pulse seeds. 323

5.10 Measurements of the fruits of flax. 323 5.11 Measurements of the grape pips. o 24 5.12 Synthesis of agriculture at Servia: presence analyses. 333 5.13 Do/C Pinus beam annual increments. 340 5.14 Plant identifications from Servia-Varytimides. 347 5.15 en agricultures and Servia-Varytimides: presence analyses. 354 5.16 Contextual details for the insect remains. 355

xv

list of Plates 1.1 (a) The prehistoric settlement (foreground) from nw. 1971. 6

(b) Limni Polyphytou from nw with the piers of the new bridge from nw. 1974. 1.2 (a) Area F, from s. Excavation in progress, 1971. 11

(b) Phase Five: Fio/D, F20/B from n. Foundation trenches with post-holes including Structure 1. Pillars of new bridge in background (see fig. 2.7 and PLATE 2.6d).

(e) F20C. Photogrammetric recording by Ian Morrison. 1971. 2.1 (a) Phase One: Structure 3: Fio/D, F20/C from s: foundation trench for e wall 27

(righi) with central post-holes (left centre) cut into subsoil. (b) Phases One, Two and Three. F30/A from above. Remains of Phase One wall

alignment (centre); of post-holes probably belonging to n wall of Phase Two Structure 2; Phase Three post-pit (above).

2.2 (a) Phase Two: Structure 2: F20/D from s. Stone footings (?). 28 (b) Phase Three: Structure 3: F10/D from ne. Wall showing depth of cut for lower

storage area. 2.3 Phase Three: Structures 3 and 4: Fio/D, F20/B from s (see fig. 2.3). 29 2.4 (a) Phase Four: Structure 7: Area D from se. Cut for lower storage area and major 40

roof supports (see fig. 2.6). (b) Phase Four: Structure 7: Area D from se. Burnt debris representing fallen

upper floor (?). 2.5 (a) Phase Four: Road section: hearth with posts for shelter (?) around it. From n. 41

(b) Phase Four: Road section: hearth with posts for shelter (?) around it. From s. 2.6 (a) Phase Five: Structure 1: Fio/D, F20/B from s. Foundation trenches and post- 46

holes from a minimum of five structures (see fig. 2.7 and plate 1.2b). (b) Phase Six: Structure 1: F10/D from s. Wall foundation trench (see fig. 2.8).

2.7 (a) Phase Seven: Structure 2: Fio/D, F20/B from s. Burnt floor of beams (distance) 52 and clay (foreground), Phase Nine hearth (centre right) (see figs. 2.10, 2.13).

(b) Phase Seven: Structure 2: F20/B from s. Removal of clay surface of beamed floor.

2.8 (a) Phase Seven: Structure 3: Area H from w. Large post-holes of western wall. 53 (b) Phase Ten: Yard to s of Structure 3: Fio/D, F20/B from e. Pebbled yard (left),

margin between yard and internal clay floor of Structure 3 (centre), Phase Seven beamed floor (right at lower level).

2.9 (a) Phase Eleven: Byzantine burial: F20/D from above. 66 (b) Heurtley's excavation 1930: Complete photograph of 'ln' burial used in part in

Heurtley 1932 fig. 4, but showing the entire pit. Presumably another burial in a Byzantine pit not observed until Stratum II was reached.

4.1 (a) Small polished stone tools. From left, top: adze SF363, Phase Two; adze SF685, 124 Phase Four; axe SF771, Phase Four; bottom: adze SF131, Phase Four; adze SF669, Phase Four.

(b) Small polished stone tools. From left, top: chisel SF387, Phase Seven; adze SF287, Phase Eight; adze SF624, Phase Seven; bottom: axe SF127, Phase Seven; adze SF471, Phase Five/Seven.

4.2 (a) Small polished stone tools. From left: adze SF684, Phase Three; chisel SF789, 125 Phase u/s; adze, SF792, Phase Seven.

xvii

xviii LIST OF PLATES

(b) Small polished stone tools. From left: axe SF218, Phase u/s; sf8i, Phase Nine/ Ten/Eleven; axe SF73, Phase u/s.

4.3 (a) Polished stone tools. Top row from left: adze SF481, Phase One; adze SF308, 126 Phase Two; axe SF872, Phase Two; Bottom row from left: cylindrical cutting tool SF321, Phase Two; axe SF368, Phase One.

(b) Polished stone tools. From left: adze SF366, Phase Three; adze SF391, Phase Two/Three; axe SF700, Phase Four; axe SF648, Phase Four.

4.4 (a) Axe SF606, Phase Four, axe/adze SF702, Phase Three, adze SF113, Phase 127 Eleven, adze SF390, Phase u/s.

{b-c) SF769, stone axe split to make chisel, Phase Eight. 4.5 (a) Medium polished stone tools. From left: adze, SF237, Phase u/s; axe SF612, 128

Phase Eight; adze SF472, Phase One. (b) Adze SF1004, Phase u/s; axe SF1002, Phase u/s; axe SF916, Phase u/s.

4.6 (a) Shafthole axe SF299, Phase Ten. 138 (b) Macehead SF876, Phase Four. (c) Ground stone tools, u/s. From left: cylindrical cutting tool SF991; adze SF992;

cylindrical cutting tool SF990. 4.7 (a) From top: quern SF970, Phase en; grindstone SF862, Phase Four. 153

(b) From left: pivot/socket SF879, Phase Seven; grindstone SF941, Phase Nine. 4.8 (a) Stone tools. From left, top: burnisher SF207, Phase Eight/Eleven; burnisher 160

SF501, Phase Four; polisher SF715, Phase Four; bottom: polisher SF673, Phase Four; ornament blank (?), SF149, Phase Seven; burnisher SF343, Phase Three.

(b) A selection of spherical pounders. 4.9 Waisted weights, Phase Four: (a) sf6oo; (¿) SF605; (e) SF607. 166 4.10 Stone vase fragments, Phase en: {a) SF820; {b) SF979. 171 4.11 Stone ornaments, Phase Four: (a) bracelets: (left) SF689; {righi} SF758; pendant 181

SF748; (b) beads. 4.12 {a) Miscellaneous stone objects. From left, top: grooved pebble SF649, Phase en; 188

pebble SF281, Phase Seven; bottom: 'trough'-like object SF760, Phase en; u/s stopper-like object.

(b) Miscellaneous stone objects. From left: tool (?) SF627, Phase Nine; worked pyramid' SF109, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven.

4.13 en figurines: human SF414, female SF736, male SF708, human leg SF705, 197 human SF367 (u/s), human (?) SF645, animal SF360, female SF716.

4.14 {a) Stylistically mn figurines SF216 and SF219, side views, u/s. 200 (b) Stylistically mn figurines SF216 and SF219 frontal, joined, u/s.

4.15 mn and stylistically mn figurines: animal SF333, Phase Two; human head 201 SF1067, Phase Ten; female leg SF145, Phase Eleven; animal head SF750, Phase Three; animal SF711, Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven; animal head SF334, Phase Ten.

4.16 LN and stylistically ln figurines: human sf6i6, Phase Six; female SF852, Phase 206 Seven; protome SF3, u/s; leg of altar or pot (?) SF630, Phase Six/Seven; leg of pot (?) SF895, Phase Seven.

4.17 (a) Sherd disks, en. From left, top: fully pierced, SF457, SF944, SF657; partly 211 pierced, SF1099, SF822.

(b) Unpierced sherd disks. 4.18 {a) Clay spindle whorls, Phase Ten, top view. From left, top: SF280, SF303, SF336, 220

bottom: sfioo, SF319, SF27. (b) Clay spindle whorls, Phase Ten, three quarter view. From left, top: SF280,

SF303, SF336, bottom: sfioo, SF319, SF27. 4.19 (a) Clay spools, en. From left, top: SF404, SF923, bottom: SF362, SF922. 230

LIST OF PLATES xix

(b) Clay spools, en. From left, top: SF932, SF924, bottom: SF936, SF935. (c) Clay spool, en SF196.

4.20 (a) Clay ring weights. From left, top: sf8o8, Phase Four; SF804, Phase u/s; SF807, 239 Phase Four; bottom: SF803, Phase u/s; SF805, Phase Five; SF802, Phase u/s.

(b) Clay loomweights. From left, top: SF92, Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven; SF238, Phase Ten; SF339, Phase Nine; bottom: sf 501, Phase Ten; SF340, Phase Nine.

4.21 [a) Mat impressions, en. From left, top: P551, SF909, bottom: P552. 244 (b) Mat impressions, en. Top: SF910, bottom: SF902.

4.22 [a) Mat impressions, en. From left, top: P550, P558, bottom: P363, P537. 245 (b) Mat impression: PS5s;6, Phase Five.

4.23 Impression in daub of matting basket SF894, Phase Four: (a) impression; (b) cast. 246 4.24 Examples of twill weave using cereal straw of the kind represented by the mat 247

impressions. 4.25 (a) Clay anchors. From left, top: SF348, Phase Nine; SF290, Phase Ten; SF394, 262

Phase u/s; bottom: SF309, Phase Nine; sf6o, Phase u/s; SF623, Phase Nine. (b) Clay anchor fragments. From left, top: SF204, Phase u/s; SF529, Phase Nine;

SF85 (part only), Phase Ten; centre: SF898, Phase Eleven; SF105, Phase Ten; SF1108, Phase Nine; bottom: SF1107, Phase Nine; SF654, Phase Nine; SF1113, Phase u/s; sf8i8, Phase u/s.

4.26 (a) Clay objects. From left, top: sherd disk SF677, Phase en; pendant SF821, Phase en; 269 sherd ornament SF683, Phase en; bottom: spindle whorl SF667, Phase en; bead SF767, Phase en; disk bead SF919, Phase en.

(b) Clay ornaments. From left, top: bracelet SF536, Phase Two; bracelet SF403, Phase Two; centre: bracelet sf88i, Phase Seven; bottom: spindle whorl/bead sf6oi, Phase u/s; bead SF296, Phase Nine.

4.27 {a) Clay stamp/burnisher, SF634, Phase Nine. 270 (b) Clay disk SF107, Phase u/s. (c) Clay 'pillars', Phase Seven. Left: SF918; right: SF978.

4.28 Shell bracelets: (a) Spondylus gaederopus SF691B-D, Phase Four; 281 (b) Glycimeris: sf8 16, Phase Four; (c) Glycimeris: SF400, Phase Seven; [d) Spondylus gaederopus: SF731 and SF732 (joined), Phase Four; (e) Spondylus gaederopus SF850, Phase Four.

4.29 (a) Shell: From left, top: Pectén jacobaeus pendant SF815, Phase Two; Margaritifera 284 pendant SF24, Phase Ten; bottom: Cerastoderma glaucum pendants SF258, Phase u/s; SF223, u/s; SF899, Phase One.

4.30 Objects of bronze and iron: (a) needle of arsenical bronze: SF345, Phase Nine; 289 (b) axe fragment of arsenical bronze SF236, Phase u/s; (c) iron earring sf6ib, Phase Eleven; (d) 'bronze' earring sf6ia, Phase Eleven.

5.1 (a) Cast of impressions of oak leaves (Quercus cf. pedunculiflora) in mn daub from 300 the floor of Phase Four, Structure 3.

(b) Cast of an impression of a coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum) in a ln sherd. The scale bar is one millimetre long.

5.2 Cast of a daub impression of a head of two row barley (Hordeum d. distichon). 346

list of Abbreviations

BA Bronze Age lc Late Cycladic Bridge W Bridge Works lg Late Geometric e east LH Late Helladic EBA Early Bronze Age ln Late Neolithic eh Early Helladic mba Middle Bronze Age eia Early Iron Age mh Middle Helladic em Early Minoan mn Middle Neolithic en Early Neolithic n north en L Early Neolithic lower R. section Road section en u Eary Neolithic upper s south LBA Late Bronze Age w west

Bibliographic Abbreviations

AAA AQxaioXoyixà ÀváÀexTct eÇ 'A0t]vc5v A. Delt ÀQxaioXoyixòv AeÀ/ríov AE ÄQ%aioXoyixT| *Ecpr||LieQÍç AEM0 To AQ%aioÀ,oyixó Egyo gtt| Maxeôovía xai 0Qaxr| AJA American Journal of Archaeology Ancient Macedonia/ Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies/ Aqxcucx Maxeöovta 'IÔQUua MeXexcov X8Qoovt|gou too Aiuou Ath. Mitt Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Athenische

Abteilung BAR British Archaeological Reports BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique BSA Annual of the British School at Athens CAH Cambridge Ancient History Jdl Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts JAS Journal of Archaeological Science JFA Journal of Field Archaeology J. Forensic Sciences Journal of Forensic Sciences LAAA Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology PAE riQaxTixà xfjç év 'A0r|vaiç ÀQxaioXoyixfjç 'ExaiQeíaç. TAP 'Exôoori too xaueíou ctQxaioXoyixcov ttoqcûv xat aTraÀAoTQicûaecov JRGZM Jahrbuch des Römisch- Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society WA World Archaeology Z. hyg. Zool. Zeitschrift für hygienische Zoologie und Schadlingsbekamfung

xxi

list of Illustrations by Frame on CD

1 Haliakmon Valley looking ne. Village of Neraïda in foreground. 2 Spring below site at edge of River Haliakmon 3 Phase One, Structure i: F20/C from n. Post-holes and eba ditch [foreground); wall stubs

(right and background}; traces of timber floor. 4 Phase One, Structure 1: F20/C from w: eba ditch (leß; stubs of walls (foreground and

righi}; pebble floor remake (distance). 5 Phase One, Structure 3: Fio/D, F20/C from s: bedding trench for e wall (righi} central

post-pits (leß centre). 6 Phase One, Structure 3: Fio/D, F20/C from n: foundation trench for e wall (left centre},

central post-pits (right centre} 7 Phase One, Structure 3: F20/A from e. Patch of burnt timber floor. 8 Phases One, Two and Three. F30/A from n. Remains of Phase One wall alignment

(centre}; of post-holes probably belonging to n wall of Phase Two Structure 2 (leß; Phase Three post-pit (righi}.

9 Phases One, Two and Three. F30/A from s. Remains of Phase One wall alignment (centre}; of post-holes probably belonging to n wall of Phase Two Structure 2 (leß; Phase Three post pit (righi}.

10 Phase Two, Structure 2: F20/D from s. Stone footings (?). 1 1 Phase Two, Structure 2: F20/C from w. Circular hearth base. 12 Phase Three: Yard between Structures 1 and 3: F20/C from s. Horseshoe-shaped oven

base. 13 Phases Two/Three/Four: Yard between Structures 1 and 3 of Phase Three: F20/C from s.

Sequence of hearth and ovens. 14 Phases Three/Four: F20/C from w. Section of ovens showing pebble base and remakes. 15 Phase Three, Structure 3: F20/A from w. Post-pits representing major roof supports. 16 Phase Four: Area of Structure 2: F20/A from w. Burnt building debris. 17 Phase Four: nw of Structure 3: F20/B from n. Stakes offence partition. 18 Phase Seven: Structure 2: F10/D, F20/B, G20/A from ne. Clay surfaced beamed floor,

with later eba hearth (Phase Nine). 19 Phase Seven: Structure 2: Fio/D, F20/B from e. Clay surfaced beamed floor, with later

eba hearth (Phase Nine). 20 Phase Seven, Structure 2: F20/B from nw. Clay surfaced beamed floor. 21 Phase Seven, Structure 2: F20/B. Beamed floor, clay surface partly removed to reveal

'casts' in soft soil of the beam impressions. 22 Phase Seven, Structure 2: F20/B. Beamed floor, clay surface partly removed to reveal

'casts' in soft soil of the beam impressions. 23 Phase Seven, Structure 2: F20/B. Beamed floor, clay surface showing beam impressions. 24 Phase Seven, Structure 3. Area H from w. Large post-holes of western wall. 25 Phase Eight, southern ditch: F20/A from w. Bottom of ditch cut (centre), V-shaped cut in

section (distance), test pit into subsoil (left distance). 26 Phase Nine, pit i: G20/A from s. 27 Phase Ten, Structure 3: G20/B from se. P3 in situ. 28 Phase Ten, Structure 3: G20/B from s. P3 in situ.

xxiii

xxiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ON CD-ROM

29 Phase Ten, Yard to s of Structure 3: F10/D from e. Pebbled yard (left), margin between yard and clay floor of Structure 3 (centre), Phase Seven Structure 2 beamed floor (right at lower level).

30 Phase Ten, Yard to s of Structure 3: F10/D from w. Pebbled yard (right), margin between yard and clay floor of Structure 3 (centre left, Phase Seven Structure 2 beamed floor (left at lower level).

31 Phase Eleven, Byzantine pit: F20/C from w. 32 Phase Eleven, Byzantine pits: F20/D from w. Part excavated (left), defined (right). 33 Phase Eleven, Byzantine pits: F20/D from n. Part excavated (foreground), fully excavated

(distance), to expose burial (centre distance). 34 Phase Eleven, Byzantine pit and burial: F20/D from n. Cleaned section showing pit profile

and burial in situ. 35 Phase Eleven, Byzantine burial: F20/D from above. Burial partly exposed, iron earring

(sf6ib) by left ear. 36 Phase Eleven, Byzantine burial: F20/D from above.

37 Small polished stone tools: SF684 adze, Phase Three; SF789 chisel, u/s; SF792 adze, Phase Seven.

38 Small polished stone tools, all u/s: SF999, axe; sfiooi, adze; sfiooo, axe; SF1003, adze.

39 Small polished stone tools: SF387, chisel, Phase Seven; SF287, adze, Phase Eight; SF624, adze, Phase Seven; SF127, axe, Phase Seven; SF471, adze, Phase Five/Seven.

40 Small polished stone tools: SF73 axe, Phase u/s; sf8i adze, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF218 axe, Phase u/s.

41 SF769, Stone axe split to make chisel, Phase Eight. 42 SF769, Stone axe split to make chisel, Phase Eight. 43 Medium polished stone tools: SF237 adze, u/s; SF612 axe, Phase Eight; SF472 adze,

Phase One. 44 Medium polished stone tools: SF366 adze, Phase Three; SF391 adze, Phase Two;

SF700 axe, Phase Four; SF648 axe, Phase Four. 45 Ground stone, u/s: SF991 cylindrical tool; SF992 adze; SF990 cylindrical tool. 46 Ground stone, cylindrical tools: SF383, Phase Three; SF412, u/s; SF321, Phase Two. 47 Ground stone tools: SF166 adze, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF299 shafthole axe, Phase

Ten; SF305 adze, Phase Eight. 48 Stone tools etc: SF207 burnisher, Phase Eight/Eleven; SF501 burnisher, Phase Four;

SF715 polisher, Phase Four; SF673 polisher, Phase Four; SF149 ornament blank (?), Phase Seven; SF343 burnisher, Phase Three.

49 Waisted weights. 50 Stone vase fragment, SF979, Servia-Varytimides. 51 Malachite pendant, SF709, u/s. 52 Stone: SF627 tool (?), Phase Nine; SF943 leg (?) of polvpod vase, Phase Six/Seven; SF109

worked pyramid, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF778 leg (?) of polypod vase, Phase Eight. 53 en clay figurines: SF360; SF716; SF645. 54 en clay figurine: SF716. 55 MN clay figurines: SF750, Phase Three; SF2 16+29, u/s; SF145, Phase Eleven; SF333,

Phase Two; SF334, Phase Ten. 56 Two part mn clay figurine: SF216+SF219. 57 Clay figurines: sf6i6, Phase Six/ Seven/Eight; SF852, Phase Seven; SF711, Phase

Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF630, Phase Six/Seven; SF895, Phase Seven. 58 Sherd disks: #2109, Phase Four; SF842, Phase u/s; SFiioi, Phase Ten; #3743, Phase

Seven; SF311, Phase Two.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ON CD-ROM xxv

59 Sherd disks: #1704, Phase Ten; SF271, Phase Ten; #1000, Phase Ten; SF459, Phase Ten; SF79, Phase Eight; SF1100, Phase u/s; SF99, Phase Nine; #1223, Phase Ten (?); SF213, Phase Eleven.

60 Clay spindle whorls, Phase Ten: SF280; SF303; SF336; sfioo; SF319; SF27. 61 Clay spindle whorls, Phase Ten: SF280; SF303; SF336; sfioo; SF319; SF27. 62 Clay ring weights, Phase Four: sf8ii; SF728; SF729; SF759; sf8io; SF727; SF809. 63 Clay spools, en: SF930; SF927; SF929; SF939; SF935; SF933; SF931. 64 Clay loomweights: SF92, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF238, Phase Ten; SF339, Phase

Nine; SF301, Phase Ten; SF340, Phase Nine. 65 Matting basket impression in daub: SF894, Phase Four. 66 Mat impressions on pot bases, en: P558; P550; P363; P537. 67 Mat impression on pot base: P226, Phase Five. 68 Clay anchors: SF348, Phase Nine; SF290, Phase Ten; SF394, Phase u/s; SF309, Phase

Nine; sf6o, Phase u/s; SF623, Phase Nine. 69 Clay anchor fragments: SF204, Phase u/s; SF529, Phase Nine; SF85 (part only),

Phase Ten; SF898, Phase Eleven; SF105, Phase Ten; SF1108, Phase Nine; SF1107, Phase Nine; SF654, Phase Nine; SF1113, Phase u/s; sf8i8, Phase u/s.

70 Clay objects: SF677 sherd disk, Phase en; SF821 pendant, Phase en; SF683 sherd ornament, Phase en; SF667 spindle whorl, Phase en; SF767 bead, Phase en; SF919 disk bead, Phase en.

71 Clay ornaments: SF536 bracelet, Phase Two; SF403 bracelet Phase Two; sf88i bracelet, Phase Seven; sf6oi spindle whorl/bead, Phase u/s; SF296 bead, Phase Nine.

72 Clay stamp/burnisher, SF634, Phase Nine. 73 Clay 'pillars', Phase Seven: SF918; SF978. 74 Ornaments etc [top to bottom, left to righi): SF192 glycimeris 'bracelet', Phase Eight;

SF285 clay spoon, Phase Eight; stone disc bead; shell disc bead; SF515 stone tubular bead, Phase Nine; SF298 stone disc bead, Phase Ten; SF504 shell pendant, Phase Four; SF300 stone pendant, Phase Nine; SF332 stone 'toggle', Phase Four; SF123 stone core, Phase Seven.

75 Ornaments: Phase Four: SF689 stone bracelet; SF748 stone pendant; SF691 shell bracelet; SF758 stone bracelet; SF717 shell pendant; SF850 shell bracelet.

76 Arsenical bronze: SF345 needle, Phase Nine; SF236 axe u/s. 77 Phases Two-Four, F20/C, site plan 12b, plan of hearths 1, 2, 3 and 3a. 78 Phases Two-Four, F20/C, site plan 12c, 'perspective' of hearths 1, 2, 3 and 3a. 79 Phase Four, Structure 7, detailed finds plot.

Preface

The crossing of the river Haliakmon to the w of the medieval and modern town of Servia has been for centuries a major strategic point on the easiest route from Thessaly to Macedonia. A. J. B. Wace was the first to show that this importance reached back to the neolithic period when he recognised that the low mound on the E side of the crossing (plate iö, fi), close to abundant freshwater springs (f2), marked the site of a prehistoric settlement. The excavations carried out at this site by W. A. Heurtley (as Assistant Director of the British School at Athens) in 1930 revealed the earliest stratified site known in northern Greece and until the excavation of the en site of Nea Nikomedeia (1961-64) Servia remained the only excavated neolithic site in western Macedonia.

By 1970 the new discoveries made in Thessaly by Theocharis and Milojcic and in eastern Macedonia by Renfrew and Gimbutas, suggested that a supplementary excavation was desirable if the finds from this key site were to be fully evaluated. The threat to the site posed by the plans to dam the Haliakmon further downstream, to provide hydro-electric power and control irrigation in the coastal plain, made renewed work particularly urgent. The site was soon to be covered with a great depth of water with the creation of the new lake - Limni Polyphytou - and would be lost to archaeological research (plate 1.1 ä). Fortunately, the late Professor G. Bakalakis drew Cressida Ridley's attention to the need for urgent action and the responsibility for mounting a rescue excavation was assumed jointly by the Greek Archaeological Service and the British School at Athens under the direction of Katerina Rhomiopoulou and Cressida Ridley. Three seasons of excavation were carried out in 1971-73, until the closure of the dam prevented further work and left many questions unanswered.

Excavation confirmed the long sequence of occupation first identified by Heurtley and, in particular, enabled the exploration of no fewer than five successive building levels of the MN period in which were preserved the traces of solidly constructed timber buildings, together with hearths and a wide range of complete or restorable vessels in the local variant of the Thessalian Sesklo style. Some of the structures must have had an upper storey while the major conflagration which Heurtley had mistakenly thought to mark the end of the mn phase provided unusual architectural detail, as well as a range of small objects in situ. The overlying ln levels with fine ripple-decorated and black-burnished pottery of the Larissa style proved to succeed the mn levels without a cultural break. The EBA was represented by a series of deep ditches in an early phase with floor levels and pits in a later one. Despite the lack of good structural evidence in this period, the range of pottery has provided invaluable links between Thessaly and central Greece on the one hand and central Macedonia on the other. The only serious disappointment (apart from the impossibility of continuing excavation for longer) was the extent to which some parts of the site had been disturbed by enormous pits (dubbed 'rocket silos' by team members

xxvii

xxviii H. C. RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

on account of their size) dating to the Byzantine period. Other key discoveries included the location of a separate en site (Servia-Varytimides) 500 m away.

The results of Heurtley's excavations were outlined in the Antiquaries Journal (1932) and in Prehistoric Macedonia (1939). Full publication was not attempted by Heurtley by the time he took up the post of Director of the British School at Jerusalem and war intervened to prevent further work on it. Unfortunately the excavation records are now missing, though some letters, notes and sketches survive. The present volume is the first of two to report on the finds made during these seasons of rescue excavation, which will incorporate, as far as possible, the results of Heurtley's earlier work. Preliminary accounts of the work appeared in the Athens Annals of Archaeology (Ridley and Rhomiopoulou 1972; 1973; 1974) and an interim report in the Annual of the British School at Athens (Ridley and Wardle 1979).

The 1971-73 excavation was conducted by a joint Greek- English team, and we are most grateful to Katerina Rhomiopoulou, then Curator of Antiquities for West Macedonia, who joined the team as co-director, and to her colleague Dr. Yiannis Touratsoglou who worked as a site supervisor throughout the excavation. The excavation team was based at the village of Neraïda when it was still sited in the Haliakmon valley floor, on the N bank of the river. The village Proedros and others, particularly the Secretary Kosmas Hatziioannides, gave valuable help with practical matters, such as finding accommodation and workmen. Our foreman, Yiannis Papadopoulos, of Nea Nikomedeia, near the town of Veria, provided considerable expertise in techniques of excavation first learnt during the excavations directed by Dr. R. J. Rodden at the en site there, and extended at Sitagroi under Professor Colin Renfrew, and skill in leading and training the team of workmen chiefly drawn from the village of Neraïda. Yiannis was assisted by two skilled workmen from Knossos, Crete, Nikos Daskalakis and Andonis Lambakis. Site supervisors included Jill Carineton Smith (1971-72), Bill Cavanagh (1972-73), Ruth Padel (1971), Bill Phelps (1971-72), Yiannis Touratsoglou (1971-73) and Ken Wardle (1972-73). Ian Morrison, who acted as site surveyor and photographer (1971-73), introduced the technique of photogrammetry (plate 1.2 c). Denis Mott of Bradford University conducted a geophysical survey in 1973, whilst Richard Hubbard employed a water-sieve, made in the UK by Dr. Anthony Legge, for the systematic recovery of plant remains. John Watson was responsible for the recovery and study of faunal remains. Sara Paton led the team recording finds in the potshed (1971-73); she was joined by Frances Halahan (1971), Angela Wardle (1973) and Diana Wardle (1972-73) who was responsible for small finds and conservation. The late Petros Petrakis, the experienced potmender from the British School at Athens, assisted during the excavation seasons, and subsequently during post-excavation study at Fiorina Museum. Some potmending was also carried out by Demetrios Matthios from Thessaloniki Museum. David Hardy was full of resource on the administrative side in 1971 and 1972 as well as assisting on site, and the cooks Pamela Butler and Jo Lawrie successfully battled to keep the team well-fed against the odds in a village where the supply of water was intermittent and the language of many of the older generation - Christian refugees from Asia Minor - was still Turkish. Site and finds assistants included Hannah Aitken, John Burke, John Chapman, Alexandra Christopoulou, Gillian Gabel, Rosemary Pipe, Nora Skouteri, Paul Smith, Peter Smith, Manolis Voutiras and Alison Watson.

Study at Fiorina Museum, from 1971 onwards, was led by Cressida Ridley (H. C. R.) and Ken Wardle (K. A. W.), with assistance from Diana Wardle (D. E. H. W.), Zillah Pettit and Richard Hubbard. We are grateful to Dr. Ken Thomas for advice on identifying

PREFACE xxix

malacological remains, to Dr. David French for identifying the Tatar pottery sherds in eba Phase Eight, wrongly ascribed by Heurtley to the ln; to Professor Peter Warren for first recognising and drawing our attention to the parallels for the eba baking plates; and to Dr. Istvan Ecsedy (Pecs Museum) who pointed out that what appeared to be an enigmatic lump of metal, was in fact an axe fragment similar to one, alas unprovenanced, in Thessaloniki Museum. Provenance and technical studies of pottery were carried out by Dr. Richard Jones (1986), as well as analysis of two metal objects (1979).

Besides support from the British School at Athens, grants were received from the Greek Archaeological Service, the British Academy, Mark Fitch Fund, The Craven Fund of Oxford University, the Russell Trust, and from two private individuals, the Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, the late Professor Sir C. M. Bowra, and the late Lady (Edgar) Bonham Carter, without which it would never have been possible to proceed. Funding in support of post-excavation study has been provided by the Baring Trust, Professor E. T Hall, INSTAP and Sir Adam Ridley as well as the British Academy and the British School at Athens.

Catharine Mould (C. A. M.) (University of Birmingham Field Archaeology Unit) joined the post-excavation team in 1991, to carry out a study of the small finds which was undertaken as one part of her postgraduate Diploma in Practical Archaeology at the University of Birmingham, and also assisted Cressida with checking descriptions and details at Fiorina Museum in 1991. Whilst working for the Field Archaeology Unit, she completed her M.Phil, dissertation on the stratigraphy and architecture, which forms the core of the account in this volume. She has also been responsible for co-ordinating the reports of all the contributors to this volume. A further visit to Fiorina Museum was made in September 1997 by K. A. W. and D. E. H. W. with the assistance of Nicola Wardle, to check the illustrations of the small objects and to complete these as necessary. During 1997-98 K. A. W. revised Chapters 1-4 and added references to other Greek prehistoric finds where possible and appropriate.

The present volume includes the account of the stratigraphy by Catharine, which revises and considerably amplifies the account in our interim report (Ridley and Wardle 1979), whilst retaining the phasing in that report, together with her study of the architecture and planning of the site. Catharine has also prepared, with the help of Rayna Andrew (R. C. A.), an overall account of the small finds, together with the catalogues, and has included reference to these in the stratigraphie account. Specialist studies of individual categories have been prepared by Jill Carington Smith (weaving equipment and clay objects) and Bill Phelps (figurines).

The original study of the carbonised plant remains from the main site was entrusted to Jane Renfrew who invited Rupert Housley to prepare the detailed study included in this volume. Richard Hubbard has contributed an account of the en plant remains and the palaeoecological evidence and jointly authored a study of the agriculture of Servia with Rupert Housley.

A skeletal report on the Byzantine burial, by Jonathan Musgrave, is also included here. The second volume will contain the detailed account of the neolithic pottery, based on

the study and notes of H. C. R. The section on the mn pottery has already been completed by Vasiliki Vlachodimitropoulou as an M.Phil, dissertation for the University of Birmingham (Vlachodimitropoulou 1998). The report on the eba pottery is being prepared by Ken Wardle. The volume will also contain the account of Servia-Varytimides by Catharine

xxx H. C. RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

Mould, studies of the chipped stone and bone artefacts and a petrological report by James Powell. If possible it will include a review of new field work which helps to complete the picture of neolithic occupation in the middle Haliakmon valley.

Drawings for this volume have been prepared by Jill Carington Smith (weaving and associated small finds), Nigel Dodds (University of Birmingham Field Archaeology Unit, figures based on the work of Ian Morrison, site drawings and Catharine's consolidated phase plans), Richard Hubbard (architectural reconstructions). It is to Diana Wardle, however, who has prepared the majority of the small find drawings with skill and sensitivity, that the authors owe the greatest of thanks. Her work is based on her own original drawings as well as others by Belisarios Anagnostopoulou, Philip Heathman, Richard Hubbard, Zillah Pettit, Bill Phelps and Cressida Ridley. Site photographs reproduced here were taken by Ian Morrison and K. A. W. and finds photographs by Graham Norrie (Photographer, Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Birmingham), Richard Hubbard and K. A. W. We are grateful to all of them as well as to Vasiliki Vla- chodimitropoulou and Iphigenia Tournavitou who helped complete the bibliography. Rayna Andrew has checked and standardized all the catalogue entries and prepared the final camera-ready-copy of this volume.

All the Servia material is now stored at Fiorina Museum, where one showcase contains a display. The only exceptions at present are the chipped stone assemblage which is stored at Drama Museum and the human bone at Thessaloniki Museum. Permission to study the material published in this volume should be sought from the IZf Ephoria of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities.

H. C. R. K. A. W. May 1998

Since completion of the text of this volume, a summary in Greek has appeared in AEM0 (Wardle and Vlachodimitropoulou 1998), including a survey of the mn pottery by V. Vlachodimitropoulou. We are also grateful to the staff of Hi-Speed Print in Moseley for their assistance with setting the plates and to Eddie Faber for technical assistance with preparing the small find figure layouts.

Originally we had intended to reproduce a series of colour images and other data on microfiche, but technology has now advanced sufficiently for a digital version on CD- ROM to be preferable. I am particularly grateful to Graham Norrie for scanning and editing the images derived from different kinds of source material and to Trevor King of Bell and Howell for indexing and preparing the CD-ROM included at the end of this volume. I hope that further colour images of pottery and other material can be added with the second volume in due course.

K. A. W. October 2000

Chapter i

The Excavation

1.1 INTRODUCTION (fig. 1.1)

Macedonia, thanks to its unique geographical location, has, from an early stage in the history of Greek archaeology, provided an attractive study area for researchers of the neolithic and eba. However, excavation and research have been directed by a few key personalities and study has tended to be rather piecemeal and unevenly distributed in time and space. Although a good number of prehistoric archaeological sites have been investigated using trial trenching and surface survey techniques, there has been little extensive excavation within a co-ordinated research drive. As a result, those sites which have been published tend to stand isolated from one another. In addition, the relatively small number of published sites prevents a coherent study of Macedonia's neolithic and eba cultures and limits the parallels which can be drawn for Servia.

The prehistoric settlement at Servia was included in the campaigns of A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson and W. A. Heurtley. Initial observations regarding prehistoric mounds made in 1911 and published soon after by Wace and Thompson (Wace 1914), were expanded by Heurtley's excavation season in 1930 (Heurtley 1932; 1939). The chronological evidence recovered from this work was further modified by the 1971-73 rescue excavation.

Initial explorations of prehistoric mounds in Macedonia had already been made by Leake, Kinch, Struck and Traeger in the early 1900s. These were supplemented by Wace and Thompson, whose campaign to 'define the limits of the prehistoric culture of Thessaly' prompted them to explore the extent of connections between Macedonia and Thessaly, using the distribution of prehistoric mounds as a determining factor (Wace and Thompson 1912). The results of their surface survey and trial trenching of mounds near Thessaloniki, Pella, Palatitsa and the Pydna district and the Pierian plain were published in 1 909 in the Liverpool Annals of Anthropology and Archaeology. Wace and Thompson were able to define three types of mound, of which type B (tall, steep and oval, 40-50 feet high with a flat top), made up from the debris of successive settlements, was most similar to those known in Thessaly (see Wace and Thompson 1909). Plain ware, similar to Thessalian Ai, was recovered, along with incised and painted wares unlike any seen in Thessaly up to that date. The presence of this previously unknown pottery, taken with the apparent absence of any prehistoric mounds in Macedonia's coastal plain or by Pydna, Veria or Pella, led them to conclude that their study area represented a geographical limit for Thessalian influence in Macedonia. Wace and Thompson put forward a chronology to connect Mac- edonia and Thessaly based on the dating of Thessalian painted ware recovered from the neolithic type sites of Dimini and Sesklo. The Thessalian pottery was divided into four

1

2 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

A ^

- L/' ' River ALI

AKMON^Sçf -

SPKOZ^/. i

}

s » SERVIA ' ^ 'rV r ^Ny _' 's larisaJ Sr ' ' ~Tv

?CL VT^S' V^ vLe - 7^K^ ^ V 3?i*S, ! v. >wV'r-u - / ft - r ^ V V" ,4 </-»->wxrÂ>s v. V ^^'>j. V _j Y?.

( p. ' « C^ serviaoW ^^g^n/î

p. 1p « 1| f ? ^y^

P* / /f~~ - - - r " - " - D Pre-submergence Landscape^ - "ê °f ^^.---

0 // 500 J I T' '^N'' / ' [ 0 50 %A ''^S

Fig. 1.1. The location of the prehistoric mound at Servia.

THE EXCAVATION 3

periods. The first was neolithic, characterised by red-on-white ware. A second neolithic period was characterised by Dimini ware. The third, a chalcolithic period, had 'crusted' wares and the fourth period, which was eba, was characterised by monochrome wares. At this time, Wace and Thompson acknowledged that further excavation would extend or mo- dify the limits they placed on Thessalian influence in Macedonia (Wace and Thompson 1912).

Archaeological investigation did continue, albeit within the confines of military priorities, with the stationing of French and British troops within Macedonia in 1916. Antiquities were recovered and many prehistoric mounds were surveyed topographically, complementing and extending the earlier research of Wace and Thompson. Material recovered throughout the course of these investigations was published in a series of papers in the Annual of the British School at Athens (Picard 1918-19; Gardner and Casson 1918-19) and in the Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique (Rey 1916; Casson 1916).

More systematic excavations were initiated in the 1920s by the British School at Athens. Casson directed excavations at the Bronze and Iron Age site of Chauchitsa (Casson 1923- 25) and at Kilindir, a ba settlement (Casson 1926). In 1926 Casson published Macedonia, Thrace and Illyria but theories expressed here were shortly superseded by the research of W. A. Heurtley.

Heurtley launched a co-ordinated research campaign which focused on Macedonia's prehistoric mounds. In the period 1920-30 he conducted excavations at Vardina and Saratse in central Macedonia, Kritsana, Agios Mamas and Molyvopyrgos in Chalkidike and at Servia in western Macedonia. Heurtley also re-examined some of the prehistoric mounds recorded by Wace and Thompson and by Rey, and published a study of pottery recovered from mounds in the Haliakmon and Axios valleys - including sites at Boubousti and Vardaroftsa (modern Axiochori) (fig. 1.1). His research is comprehensively summarised in Prehistoric Macedonia. Here Heurtley argued that 'Macedonian prehistory begins with the establishment in western Macedonia of a colony of Thessalians who had pushed up across the Sarandaporos pass from the south' (Heurtley 1939, 128). He then suggested that this 'Early Neolithic' culture (now known to be mn) was superseded in the ln by the movement of Danubian people s through Macedonia and on into Thessaly in the eba and that these cultural changes are reflected in ceramic technology and decoration. These views, of course, reflect the rather simplistic explanations of culture change prevalent until the 1950s.

Since the 1930s, further isolated excavations were conducted, but little happened between 1940-60. In 1961 R.J. Rodden directed the first of three excavation seasons at a neolithic agricultural settlement at Nea Nikomedeia, western Macedonia. This represented the first practical opportunity for large-scale excavation of a neolithic site which revealed a large area of the settlement's plan, contrasting with earlier investigations elsewhere which had been limited to trial trenches only. The presence of Thessalian ln painted ware at Nea Nikomedeia led Rodden to argue that this site represented the northernmost known limit of Thessalian influence in ln Macedonia, a view which supported Heurtley's earlier research (Rodden 1962; 1964 c).

D. H. French made a vital contribution to understanding the range of material in his Index of Prehistoric Sites in Central Macedonia (1967) with its catalogue of the material collected by G. Bakalakis and himself and deposited in the collection of the Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki. In eastern Macedonia excavations were conducted at the neolithic and eba sites of Dikili Tas in 1967, 1969, 1972, 1974-75 and 1979 and at Sitagroi in 1968-69. These excavations suggested that, in contrast to western Macedonia, the population of the Drama Plain had stronger Balkan connections in the neolithic period.


Since the renewed excavations at Servia, described here, took place in 1971-73 the pace of research into early Macedonian prehistory has accelerated rapidly with important neolithic period excavations at Dikili Taç, Dimitra and Promachonas in eastern Macedonia, Limenaria on Thasos, Mesimeriani Toumba, Thermi and Vasilika in central Macedonia, Archontiko, Dispelio, Mégalo Nisi Galanis and Mandalo in western Macedonia, as well as the vast excavation at Makrygialos, prompted by the improvement of the National Road and railway between Katerini and Thessaloniki. Excavations at Skala Sotirou on Thasos, Agios Mamas, Kastanas, Toumba Thessaloniki and Polychrono in central Macedonia as well as Mandalo in western Macedonia have similarly increased our knowledge of the eba period.

The number of final fieldwork publications is still limited to those of Sitagroi (Vol. I: A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, Vol. II: Elster and Renfrew forthcoming), the earlier excavations at Dikili Tas (Deshayes 1992), Nea Nikomedeia (Vol. I: Rodden and Wardle 1996; Vol. II: in preparation) and Dimitra (Grammenos 1997). Valuable preliminary accounts have, however, appeared regularly in To AQ%aioÀoyixó Ëgyo gtt] Maxeôovía xai 0cáxr¡ (AEM0) which publish the reports given at the annual conference held since 1987. General surveys include that in Hammond's History of Macedonia (1972) and Sakellariou's Macedonia, 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilisation (1992) which both provide summaries of neolithic and eba Macedonia. In addition, Aslanis' H IJQOïaroQÎa tî]ç MaxeSovíaç I. H NeoÀiûixij Enoxr' (1992) has proved a useful synthesis of Macedonian neolithic finds. Grammenos has completed valuable surveys of neolithic sites in central and eastern Macedonia (1991). During the twenty-five years since the excavation was completed and the closure of the Polyphytou dam flooded the middle valley of the Haliakmon the scale of archaeological work in western Macedonia has increased considerably. The IZ' Ephoria of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities has permanent staff in both Kozani and Aiani who have taken every opportunity to survey and record archaeological sites in the region. This work has been especially fruitful when the level of the artificial lake has dropped following an especially dry year, to reveal along its margins a wealth of archaeological sites of many periods, exposed by the scouring action of the water. It can now be seen that the neolithic settlement of Servia was far from isolated, although it remains one of the largest located. Regular reports of the results of this survey work, and of a number of excavations, have appeared in AEM0 and it is hoped to include a survey of the principal discoveries in Vol. II, together with the study of the pottery from Servia so that the site can be seen in context, both temporally and spatially (Hondroianni-Metoki 1993; 1995, Ziota and Hondroianni- Metoki 1997). Knowledge of the history of the region has also been substantially increased by survey and excavation around Kitrini Limni, a few km to the nne (Photiadis 1988; 1991, Ziota et al 1993, Photiadis and Hondroianni-Metoki 1997), while Kokkinidou and Trantalidou have compiled a valuable overview of prehistoric settlement in western Macedonia (1991). An important contribution to updating our knowledge of recent discoveries has been provided in a recent review of the neolithic and ba of northern Greece by Andreou, Fotiadis and Kotsakis (1996) and Wardle has published a geographical perspective of its prehistory (1997). Two recent surveys of neolithic Greece as a whole (Alram-Stern 1996, 93, Papathanassopoulos 1996), enable Macedonian finds to be set in their wider Aegean perspective.

The scale of research is still sufficient only for a provisional history of settlement and the authors have no choice but to rely on material outdated by finds more recently recovered, but as yet unpublished. The relationship of Servia to its neighbours« both N and

THE EXCAVATION 5

s can, however, now be seen more clearly, reflecting a changing pattern of connections and influences. In the en period it stands between Thessalian Achilleion and Macedonian Nea Nikomedeia, with characteristics to be seen at both these sites. In the mn it is still the northernmost outlier of the Thessalian Sesklo culture, though with distinctive local features. In the short period of ln occupation more similarities can be seen with sites further n, though it is still the Thessalian elements which predominate. With the reoccupation after a long break early in the eba (Phase Eight) the direct connections are again strictly Thessalian and no reports have yet been made of the distinctive ware of this period further n. The later stages of the eba, however, stand once more between Pefkakia and Argissa in Thessaly and Kastanas or Kritsana in Macedonia. Further afield, at Mandalo or Armenochori in western Macedonia or at Sitagroi in eastern Macedonia, the parallels are more tenuous. Servia remains, as both Wace and Heurtley realised, a crucial site for understanding the relationships between the two regions.

C. A. M. K. A. W.

1.2 THE PREHISTORIC SITE (plate 1.1) The neolithic and eba site at Servia survived until 1974 as a low-spreading mound built on a river terrace, c. 17 m above the River Haliakmon's twentieth century level (plate i.iö). By 1930, a gradual drop in the Haliakmon's level had reduced the appearance of the prehistoric mound toa'... projection of the plain, terminating on the N and nw in steep bluffs over-hanging the river' (Heurtley 1932, 227).

The site lay 6 km to the n of the modern town of Servia which is overlooked by a Byzantine castle, built to command the entrance to the Sarandaporos pass and the route s to Thessaly. A natural ford, used from prehistory onwards, lay upstream from the site and was marked, until 1974, by a Bailey bridge carrying the main road from Macedonia into Thessaly. Since the completion of the hydro-electric dam further downstream, the valley has been flooded and Servia's prehistoric settlement is now submerged below the artificial Limni Polyphytou. The historic route into Thessaly has, however, been preserved with the construction of the new bridge which now spans the lake (plate 1.1 ã).

1.3 INITIAL OBSERVATIONS BY A. J. B. WACE AND M. S. THOMPSON

It was during his study of Macedonian prehistoric mounds that Wace noted '. . . a prehistoric settlement on a bluff on the right bank of the Haliakmon just above the Serjhe end of the bridge over the river on the Kozane-Serjhe road' (Wace 1914, 123).

A surface survey conducted at Servia in 1911 produced only plain hand-made prehistoric sherds whose lack of marked characteristics made precise identification impossible. Wace and Thompson used this piece of negative evidence in Prehistoric Thessaly (191 2) to support their argument that the influence of Thessalian culture had not yet reached Macedonia, despite the acknowledged existence in this period of key geographical routes linking the two regions. Wace modified the argument when a further surface survey at Servia produced


Plate 1.1. (a) The prehistoric settlement (foreground) from nw. 1971; [b) Limni Polyphytou from NW with the piers of the new bridge from nw. 1974.

THE EXCAVATION 7

sherds typical of the neolithic Thessalian A and B types (Wace 1914, 123). This was the first time that Thessalian prehistoric wares had been recovered N of Elassona and their discovery suggested that the characteristic Thessalian prehistoric culture had indeed extended N to the Haliakmon basin. Servia now represented a prime site for further research into relations between prehistoric Macedonia and Thessaly.

1.4 A RESEARCH CAMPAIGN LED BY W. A. HEURTLEY (figs. 1.2-1.3) No further research was conducted at Servia until 1930 when W. A. Heurtley, Assistant Director of the British School at Athens since 1923, carried out an excavation as a part of his campaign of research into Macedonian prehistoric mounds. It was hoped that this excavation would also elucidate the question of inter-relationships between neolithic sites within Macedonia itself. Heurtley conducted his own surface survey prior to excavation, which again produced both A and B varieties of Thessalian ware. Only limited time and resources were available to Heurtley for excavation at Servia and, although aware of the advantages of area excavation, he was able to open only a small number of trial trenches (fig. 1.2). His site supervisors were excellent for that time, but as was usual, only a selection of pottery was collected for further study.

In an interim report, Heurtley defined three strata (I- III) which reflected separate ceramic phases including several settlements (Heurtley 1932). He observed that occupation of Servia spanned two main periods, the 'Early' (now known as Middle) and 'Late' Neolithic, with some further occupation in the eba (fig. 1.3).

In Prehistoric Macedonia, written while he was Director of the British School at Jerusalem, Heurtley amplified this account and made some modifications. Reference to three strata was no longer explicit and he identified five 'Early', in fact, mn settlements, characterised by Thessalian Type A pottery and represented by c. 2 m of continuous occupation debris. Of these the first four equate to Stratum I as previously defined. The last 'Early' Neolithic settlement (5) was seen as an extensive layer of burnt debris and can now be equated with the burning and destruction of the Phase Four mn settlement at Servia as defined below (2.2.4). Heurtley divided the 'Late Neolithic' occupation into two settlements, of which the first was characterised by black-burnished and grey-on-grey ware. The second, formerly assigned to Stratum III and described as eba in character, lay within 1 m of the ground surface but was still recorded as including some eba pottery as well as the distinctive 'Varnished' ware now known to be eba in date. Heurtley argued that this suggested the two cultural periods overlapped, as observed at Agios Mamas and Kritsana. However, this last 'Late Neolithic' settlement can now be identified as eba occupation, belonging to a phase of ditch cutting and terracing which marked the reoccupation of Servia (Phase Eight).

Within one excavation season Heurtley had successfully established that occupation at Servia, at that time the only known stratified neolithic site in Macedonia, spanned the neolithic to the eba. The ceramics and small finds served to demonstrate both the distinctive local character of the Servia neolithic assemblage and the extent of Thessalian influence.

Unfortunately, the site notebooks and records for the 1930 excavation at Servia have been missing since 1939. A number of letters exchanged between Heurtley, Tait and Skeat, are still preserved. These allow a valuable insight to Heurtley's interpretation of the site and its phasing, together with sketches and a photograph (see section 2.1).

C. A. M.


Fig. 1.2. Location of Heurtley's and 1971-73 excavation trenches (after Heurtley 1932 and Ridley and Wardle 1979).

THE EXCAVATION 9

fig. 1.3. Stratigraphie sections: Heurtley's 'Early' Neolithic 1-5 and Late Neolithic 1 and 2 (after Heurtley 1932, fig. 3; 1939, fig. 46).

i o CATHARINE A. MOULD AND CRESSIDA RIDLEY

1.5 THE RESCUE EXCAVATION OF 1971-73 (figs. 1.2, 1.4-1.5, plate 1.2) The excellent results of Heurtley's limited excavation and the key location of the site itself on the border of the Thessalian and Macedonian cultural provinces invited more extensive excavation and research. When the prehistoric settlement became threatened by the flooding of the valley for a hydro-electric works and irrigation, the responsibility for a renewed - rescue - excavation at Servia was jointly assumed by the Greek Archaeological Service and the British School at Athens. Katerina Rhomiopoulou, then Curator of Antiquities for western Macedonia, and Cressida Ridley of the British School at Athens, acted as co- directors for this project.

No secure timescale for the construction of the dam had been agreed in 1971, and the archaeological team had to maintain a flexible approach. A fundamental priority was the excavation and preservation, by written and photographic record, of as wide and comprehensive a sample of the surviving archaeological deposits as possible within the time constraints. In addition - for research purposes - priority was given to relating the archaeological deposits explored by this excavation to those recorded by Heurtley in 1930 (Heurtley 1932; 1939). eba artefacts had only been recovered from poor contexts in 1930 and it was hoped that a more comprehensive sample could be retrieved during the rescue excavation. It was also expected that this excavation would help to establish a firmer chronology for the neolithic and eba occupation of Servia.

During the first season (1971), four trenches in Area F (F20/A, B, C and D) (plate 1.20) were excavated to a depth of 2.5 m and the baulks were removed to form two open areas. An extension to Area F was opened up to the nw (F30/A).

In the second season (1972), mn and ln deposits within Area F were excavated to archaeologically sterile soil, a natural silt which lay c. 4 m below the modern ground surface. The area of excavation was extended s (F10/D) and E (Area G) to explore surviving eba floor and yard deposits. Further e, in Area H, very fragmentary eba remains were removed by mechanical excavation to 0.80 m below the ground surface. The lower, and better preserved, ln deposits were then excavated by hand. A separate trial area, first identified by Rhomiopoulou in 1971 as a dense scatter of sherds and artefacts, was also investigated. This area, named after the land-owner, Varytimides, and recorded as Servia V in some preliminary reports, was located about 400 m downstream from the main excavation site and it was here that the first en occupation deposits were recorded at Servia. This trial area will be referred to throughout as Servia-Varytimides.

The third, and final, season of excavation in 1973 continued work on the en deposits and at the main site. A new area, Area D, was opened to reveal a burnt mn structure (Phase Four Structure 7) whose floor was cut to a lower level and in addition, Area E to the s was investigated. The large section exposed by work connected to the construction of the new bridge across the Haliakmon basin was recorded, whilst a resistivity survey mapped VV the area immediately surrounding the excavated trenches. VV

C. A. M. H. C. R.

THE EXCAVATION 1 1

Plate 1.2. (a) Area F, from s. Excavation in progress, 1971; [b) Phase Five: Fio/D, F20/B from N. Foundation trenches with post-holes including Structure 1 . Pillars of new bridge in background

(see fig. 2.7 and plate 2.60); (e) F20C. Photogrammetric recording by Ian Morrison. 1971.

1 2 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND CRESSIDA RIDLEY

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THE EXCAVATION 13

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i4 CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

1.6 EXCAVATION AND RECORDING METHODS (figs. 1.2, 1.4) The location of the 1971-73 excavation trenches, in relation to those excavated by Heurtley in 1930 is shown in fig. 1.2. The individual position and size of each trench is shown in fig. 1.4.

In the first season of excavation, 1971, a stratigraphie layer was used as the basic unit of excavation. This was subdivided into a number of zembilia (pottery collection baskets). A review of this method suggested that the layer was too broad a unit to work with, as it did not allow sufficient accuracy in the collection and subsequent study of the recovered material. The second and third seasons, 1972 and 1973, therefore, used the zßmbilzs the basic unit of excavation and recording. Each zembil was allocated a level number which corresponded to a stratigraphie layer. The use of the zembil&s a subdivision in 1971, allowed the revised system to be applied, in retrospect, to the archaeological features excavated in that year.

A unique sequence of zembil numbers was allocated to each excavation trench in 1971- 73 with a few exceptions. Each zembil was recorded in a trench supervisor's notebook and a descriptive account of that unit's appearance was accompanied, in most cases, by a location diagram and three-dimensional co-ordinates for individual registered pots and special finds. All the material, including pottery, registered pots, special finds, bone, shell, daub impressions and environmental samples, was collected, sorted and studied with reference to the zembil number. The zembilia were then grouped, where possible, into separate phases of activity.

A list of the stratified zembilia will appear in Vol. II. Additional cross-referencing, according to individual structures and features will also be given. Unstratified zembilia or those from mixed levels will not be included. Approximately 50% of zembilia were from mixed phases in 1971 thanks to the initial difficulty of separating the many intrusive pits and ditches from the levels through which they were cut. A better understanding of the site and these problems facilitated more accurate separation of the levels in 1972 and 1973.

C. A. M. H. C. R.

1.7 COMPARATIVE AND ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY

A definitive account of the relationships of the different strata at Servia to sites in other parts of northern Greece and a full discussion of relative chronology will be included with the publication of the pottery in Volume II. Comparison, however, appropriate to the study of the architectural remains and the small finds, can already be made with sites in the neighbouring districts, such as Thessaly and central Macedonia, while a limited number of C14 determinations enable wider comparisons to include the Péloponnèse, eastern Macedonia and Thrace, regions which are especially important in the neolithic period (Hourmouziadis 1979, 57-297; Séfériadès 1983, 673-5).

Preliminary study has already shown that Servia-Varytimides is roughly contemporary with the third phase of en pottery at Sesklo (Wijnen 1982) while the first occupation of the main site began somewhat later. The mn Phases One to Five equate to all but the earliest

THE EXCAVATION 1 5

stages of the Sesklo period in Thessaly, while the presence of grey-on-grey wares and fine black-burnished pottery suggests that Phases Six and Seven belong to the beginning of the Thessalian ln sequence. Imports of red-on-black wares from e Macedonia in the same strata suggest equation with such sites as Sitagroi and Dikili Taç, close to the beginning of the ln sequence there. The exact correlation of Sitagroi I and II, Dikili Taç I, Dimitra I and II in E Macedonia as well as other sites with cognate material (~ the Veselinovo Culture of se Bulgaria) with the transition from mn to ln in Thessaly remains unresolved. Some set the start of these phases - which are often termed mat in the Balkan terminology - before the end of the Sesklo culture (Aslanis 1992, 129, 260-5; Grammenos 1991, 54-8). Others regard them as no earlier than the Thessalian ln (Alram Stern 1996, 93; Démoule 1993 - who sets the Thessalian neolithic in the Balkan framework so that Sesklo and Servia mn are included in the 'Néolithique ancien' - , 373 table 2; Hauptmann 1986, 19-30; Séfériadès 1983, 673-5).

Neither the C14 dates nor the level of cultural exchange between the two areas can yet clarify these relationships beyond question. There is no sign at Servia of the classic Dimini brown-on-cream wares, no spiral or meander decoration and a few examples only of the polychromy common in the later ln and the site was clearly abandoned early in the ln period.

Reoccupation did not take place until the eba, when deep ditches (Phase Eight) were dug into the site to protect or separate buildings which did not survive the later Phase Nine levelling of the site. The pottery from these ditches suggests contemporaneity with similar ditches dug at Argissa in Thessaly and the use of simple bowl shapes is reminiscent of pottery from Sitagroi Phase Va. Evidence from Argissa would indicate that earlier phases of the eba existed there which are not present at Servia. A second stage of the eba at Servia is represented by the pottery found on floors which ran across the, by now, backfilled ditches, or in large pits within the yards. This pottery, with its incurving rim bowls and ledge lugs, can readily be matched with material from Kritsana, Kastanas and other sites in central Macedonia, from Argissa and Pefkakia in Thessaly and from Eutresis in central Greece (see discussion in Aslanis 1985, 203-94, esp. 276-8). It is generally thought that this northern Greek ceramic assemblage was contemporary with the later part of eh ii and the beginning of eh hi in the Péloponnèse. This assumption is reinforced for Servia, at least, by the presence of sherds of both eh ii yellow-mottled ware sauceboats and of eh hi smear ware.

The remains of charred wood were not common at Servia even in the levels where destruction by fire was evident. The technique of accelerator mass spectrometry was not widely available in the early 1970s for such small charcoal samples as were recovered, although some bone samples have subsequently been processed. Thus the eleven samples submitted do not provide a particularly satisfactory group to represent such a long time span and certainly do not justify detailed statistical treatment or any attempt at precise calibration. Manning, for example, omitted the Servia dates from his discussion (Manning 1995, 162 n. 5) of Aegean eba chronology on the grounds that they were obtained from bone, not charcoal samples. Nevertheless when the dates are plotted (uncalibrated) alongside others, (tables 1.3-1.4) they compare reasonably well, and provide the basis for broader cultural comparisons. Absolute dates (i.e. calibrated) are harder to establish, and must be presumed from the larger groups from other sites.

Of the eleven samples for which dates have been obtained, an initial group of six were processed, in 1974, by the British Museum Research Laboratory. In 1977, one sample

1 6 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

(BM 1 108) was given a revised date, and a further sample (BM 1 157) was processed. The values of all these seven samples, which were published in the preliminary report (Ridley and Wardle 1979), are listed in table 1.1. Values are uncalibrated and are based on the 5,568 year half-life. It should be noted here that in Radiocarbon (Burleigh and Hewson 1979) and Ridley and Wardle 1979 the sample BM 1105 was incorrectly described as a MN sample.

Table 1.1. Charcoal samples processed by the British Museum in 1974 and 1977.

Charcoal Values Zembil Trench Phase Sample (uncalibrated)

BM 1103 493o±4gbc 1111 F20/A Two Early mn BM 1104 4797±5ibc 1114 F20/A Two Early mn BM 1105 4756±53bc 3110 F20/B Six ln BM 1106 474o±63bc 1369 F30/A One mn BM1107 4Ô56±55bc 1025 F10/D Seven ln BM1108 i744±g8bc 1447 G20/A Nine eba BM 1157 4955±87bc Servia-Varytimides en

Three of the samples (BM 1103, 1104, 1106) were taken from levels dated, in ceramic terms, to the mn. Although these did not form a satisfactory progression in terms of the stratigraphy at Servia, they do conform in general terms to those from the Sesklo culture in Thessaly. The ln dates (BM 1105, 1107) were somewhat older than expected while dates for the en (BM 1 157) and eba (BM 1 108) seemed much younger than was probable, by c. 900 and 500 years respectively. Both, however, were from superficial levels and were less than ideal samples (see discussion below by Hubbard, section 5.6.1). The eba date, in particular, seemed incompatible with the suggested chronology for the period in other parts of Greece.

In 1980-81, the British Museum processed a further four samples (table 1.2). It was hoped that these would help to clarify the sequence suggested by the initial seven radiocarbon dates. The results of these samples were published by Radiocarbon (Burleigh et al 1982). Unfortunately these four Servia samples were among a group affected by an error reported by the British Museum Research Laboratory in 1987 (Tite et al 1987) and the dates were recalculated adding c. 200 years to the age of each (Bowman et al 1990).

Table 1.2. Charcoal samples processed by the British Museum in 1980-81.

Original values Revised values Zembil Phase

BM 1885 44io±i9obc BM 1885R 4640+2 ìobc 3644 en BM 1886 2O9o±5obc BM 1886R 232o±nobc 1228 Eight eba BM 1887 447o±i2obc BM 1887R 4Ô9O±i5obc 2118 Seven ln BM 1888 i6io±7obc BM 1888R i84O±i2obc 34o8/9 Nine EBA

The second en date (BM 1885R) also remains remarkably recent, while the ln and eba dates correspond quite well with the earlier determinations. In the case of the eba dates for Phase Nine, even the resultant calibrated dates seem rather young.

THE EXCAVATION 17

The eleven samples processed from Servia compare with 29 radiocarbon dates for Sitagroi and 16 for Nea Nikomedeia. At the time when these sites were being excavated, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, there were relatively few radiocarbon dates available for the prehistoric period, there was no agreed sampling policy and the contribution which radiocarbon dating could make to reconstructing the chronology of the prehistoric period was still in dispute. The consequent variation in quantity and quality of the samples and resultant dates precluded a fully informed study of the absolute chronology of neolithic and EBA cultural groups, and was in no way assisted by the quality of those recovered from Servia itself.

A clearer picture began to develop with the excavation of Achilleion in Thessaly in 1973 and 1974, where each stratigraphie layer was sampled. At least one, and more commonly three or more discrete radiocarbon dates were obtained for each cultural phase. The total of 42 dates represent as yet the most comprehensive sequence available for neolithic occupation. As such, it may be used as the principal 'yardstick' against which to test the Servia dates as well as those available from the sites for the en and mn phases. An increased number of dates from Dikili Tas, Kitsos, Pefkakia, Pentapolis and other sites has been made available since 1978 when the preliminary report for Servia was completed. This has resulted in some refining of our evaluation of the significance of the dates determined, but this should certainly not be taken as final - either in advance of the full publication of the pottery of each phase, or in anticipation of additional groups of dates from good contexts such as those recently available from Archontiko near Iannitsa.

The study of the en ceramic evidence by Wijnen (1982) suggested that en Achilleion, Servia and Nea Nikomedeia represent parallel cultures. More specifically, she observed that en Nea Nikomedeia and Servia can both be equated to Sesklo Stage 3. The two Servia en radiocarbon dates and their wide range do not fit this picture well: only one fits with Wijnen's proposal (BM 1157). In contrast, the other (BM 1885R) is later than the Servia mn dates. It should therefore be treated as unsatisfactory and greater reliance placed on the ceramic parallels. On the basis of calibrated dates from Achilleion and elsewhere the occupation at Servia-Varytimides and other sites with comparable en pottery (Wijnen's Sesklo Stage 3), should fall at the end of the seventh millennium bc. It should also be roughly contemporary with en occupation at Nea Nikomedeia in western Macedonia and at Anza (Anzabegovo) la and Ib in former Yugoslav Macedonia (table 1.3).

Initial study of the mn at Servia suggested that it was comparable with the assemblage recovered from Achilleion IV. Radiocarbon dating has confirmed that the mn Servia dates fall within the date-range established for Achilleion and Sesklo, though none is as early as the beginning of that range. It is also broadly contemporary with mn levels at Franchthi in the Péloponnèse and Anza II and III. Calibration of dates from Achilleion suggests an absolute date for the mn in the first half of the sixth millennium bc.

With two exceptions, the C14 dates from the earliest levels at Sitagroi and Dikili Tas in eastern Macedonia, fall later than the Thessalian mn range and suggest that they are contemporary with the start of the ln period at Servia and in Thessaly. Unfortunately, apart from the two Servia ln dates, there is little with which to compare them.

Two of the dates obtained for the ln period at Servia are approximately 1 00 years later than those from the mn period, and fit well with the stratigraphie and ceramic evidence for continuity from mn to ln. This provides additional grounds for rejecting Heurtley's opinion, based on the mn burnt level (Phase Four in the 1971-73 excavation), that there was a stratigraphie break. Following the burnt destruction at the end of the ln (Phase Seven),

1 8 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARD LE

there was clearly a very long break in occupation to the end of the third millennium bc, equivalent to the numerous cultural stages recognised in Thessaly and e Macedonia which are now termed ln and fn or ln and chalcolithic (Alram-Stern 1996, 90-8; Aslanis 1992, 151-222; 1993; Grammenos 1991, 102-05; 1997, 276-9; A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 477-82; Treuil 1983, 71-100).

The dates for the eba at Servia come from two rather different cultural phases whose precise relationship with the better dated eh ii and eh hi sites of southern Greece is still difficult to establish. Although they had at first seemed rather too late for the expected chronology (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 226), it is clear that they are fully in accordance with dates now available from sites from Crete to the Troad which, when calibrated, form a reasonably coherent picture (Manning 1995) (table 1.4). The single Phase Eight date (BM 1886R) is slightly later than Sitagroi IV and Lake Vouliagmeni 1 (which dates to early eh ii), but contemporary with those from Mandalo III, Pentapolis I, and the Troy I levels at Besik Tepe. It is slightly earlier than those from em ii Myrtos, eh ii Lerna and Koruçutepe D (Troy II early). The two dates from Phase Nine are later than those from Argissa, which came from levels containing equivalent eba hi pottery. This material culturally is likely to correspond to the end of eh ii and the first part of eh hi, and the Servia dates are later than those from Lerna III (final) and Lake Vouliagmeni 3 (both late eh ii) and Lefkandi (eh hi). They are also a little later than dates from Pentapolis II and Sitagroi Vb but fully consistent with those recently obtained from Archontiko Phases 1 and 2. They are also contemporary with dates from Arslantepe VID (=Troy II/IH), and the sequence of dates from Troy itself originally ascribed to Troy Ilg (see Manning 1995, 189). Manning's fresh calibration of these eba dates suggests that Servia Phase Eight should fall at the beginning of, or early in the third millennium and Servia Phase Nine should fall in the second half of the third millennium, perhaps towards the end.

Although the Servia samples are far from ideal, the majority can now be seen to fit well into the chronological framework which is developing for the neolithic and eba.

C. A. M K. A. W

Notes to tables 1.3 and 1.4

Data in table 1.3 is drawn as follows:

Achilleion Gimbutas et al 1989, table 3.1. Anza Gimbutas 1976, 29-32. Dikili Tas Séfériadès 1983, 639-41. Franchthi Lawn 1971; 1974. Kitsos Delibrias et al 1974, 54-6. Mégalo Nisi Galanis Photiadis and Hondroianni-Metoki 1997. Nea Nikomedeia Rodden and Wardle 1996. Sesklo Lawn 1973. Sitagroi A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 169-73.

Data in table 1.4 is drawn from Manning 1995, with the addition of:

Archontiko Pilali-Papasteriou and Papaefthimiou-Papanthimou 1997, i47t5°-

THE EXCAVATION 19

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Chapter 2

The Stratigraphy and Phases

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The stratigraphie phasing presented in the Preliminary Report (Ridley and Wardle 1979) remains essentially unchanged here, although some individual features have been rephased. This is noted in the text wherever appropriate.

There can be no exact correlation between the excavation in 1930 and that in 1971-73, however, it is possible to suggest the following concordance of phasing:

Table 2.1. Concordance of phasing designations: 1930 and 1971-73.

Heurtley Heurtley Date !932 1939 !97!-73

Eleven Byzantine Ten EBA Nine EBA

III LN 2 Eight EBA Seven ln

II LN 1 Six LN Five MN

- Destruction Horizon -

II en 5 Four MN I en 1 One Early mn

Servia-Varytimides en

Although the destruction horizon described by Heurtley in 1932 and 1939 directly corresponds with 1971-73 mn Phase Four, his description of Stratum II also includes an overlying section of ln. This overlap is reflected in the concordance above.

In 1932, Heurtley correctly identified Stratum III as eba in character. However, this was redefined in 1939 as ln 2. This division corresponds in part with 1971-73 eba Phase Eight. Heurtley also recorded, within Stratum III, fragmentary clay floors, pebble yards and hearths, which represent 1971-73 eba Phases Nine and Ten.

21


The archaeological evidence produced by Heurtley's excavation in 1930 will be referred to throughout this chapter and will be incorporated, wherever possible, into a discussion of each stratigraphie phase. It is summarised for each major stage as separate sections (2.2.4, 2.2.6, 2.3.3, 2.4.2). Details which Heurtley published in 1932 and 1939 will be complemented here by information contained within correspondence between himself and G. A. T. Tait, during the years 1931-38. This collection of letters is particularly valuable, as Heurtley expresses opinions which, on occasion, contrast with his later interpretation published in 1939. Heurtley also (correctly) expresses doubt concerning the phasing of individual features and of the site as a whole. The letters now form one part of the Servia archive.

Details of the registered small finds (sf) and pots (p) from sealed contexts have been included within the stratigraphie account given below. When listing the small finds, their material and object type has been included to allow cross-referencing with the catalogues and specialist studies in Chapter 4. Registered impressions of architectural elements in daub, other than mat impressions, are catalogued separately (4.3.20). The term decorated has been used to denote paint-decorated pottery; other forms of decoration will be explicitly defined. Small finds which were recovered from mixed zembilia or phases are reserved for Chapter 4, whilst registered pots from mixed contexts will be included in Volume II. A study of the bone and chipped stone artefacts will also appear in Volume II.

The inclusion of small finds and registered pots in this account facilitates an understanding of their stratigraphie context, and an interpretation of the character and function of individual structures. A full consideration of these issues is, however, reserved for Volume II, where results of the study of the pottery and the chipped stone and bone assemblages will allow a full discussion of the prehistoric settlement at Servia, including aspects of spatial distribution.

This account includes consolidated phase plans of structures and features; however, structural dimensions have normally been reserved for Chapter 3, where they are presented in tabular form, tables 3.1-3.3.

In the 1979 preliminary report, the plans were cross-referenced to the text, for simplicity, with single letters (A-E, X and Y). In the full account which follows, the original trench designations (e.g. F20/A), used throughout the excavation and study, are retained.

2.2 THE MIDDLE NEOLITHIC (figs. 2.1-2.7, plates 2.1-2.60, F3-17)

Although evidence of en activity was recorded in the Servia vicinity in 1971-73 (Servia- Varytimides) the area excavated both in 1930 and 1971-73 was first occupied in the mn. As already noted, the five settlements which Heurtley, in 1939, attributed to the en period can now be identified as phases of mn occupation.

The pottery of the earliest mn phase at Servia is markedly Thessalian in appearance, but apparently of local origin. The motifs are linear stripes and bands, usually carried out in red-on-light background, whether slip or body. To distinguish this indigenous style from that of the assumed imported 'Sesklo' pottery, with solid designs, contrasting more strongly with its cream or yellow ground, it has been described as the 'Servia style' (Ridley and Wardle 1979), equivalent to the category called 'scraped' ware in Thessaly. In later levels the imported painted pottery is imitated locally, and designs are more varied, including toothed and fringed zigzag bands. The final phase at Sesklo is distinguished by an increase in monochrome pottery and the displacement of red on cream decoration by a linear style which incorporates blurring and wiping techniques. In contrast, at Servia a wide range of

THE STRATIGRAPHY AND PHASES 23

colours, styles and techniques are used from the beginning of the mn to the end, and patterns, such as the linear style, are present throughout the mn period of occupation (Ridley and Wardle 1979). Although a frill analysis of the pottery assemblage is not yet complete, a preliminary report (by Ridley) has identified a number of phases of production within the mn period. An early phase is characterised by the dominance of fine monochrome pottery; painted pottery is dominant in the middle phase, whilst a late phase is characterised by an increase in plain pottery and in the production of larger vessels, specifically storage jars. The end of the mn is marked by a decline in the quality of production, the variety of shape and pattern and a termination of the Servia linear style (Ridley and Wardle 1979).

In stratigraphie terms, five phases of occupation can be identified. These roughly correspond with the changes in ceramic wares and styles detailed above and with the five settlements identified by Heurtley in 1930 (Heurtley 1939). Heurtley's record of his 'en' 1 settlement corresponds exactly with the mn Phase One occupation identified in 1971-73. However, it is impossible to provide a direct correlation between his 'en' 2-4 settlements and the 1971-73 Phase Two and Three occupation deposits. The 'en' 5 settlement, represented in 1930 by a destruction horizon, corresponds with mn Phase Four activity. Phase Five of the mn was not identified as a separate level by Heurtley.

The earliest mn occupation, Phases One-Three, was recorded only in Area F during 1971 and 1972. In the larger areas of excavation opened in 1972 and 1973, Phases Three, Four and Five were identified in Area H, and Phases Four and Five in Area D.

2.2.1 Phase One (fig. 2.1, plate 2.1, F3-9) In 1979 it was suggested that only two Phase One structures were recorded (Ridley and Wardle 1979). Further study now indicates that parts of three structures, with contemporary yards and hearths, survived. The most complete ground-plan was located in F30/A, F20/C and extended E to F20/D. Part of a second ground-plan was recorded in F20/D and a third in F20/A, F20/B and F10/D. All three buildings were aligned nw-se.

The first structure (Structure 1) was located at the N end of Area F and was cut at its centre by an eba Phase Eight ditch (F3). All four walls of the structure survived as a combination of post-holes and foundation trenches. The N wall, which was represented by a line of post-holes, also incorporated two querns (SF465 and SF463), the s wall was represented by a foundation trench and post-holes, the w and E by post-holes only. A 'red- brown' deposit, which was mentioned in the archive as marking the w and s wall-lines, may represent construction material or the remains of foundation trench fill. A trampled clay surface was recorded in the N half of the building. Survival was better in the s half where traces of a burnt wooden floor were preserved as impressions of beams (F3). The beams ran parallel to the w and E walls and the floor was cut at the centre by a large clay- lined post-hole which would have held a roof support. Occupation and maintenance of the building was represented by a pebble floor remake (F4), recorded as a burnt pebble layer, and by a habitation deposit which extended over the whole of the beamed floor.

An adze (SF472), a stone 'palette' (SF651), and a decorated shallow open bowl (P135) were also recovered from Structure 1, with a further two querns (SF456 and SF976), an adze (SF481), a stone waisted weight (SF410), a clay spindle whorl (SF405) and a bone tool (SF483) coming from the habitation deposit.

The structure was bounded to the N by a rough yard surface and to the e by a pebble yard with a hearth. A shell pendant (SF899) was recovered from the yard. The sw corner of

24

fig. 2.1. Phase One, Area F, Structures 1-3.


a second building (Structure 2) was also recorded to the E. The w and s walls were represented only by post-holes, although a faint deposit in between the post-holes may have represented the fill of foundation trenches. An interior floor was represented by a trampled clay surface, partially covered by habitation debris.

The pebble yard separated Structure 2 from a third (Structure 3) (plate 2.1a, F5-6), located 2 m to the s. Only three walls were recorded. The N and w were each seen as a line of yellow clay, representing the wall make-up. The E wall was represented by a series of post-holes which were cut into a foundation trench. A burnt timber floor survived well in the w half (F7), but was severely truncated by ln pits in the E half. Two lines of central supporting post-holes and a hearth were also recorded. This building measured at least c. 10 x 5.5 m, but may have been longer.

Structure 3 revealed a surprising number of small finds of different kinds, including jewellery suggesting, perhaps, a cache of 'precious' items which had become scattered. These included a piece of worked marble, possibly an ornament blank (SF775), a shell pendant (SF953), a clay spool (SF849) and a bone double-ended artefact (SF828) which were found in the debris of Structure 3; an additional five shell beads (SF520-SF524), two bone points (SF317 and SF331), a chipped stone artefact (SF315), an unusually-shaped piece of marble (SF316) and a small decorated ovoid cup (p8s) were found on its floor.

Structure 3 was bounded to the w by a yard and hearth, and to the e by a yard and some form of lighter 'lean-to' structure, represented by a line of small post-holes aligned N-s, which extended from the E wall of the building.

A period of structural decay marked the end of Phase One. Wall debris covered the ground-plans of Structures 1 and 2. In the area of Structure 1, the debris was sealed by a trampled yard surface. This yard and part of Structure 3 continued in use to Phase Two.

2.2.2 Phase Two (fig. 2.2, plates 2.1b, 2.20, f8-h) Although later mn and ln occupation truncated much of the evidence for Phase Two activity in Area F, remains of three structures, though not their ground-plans, did survive. The location of these suggests that some shifting had taken place in the settlement plan, though whether this was general, or confined to 'household' territories, as individual buildings decayed and were replaced, is not clear.

The most northern structure (Structure 1) (plate 2.i¿, F8-9) respected the Phase One sw-NE alignment and re-used the N wall of Phase One as its s wall. The structure was built over the top of the earlier Phase One yard. In turn, the now levelled Phase One structure was covered in F30/A by a Phase Two yard. This was covered with ash and charcoal, which is thought to originate from a hearth which lay outside Area F.

One stone adze (SF363) was found in Structure 1. A stone axe (sfiio6) was found in the yard, along with a quern (SF454), a marble pendant (SF365), a clay bracelet (SF403), a bone point (SF1034), a worked scapula blade (SF540) and three vessels: a small medium ware globular collared jar (p88), a decorated globular jar with cylindrical neck (?) (pi 76) and a decorated flaring bowl (pi8o).

In F20/C, the Phase One structural debris was sealed by a yellow clay floor belonging to Structure 2. A circular hearth (fu) was associated with the floor. The floor and hearth were remade and at a later date were burnt, resulting in the preservation of straw and wood impressions on the floor surface. Two stone footings, perhaps for walls of timber and daub, to the E, in F20/D, may represent the eastern limit of this building. A trench plan,

26

fig. 2.2. Phase Two, Area F, Structures 1-3.


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which included the Phase Two floor and hearth, also recorded a w and a rather more fragmentary s wall (included on fig. 2.2 as well as two post-holes (f8, 9) which may represent the northern wall, plate 2. 1 b, f8, 9). However, it is not clear whether these walls belong to this Phase Two structure, or whether they represent the uppermost Phase One deposits.

A stone adze (SF391), a stone axe (SF397) and a bone point (SF402) were found in Structure 2. In addition, a stone axe (SF482), three stone waisted weights (SF380, SF381 and SF393), a quern (SF1065), a clay animal figurine (SF333), a clay bracelet (SF536) and two bone points (SF401 and SF408) were found lying on the earliest clay floor. A stone axe (SF476), a cylindrical stone tool with blade (SF480), a stone waisted weight (SF205), a sherd disk (SF214), a bone point (SF477), a bone pointed artefact (SF964), and a chipped stone artefact (SF202) were found on the later, burnt floor.

A yard with a hearth separated the remains of Structure 2 from a third, 2 m to the s. A stone adze (SF308), a sherd disk (SF311), two shell beads (SF525 and SF526), a chipped stone artefact (SF431), a bone tool (SF965) and a utilized boulder (SF1025) were found within the immediate vicinity of the hearth.

Structure 3 of Phase One continued to be used in Phase Two, although in a more restricted form. The N, w and E limits remained the same, but a yard marked a new s limit to the building, which measured c. 6 x 5.5 m. The charcoal-covered floor of Phase One was remade. One butt end of a stone axe or adze (SF752), two cylindrical stone tools with blades (SF776 and SF321), a stone chisel (SF871), a grindstone (sf86o), a quern (SF1022), a stone waisted weight (SF307), a possible stone ornament blank (SF773), a sherd disk (SF455), four bone points (SF3 12, SF314, SF408 and SF834), a chipped stone artefact (SF430) and a decorated juglet (P229) were found on this floor.

Pebble yards extended E and s from the building and light lean-to structures were used in conjunction with the yards. Finds recorded here included three stone waisted weights (SF799, sf8oi and SF846), a stone chisel (SF871), a perforated stone disk (SF796), a stone slab (SF1104), a worked stone (SF1130), two sherd disks (SF754 and SF780), a clay plaque (SF985), a shell bracelet (SF878), a shell pendant (SF815), a bone tool (SF1052), four bone points (SF824, SF825, SF832 and SF884), two worked ribs (SF859 and SF1049), a chipped stone artefact (SF785), and a coarse ware deep bowl (P246).

The e section of a yard in F10/D was covered, in part, by structural debris which may represent a fourth Phase Two building. However, truncation by Phase Three structures prevents any firm identification. A stone adze (SF790), two shell bracelets (SF814 and SF817), a worked tooth (SF836) and a chipped stone artefact (SF786) were found within this debris.

2.2.3 Phase Three (fig. 2.3, plates 2.1b, 2.2b, 2.3, F8-9, 12-15) Phase Three occupation deposits were recorded in Areas F and H. Activity appeared more intensive and the ground-plans of six structures were excavated: these were built much closer together than in the two previous phases and they did not adhere to any one

alignment. An architectural innovation was noted in this phase. The building foundations and floors were cut down into earlier deposits to create a sunken floor. These areas have

previously been referred to as 'basements' (Ridley and Wardle 1979), a term which implies a greater depth than that recorded on site. The areas in question were cut to an average depth of 0.50 m and it may be more appropriate to now refer to these simply as sunken floors (see 3.6.2 for a discussion of their function). The presence of such a lower floor space and the simultaneous introduction of substantial posts against the wall line providing internal

31

fig. 2.3. Phase Three, Area F, Structures 1-4.


buttresses may suggest the use of 'two-storied' buildings in this phase. The durability of these structures does not appear, however, to be any greater than those in Phases One and Two.

Structure i was located in the N half of Area F. A s wall, aligned ne-sw, was represented by a thin line of yellow daub which separated the interior lower surface from the exterior yard. A burnishing pebble (SF343) was recovered from the wall make-up. The building interior was covered by a trampled clay surface, overlaid by ash and charcoal flecks. A large post-hole would have held a support for the upper structure. The building was later destroyed by a fire which caused structural debris to collapse into the sunken floor area.

Finds recovered from Structure 1 include a butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (SF379) and a stone adze (SF382) which were lying on the clay surface, a grindstone (SF1093) and a chipped stone artefact (SF434) from the packing of a post-hole; and a cylindrical stone tool with blade (SF383), a stone adze (SF366), a possible stone tool (SF972), a bone tool (SF378) and a white-on-red decorated open bowl (pg6) from its structural debris.

The partial remains of Structure 2 were recorded 4 m to the se in F20/D. The evidence here was extremely fragmentary owing to later neolithic and Byzantine activity. The building was represented by a sunken floor, cut on a nw-se alignment. A yellow-brown clay floor, with two post-holes, defined the structure's western limit. It was covered by a dark

occupation deposit. A fire was responsible for the collapse of the structure and burnt debris filled the lower area. Finds recovered from the floor and post-hole fill include a bone point (SF191) and a decorated concave-sided bowl (?) (P29). Finds from the debris comprised a stone axe (SF1095), a stone adze (?) (SF155), the butt end of a stone axe or adze (SF157), a

cylindrical stone tool with blade (SF144), a stone chisel (SF143), two bone points (SF1070 and SF1072), an antler splinter (SF1071), a chipped stone artefact (SF172), a coarse ware decorated jar (P23), a decorated bowl (P27) and a medium ware globular jar (P42).

The largest, and most complete, Phase Three building was recorded immediately to the s (Structure 3). Despite being truncated by an eba ditch, it was possible to reconstruct the whole ground-plan for this building measuring c. 8 x 5.5 m. The northern extent was

represented only by a square cut filled with a build-up of habitation deposits. No wall survived. The w wall was represented by clay debris and two large post-holes which may represent internal buttresses. The E wall was seen as a line of small post-holes. This wall was bonded together with clay and further supported by three larger post-holes which may also represent internal buttresses (the post-holes were recorded in the archive, but were not

planned). The s wall was represented by a foundation trench with post-holes cut in its base - clay and stones provided packing within the foundation trench (plate 2. 2 b). Five large centrally placed post-holes would have provided additional roof support. No interior divisions were recorded. A habitation deposit of soft earth, flecked with charcoal and ash, accumulated before a later clay floor, with some preserved mat impressions, covered the whole building area. A concentration of burnt wheat and barley was recovered from the sw corner of the building, providing some indication of the structure's use. Debris from the

building's collapse filled the sunken floor area and covered the surrounding yards. Some

burning was apparent in the debris from the area of the sunken floor, but it was more extensive in the yards.

A burnishing pebble (sF2ii), a cylindrical stone pounding tool (SF823), a bone point (SF831), a decorated flaring bowl (P241) and a decorated semi-globular bowl with flaring collar (P262) were recovered from Structure 3. A butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (SF171), two stone waisted weights (SF174 and SF175), a chipped stone artefact (SF187), a large


roughly burnished jar with ring foot (P26) and a small decorated globular jar (P34) were recovered from the habitation deposit. Three stone waisted weights (SF209, SF210 and SF243), two grindstones (SF863 and SF864), a marble bracelet (SF755), a clay cylinder (SF891), a bone point (SF712), a worked rib (SF1031) and two chipped stone artefacts (SF719 and SF1009) were found on the later clay floor. Finds from the structural debris included a stone adze (SF684), a stone 'palette' (SF1014), a shell bracelet (SF704), a clay ring weight (sf888) and a broken, possibly used, boar's tusk (SF1039).

A series of occupation deposits and a horseshoe-shaped oven (fi 2, 13, 77, 78) were recorded to the N of Structure 3. Yards lay to the w, E and s. A clay spindle whorl (SF733) was found in the E yard. A pebble yard with traces of burnt debris, where a decorated deep semi-globular bowl (P390) was found, housed a number of light structures and separated Structure 3 from a nw-se aligned structure (Structure 4) in F10/D.

This building was again cut to a level lower than the contemporary surrounding yards. The N and w walls were represented by a single line of post-holes (not planned) - a lower stone course survived for the N wall. A hard yellow clay floor, burnt in places, was sealed by burnt structural debris. A clay figurine (SF750) and a bone point (SF753) were found on the floor. An axe or adze (SF702), a stone chisel (SF873), a stone waisted weight (SF742), a bone point (SF701), an antler point (SF693), a decorated mug (P253) and a large decorated plate (P311) were recovered from the debris.

A series of yellow clay floors extended over part of Area H, each covered by an ashy deposit. Together, these represent Structure 5 (not illustrated here). A large post-hole was also recorded. The floors were not cut to a lower level. Finds recovered from Structure 5 were a quern (SF450), a grindstone (SF537) and a decorated globular jar (P179).

2.2.4 Heurtley's Stratum I - 'en' 1-4. Heurtley excavated to virgin soil and the remains of his first phase may reasonably be equated to Phase One (1939, 45-9). The principal feature was observed in pit F, a large ditch cut 2 m into the natural subsoil which curved as though enclosing some feature to the NW outside this trench. The w face was vertical and the ditch was presumably filled with debris soon after it was cut. Traces of structures assigned to the same phase partly overlay the ditch and the pebble spread of one of the familiar hearth bases is also reported at this level.

It is not possible to correlate Heurtley's 'en' 2-4 with Phases Two-Three as defined in the 1971-73 excavations. The second phase (1939, 49-51) contained the remains of a stone wall footing built over the earlier ditch and traces of post-framed structures. The neat pebble circles of two hearth bases were found as well as traces of pebble paving. In the third level (1939, 51) two parallel rows of posts about 2.8 m apart indicated the position of a 'rectangular house' over 4 m in length. Another pebble hearth was found not far away outside it. Single rows of stones in the fourth level (1939, 51-2) defined a room measuring 5.6 m N-s by 3 m e-w - the best example discovered of a structure which used stones in this way, perhaps to reinforce the foot of the timber and clay wall, rather than to provide an actual foundation. Immediately to the E was an area of cobbling while a small area of pebbles to the w with a broken cooking pot set into them and a scatter of [burnt] grain was interpreted as a 'kitchen'. Another rough stone wall was found 5 m to the E of this building and two more pebble hearths were noted at this level. Post-holes were recorded throughout these three levels.


2.2.5 Phase Four (figs. 2.4-2.6, plates 2.4-2.5, F13, 14, 16, 17) The fire-damaged Phase Three structural debris was levelled and a new building programme was undertaken. Some subsidence did occur over the earlier sunken floors. Amongst the spread of burnt destruction debris (fi 6) which marked the end of Phase Four, owing to a fire which appears to have swept rapidlv through the settlement, only one structural ground- plan could be identified in Area D (fig. 2.6), Structure 7, where the preservation and quality of Phase Four architectural evidence was very good.

The debris from one building (Structure 1) was identified at the N end of Area F. Unfortunately no further detail can be given, as the building was destroyed by an earlier Phase Four fire, and the collapsed material had been levelled to provide a foundation for a yard. Two stone waisted weights (SF284 and SF286) and a marble bead (SF259) were found in the debris, while nine stone beads (SF489-492, SF494-498), one shell bead (SF493), two shell pendants (SF504 and SF942), a marble ornament blank (SF534), a burnishing pebble (SF501), a stone waisted weight (SF502), a stone object resembling a 'pulley' (SF1019), a sherd disk (SF507), and a fragment of a clay object (SF508) were found in the yard itself. A soft carbon-flecked occupation deposit accumulated in the yard before the surface was renewed. The later surface was again covered by fire-damaged structural debris which included stones thought to be weights for securing roofing material (Ridley pers. comm.) and the rim of a decorated bowl (?) (P36). Finds recovered from this later yard surface were two butt ends of cylindrical stone tools (SF322 and SF325), two stone waisted weights (SF506 and SF1094), a stone bead (SF499), a shell bead (SF1083), a stone 'toggle' (SF332), a chipped stone artefact (SF423) and four vessels: a medium ware open rounded bowl (p8i), a fine monochrome carinated cup or mug (P368), a base with mat impressions (P372) and a medium ware semi-globular bowl with everted rim (P400).

The structural debris which overlaid the yard and occupation deposit in F30/A may also have originated from Structure 2, immediately to the s. A post-hole, recorded at the southern extremity of F30/A, may represent the remains of a wall which bounded a series of clay floor remakes to the s. The surface of the latest floor was intensely burnt and extended over the whole of F20/C, into F20/A, and E to F20/D. A number of unfired clay slingbolts (SF1066) and a quern (SF184) lay adjacent to a possible oven in F20/C (fig. 3.12, F77-78). Ash and burning in F20/D originated from this oven which overlaid a similar Phase Three example (fi 3, 14). Structure 2 may also have served as a storage area. A wall in F20/A, aligned nnw-sse (which was described in the archive, but not planned), created a discrete area which contained a concentration of grain. The floor and possible oven (in F20/C) were remade immediately after the fire and continued in use to Phase Five.

Finds recovered from the clay floors of Structure 2 were a stone adze (SF165), a stone waisted weight (SF140), a sherd disk (SF154), one bone point (sfio68), a bone double- ended point (SF1069) and a fine monochrome dish (P28). Finds from the latest floor included two stone waisted weights (SF137 and SF142), a grindstone (SF179), a clay ring weight (SF159), a bone point (sfi88), four joining fragments of boar's tusk (SF1078) and a fine monochrome semi-globular bowl (P32). Finds from the oven and ash deposits included a stone adze (SF131), a stone axe (SF364) and three stone waisted weights (SF369, SF370 and SF1120)

A second structure (Structure 3) with associated storage space, was identified in F20/B and F10/D. A yellow clay floor extended over the two trenches and was itself covered by a loose habitation deposit, flecked with charcoal and patches of burnt clay. This was covered by a layer of structural collapse.

fig. 2.4. Phase Four, Area F, Structures 1-4.

35


The habitation deposit contained a stone axe (?) (SF664), two stone adzes (SF669 and SF685), three stone waisted weights (SF672, SF695 and SF697), a bone tool (SF674), a clay ring weight (sf668), a bone point (SF658), a bone tool (sf68o), a chipped stone artefact (SF679), a fine monochrome ovoid collared jar (P213) and a decorated S-profile bowl (P268). A stone adze (SF641), two stone waisted weights (SF665 and SF662), two grindstones (sf86i and SF862) and a shell bracelet (SF676) were recovered from the collapsed material of Structure 3.

To the NW of Structure 3, a deep pit (not illustrated here), which contained burnt seeds and a stone waisted weight (SF687) in its fill, was sealed by a semi-circular area of burnt clay and pebbles. A second stone waisted weight (sf666) had been incorporated into this stony scatter and a quern (SF464) lay on its surface. The stony area was enclosed by a wooden fence which had burnt in situ (fi 7) and which survived as charred stumps surrounded with burnt daub. A concentration of charred seeds lay adjacent to the fence and it is possible that this conjectural light lean-to structure may have been used for storing grain.

Further storage space was recorded in F10/D. Here, a very clean clay floor was sealed by a burnt clay layer which was covered with potsherds and a concentration of carbonised seeds, including lentils and barley. Almost all the sherds from a very fine large pedestal bowl were collected from the burnt floor surface of the s end of F10/D or in levels of disturbance immediately above (P22i, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 1 1:37)- A quern was incorporated into a hearth floor (SF887).

The structural collapse in F20/B was levelled and a new building (Structure 4) was established. A beamed floor ran at right angles to the E wall, which was represented by a N-s aligned foundation trench. The burning and collapse of the structure aided the preservation of carbonised wood, daub impressions and seeds, and the floor was covered with burnt daub and beam impressions, concentrations of charcoal mixed with carbonised wood and seeds. A cylindrical stone pounding tool (SF419), a decorated funnel-necked jar (P143) and a bowl (P190) were found on the floor.

A burnt clay floor with potsherds lying on its surface was recorded 2 m to the E and represents Structure 5. The floor was bounded to the s and w by walls which were burnt only on the interior, not the exterior. The walls were represented by a line of posts with vertical branches and daub, all preserved in situ.

In Area H a yellow clay floor whose western limit was represented by a clay wall, was associated with three post-holes which may represent central supports for this structure (Structure 6). Burnt structural debris covered the clay floor and also extended over the remainder of Area H (fig. 2.5).

Finds recovered from Structure 6 included: a stone adze (SF469), three querns (SF448, SF460 and SF462), a stone waisted weight (SF418), a marble ornament blank (SF409), a split boar's tusk (SF1026) and three vessels: a decorated flaring bowl (P136), a decorated rounded pedestal bowl (pi 74) and a decorated globular collared bowl (pi 88).

Of all the building remains at Servia, those of Structure 7 are the most intelligible (fig. 2.6, plate 2.4). The destruction fire had baked part of the walls and the fallen debris helped preserve the evidence of the upper structure and its supports. The whole length of the w wall and parts of the N and s walls could be traced where this structure had been cut down 50-60 cm into the preceding levels. The E side of the building had been cut away by a Phase Eight ditch and no attempt was made to excavate beyond this in 1973. It was originally hoped that this could be one of the aims of a fourth season of excavation in 1974 but the closure of the dam during the winter of 1973-74 prevented further exploration. The structure


measured 8 m nw-se and well over 3.30 m sw-ne to judge by the cut made into the E baulk of the trench. Large posts were set along the walls and in the interior of the building to support the roof and a presumed upper floor. If these were central posts their position suggests a width of 3.50 m but, if there were two rows of internal posts, as in Phase Three Structure 3, a width of c. 5.20 m is indicated.

The outer walls were of small closely set posts packed over with clay which had been baked hard in the destruction. A ridge on the floor in the E central part of the structure (A) suggests a nw-se partition while another (B) indicated a sw-ne division about one third of the way from the sw corner. In this corner there were large blocks of fallen burnt clay (plate 2.4Ã) bearing parallel impressions of close set timbers aligned nw-se in their lower side, which may best be interpreted as part of the fallen floor of an upper storey. Fragments of charred wood were found in several places which were identified by Richard Hubbard as representing building timbers of oak, pine and poplar.

Structure 7 also contained a large number of artefacts lying on the floor and others in the debris which had fallen from above. The latter had presumably either been hanging in some way from the ceiling or were in the upper storey. Two particular concentrations were found, in the N end and in the s centre of the room (F79). These objects included one of the best groups of pottery from any Greek neolithic settlement context, totalling 17 complete or restorable vessels. (Several of these have already been illustrated in Ridley and Wardle 1979 and the relevant figure numbers are indicated below.) There were also over 50 small objects including many items of jewellery and adornment as well as a cluster of twelve ring weights in the N end of the room. The charred remains of different food crops were also found scattered on the floor, with concentrations in several places, which have provided important information about crop husbandry and processing (5.2.3). The most significant of these were of two-seeded einkorn (sample 63), of lentils (sample 62) and of Lathyrus sativus (sample 64) in the southern part of the room (fig. 5.7).

Finds on or very close to the floor in the N end of the room included twelve clay ring weights (SF727-729, SF737-740, SF759, SF779, SF809, sf8io and sf8ii) and one more at a distance (sf8o6), two stone axes (SF771 and SF700 inside P222), and another possible stone axe (SF794), a stone ring (SF1058), a stone ball (SF853), a stone macehead (SF876), two marble bracelets (SF689 and SF758), a stone pendant (SF748), a stone bead (SF751), a burnishing pebble (SF819), two almost complete shell bracelets (SF731 joining SF732 and SF691), and parts of three others (SF749, sf8i6 and SF850) a shell pendant (SF717), a shell bracelet (SF782), a clay ball (SF889), a clay cylinder (SF890), a bone point (SF1041) and worked antler (SF757).

Pottery from the floor at this end of the room included a decorated pedestal bowl (P273, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 9:25), a large decorated globular jar with collar neck (P265, ibid., fig. 11:38), a medium globular jar (P266), the base of a large jar (P222) and a small pithos with out- turned neck (P223). In the debris just above were a miniature decorated fruitstand (P2i6, ibid., fig. 9:2), a decorated flaring sided mug (P219, ibid., fig. 9:28), a small unpainted semi-globular jar (P215) and a small coarse globular jar (P224).

Finds lying on, or very close to, the floor in the s end included a stone waisted weight (sf886), the butt end of a stone axe or adze (SF793), a polishing pebble (SF715), two stone waisted weights (sf8oo and sf886), two querns (sf866 and sf868), a stone 'palette' (SF908), a stone slab (SF629), three more clay ring weights (SF805, SF807 and sf8o8), a bone point (SF839), an antler artefact (SF840), worked antler (SF1053) and a chipped stone artefact (SF787).


Two pots lay on the floor at the s end. One was a coarse hole-mouthed jar (P283), which had contained the seeds of Lathyrus sativus found charred in and around it. The other was a decorated pedestal bowl (P264), upside down close to the w wall. Another four were found in the fallen debris: a decorated pedestal bowl (P279), a decorated globular jar (P272), a fine monochrome bowl (P276) and a medium funnel-necked jar (P279). Two more complete vessels found in the upper debris probably belong to this group: a decorated globular mug (P252, ibid., fig. 9:29) and a decorated flaring sided mug (P257, ibid., fig. 9:27).

The finds from this structure suggest a variety of activities took place there - all appropriate to the daily life of a family group, though no valid estimate of the number of people who 'lived' in this 'house' is possible. The processing of crops is demonstrated by two querns and the storage of grain and lentils. P283 containing Lathyrus sativus probably represents a stage in food preparation, stored under water to detoxify prior to cooking. The concentration of clay ring weights suggests the use of a warp-weighted loom (see 4.3.5). In addition to a small collection of stone tools, the examples of ornaments could be personal items or represent manufacture in the vicinity. The recovery of a burnishing pebble may be linked to the finishing of ceramic products, while the discovery of the impression of a grain weevil burnished into the surface of one of the pots (P265, see section 5.7) indicates that unfinished pottery may well have been stored in the structure.

The marked destruction level of this phase could be identified almost everywhere in the section cut for the new road and other work in preparation for the new bridge across the Haliakmon. Although individual buildings were not identified, several examples of the typical circular pebble-based hearths were observed, including one with, apparently, a surrounding timber structure (plate 2.5).

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! ' waM ^k ! ! I 'H • ^k ! "" ! 1 ! ''o°i ! I j I 'Q<ki Clay Floor I

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fig. 2.5. Phase Four, Area H, Structure 6.


Fig. 2.6. Phase Four, Area D, Structure 7


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2.2.6 Heurtley's Stratum II - 'en' 5 This Village was destroyed by fire: fused masses of wall lay in confusion over the thick layer of charcoal, the timber framework of the roofs having fallen first and been followed by the crumbling wall' (Heurtley 1939, 52-3). Charred posts were found with a 'storejar' - a decorated collar-necked globular jar (ibid., 137, no. 10) - in situ containing burnt grain. Heurtley supposed the cuttings in the debris (BB and GG in fig. 2.4) to represent the gaps where the walls of the buildings were located but the experience of the 1971-73 excavation suggested that these may well have been the foundation trenches for one of the following phases. This fire destruction, which was also traced in pits D and E, can without question be equated to Phase Four. The mention of burnt mud bricks (Heurtley 1932, 228) is probably erroneous and has almost entirely been removed from the 1939 report.

2.2.7 Phase Five (fig. 2.7, plate 2.60) As already noted above, the widespread destruction in Phase Four did not signal an end to MN occupation at Servia. The later Phase Four floor in F20/C and F20/D continued in use in Phase Five. However, the focus of activity seems to have changed, and some building plots may have been left temporarily vacant. With only one exception, the buildings in Phase Five were less substantial, evidence more sparse and occupation less intense. The combination of these factors prevented the identification of Phase Five as a separate level in F20/A and Area H. At this level the damage done by the later pits and ditches was more extensive.

The N end of Area F may have been left temporarily vacant at the end of Phase Four. A soft, almost archaeologically sterile soil deposit accumulated over the destruction level before a yard and hearth were established and two pits were cut. The two pits were used for domestic waste disposal; one contained pottery and burnt clay; the other also contained cattle bones. The hearth survived to the sw as a burnt pebble floor with some burnt roughly made mn sherds on its surface. Potsherds, bones and chipped stone waste flakes were scattered across the yard. Catalogued finds comprised a sherd disk (SF984) and the ring base of a decorated pot (P67). Immediately to the s, the Phase Four clay floor which extended over F20/C and F20/D was covered with a Phase Five habitation deposit. Finds comprised a stone waisted weight (SF150), a quern (SF185) and a roughly burnished bowl with upright sides (P30).

Structural remains were concentrated in F20/B and F10/D. It appears that a minimum of four, and perhaps temporary, buildings were constructed, all on slightly different alignments, before a more substantial building, represented by a clay floor, was erected. The clay floor extended over F20/B and F10/D and continued s to F10/B. One interior wall, aligned N-s, was indicated by four post-holes. A stone waisted weight (SF411) was found on the floor surface.

This building was replaced by another substantial structure (Structure 1) measuring c. 8 x 3.5 m, whose complete ground-plan and floor survived. The N, w and e walls were each represented by a foundation trench, with post-holes cut into its base. The s wall survived

only as a foundation trench. Clay packing within the trenches included burnt fragments preserving the impressions of reeds and chaff. Post-holes belonging to the w, E and s walls

43

fig. 2.7. Phase Five, Area F, Structure 1.


in Fio/D are shown in plate 2.6a. A stone 'palette' (SF893), a fragment of shell (SF633) and a bone tool (SF659) were found in Structure 1.

More fragmentary evidence was recorded in Areas D and E (not illustrated here). Post- holes recorded in Area D may represent a temporary structure. A pit filled with pottery fragments was located immediately to the w. Six pits and small patches of structural debris were recorded in Area E.

As already noted, Heurtley did not identify a settlement equivalent to the mn Phase Five. He did, however, recognise a transitional phase which marked the end of the mn and the beginning of the ln. This is discussed below.

2.3 THE LATE NEOLITHIC (figs. 2.8-2.11, plates 2.6¿-2. 8a, fi 8-24)

The beginning of the ln at Servia was signalled by a transitional period designated as Phase Six. During this period the manufacture of mn pottery was gradually brought to a halt and the production of a new diagnostic fine pottery steadily increased. A second period of occupation (Phase Seven) can be defined in ceramic terms by the manufacture of a fully developed fine black-burnished ware in characteristically ln shapes: sub-carinated bowls, flaring bowls and rare small handled cups. This ware is completely different from the mn pottery: its fabric, decoration and shapes reflect none of the earlier influences. A number of the painted ln styles, however, do look back to the mn Thessalian-influenced traditions and a number of other influences can also be detected. The matt-painted style originates in southern Greece, whilst the straw-impressed and black-topped techniques have more in common with the pottery of areas to the N.

The transition between mn and ln occupation at Servia had been recognised by Heurtley, who recorded the appearance of four new types of pottery (incised, black-polished, grey- on-grey and painted) at the same stratigraphie level (Heurtley 1932, 232-5; 1939, 55, 66- 77). Heurtley also noted that this pottery did not entirely replace the older styles, which continued to be produced during the ln.

The transition between mn and ln was clearly represented in ceramic and stratigraphie terms during the 1971-73 excavation, especially in F20/B and Fio/D. Separate phases of ln occupation could not be identified in F20/C, F20/D, Areas D or H, and the deposits from these areas will be described with the Phase Seven stratigraphy below.

2.3.1 Phase Six (fig. 2.8, plate 2.6e) The mn Phase Five structure (Structure 1) recorded in Fio/D and F20/B continued in use to the ln transitional phase. The Phase Five foundation trench (plate 2.6¿) was cut by a series of post-holes which were packed with a clay deposit containing mn and ln Phase Six

pottery. The building measured c. 8 x 3.5 m but no floor surface, other than that dated to the mn Phase Five, survived. Later Phase Seven structural activity erased evidence of any earlier occupation deposits.

The structure fell out of use during Phase Six and its surviving ground-plan was cut by two, possibly three, later Phase Six pits. One of these pits, located at the se corner of Fio/ D, truncated the e arm of the foundation trench. A second pit, and possibly a third, cut the w arm in F20/B. The pits were filled by the end of Phase Six and were sealed by a Phase Seven floor.

45

fig. 2.8. Phase Six, Area F, Structure i.


Plate 2.6. (a) Phase Five: Structure 1: Fio/D, F20/B from s. Foundation trenches and post-holes from a minimum of five structures (see fig. 2.7 and plate i.2¿); (¿) Phase Six: Structure 1: F10/D

from s. Wall foundation trench (see fig. 2.8).


Finds from the fills of these pits included a cylindrical stone tool with blade (sf68i), a stone waisted weight (SF765), a quern (SF865), four fragments of different grindstones (SF869A-D), a shell bracelet (SF670), a shell pendant (SF966), a clay weight (SF892), a clay loomweight (SF714), a bone point (SF694) and a bone pointed tool (SF646).

Three more pits, one located in F30/A, one in F30/A-F20/C, and one in F20/A, were recorded. The first two were filled mainly with ash and fragments of burnt daub with reed and daub impressions preserved on their surfaces. The third pit, cut at the centre of F20/A, was filled with structural debris comprising burnt daub with preserved wood impressions. It was partially truncated by an eba Phase Eight ditch.

Finds from the fill of the pit in F30/A were a stone axe (SF276), three stone waisted weights (SF264, SF268 and SF269), five chipped stone artefacts (SF147, SF248, SF249, SF261 and SF274), and a large part of a conical bowl in an unusual pale crimson fabric decorated with thin brownish paint (P79, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 13:65). Other fragments of the same bowl were found scattered in different parts of the site - including a piece which had been trimmed to a rough circle ready to make a sherd disk. A sherd disk (SF441) and a bone point (SF353) were recovered from the pit in F30/A-F30/C.

No structures contemporary with the pits were recorded. However, the domestic nature of the pit fills, which included fish bones and charred seeds, suggests that occupation of the site did not terminate. The structural debris found in the upper pit fills indicates that structures were being maintained and modified in this phase.

2.3.2 Phase Seven (figs. 2.9-2.11, plates 2.7-2.80, F18-24) The preservation and distribution of Phase Seven deposits proved more extensive than for the earlier transitional Phase Six. The best evidence was again recorded in F10/D and F20/B. This was supplemented by the survival of partial structural plans in Areas E and H. Elsewhere, fragmentary floors were associated with post-holes, but no coherent building plan could be discerned in these areas.

The ground-plan of the mn Phase Five and ln Phase Six structure in F10/D and F20/B was re-used in Phase Seven for two consecutive structures (Structures 1 and 2). This suggests that traces of the earlier Phase Six foundation trenches must have still been visible on the ground, despite having been cut by three Phase Six pits. Only two exterior walls of Structure 1 were recorded, although the line of the N wall may be represented by the limit of the trampled clay surface and associated post-hole in F20/B. The s wall was represented by a double row of irregularly spaced post-holes. The w wall was represented by a single row of post-holes which may have originally extended ne into F20/B. The structure was divided into two areas, or rooms, by a line of irregularly spaced posts. This spatial arrangement was superseded by a similar division further to the E. The building was supported and further strengthened by five pairs of posts and two central posts side by side, indicated by a double post-hole. Although no distinctive floor surface survived, discrete patches of trampled clay at the N and centre of F10/D, and in F20/B may represent the original floor level (fig. 2.9).

Finds from Structure 1 were a quern (SF458), a marble pendant (SF385), a clay plaque (SF1013), a fragment of a clay object (SF625), a chipped stone artefact (SF948) and large parts of a conical black-burnished bowl (p6).

After the structure fell out of use, the southern half was sealed by a stony yard whose make-up included lumps of burnt clay, sherds and worked stone (not illustrated). Part of a


i i

I I

I | I I I _ _-- - 1 I r i I ^Trampled I Structure 1 I 1 ; Clay | 1

v Surface

I • i

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• ; :

. ; ¿ ; | ¡•' ;•••••;♦;« ! i J 0 1 2 3 4m

fig. 2.9. Phase Seven, Area F, Structure 1.

small undecorated bowl (P2ii) was found on the yard surface. The northern half was covered by a deposit or build-up of earth only and may have been left as an open space. A stone waisted weight (SF614) and a shell bracelet (SF619) were recovered from this layer.

The external walls of a later Phase Seven building (Structure 2) did not survive. However, remarkably, a large part of its clay-covered beamed floor, which was laid on top of the stony yard, did, burnt in the destruction fire (fig. 3.4, plate 2.7, F18-23). The preserved area of the floor measured 8 m N-s and 2.5 m e-w (fig. 2.10). The beams, aligned ne-sw, were covered by a clay deposit tempered with straw, and were sealed by a layer of mud plaster. Two mat impressions survived (sfi6o and SF176, see section 4.3.8) and a stone axe (SF613), a shell bracelet (SF400) and a bone point (SF1077) were found on the floor.

In Area H (fig. 2.1 1), a row of large regularly spaced post-holes aligned N-s represented the w exterior wall of Structure 3 (plate 2.80, F24). The wall, which had some surviving daub packing, was associated with a series of clay floors. Two areas or rooms were defined by an irregular row of post-holes. A stone waisted weight (SF396) was found in Structure 3. A pit, filled with brown earth and bone, was cut 4 m to the w of the building. It was sealed by a series of three pebbled yard surfaces, from which a butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (SF413) and a chipped stone artefact (SF407) were recovered. A hearth and an oven were located in the yard. The hearth is recorded as having a clay floor, with a stone chisel (SF387) found close by. The oven survived as a rim of hard clay, with pebbles set into a

49

fig. 2. io. Phase Seven, Area F, Structures 2, 5-7.

5o CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

clay floor. An oval-shaped area adjacent to the oven's entrance was marked by a number of post-holes, perhaps representing a light protective shelter.

A clay floor, c. 3.5 m in length, and a large, well-preserved, oval hearth (c. 1.5 m in diameter) were recorded in Area E, representing Structure 4 (not illustrated here). The base of a thin clay wall surrounded the hearth's clay and pebble-layered floor. The hearth was enclosed within a thicker outer wall foundation. A single pot base was found in situ immediately to the w of the hearth. The structure subsequently underwent some change in plan. This is shown by a foundation trench, which may represent a w wall, aligned N-s, which cut the hearth, and by a pit which cut the clay floor.

A bone ring (SF826) and two bone points (SF858 and SF1056) were recovered from the foundation trench, while a butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (SF906), a stone 'palette' (SF946), a clay bracelet (sf88i), a clay spoon (SF874), a bone point (SF1040), a bone tool (SF1055), a chipped stone artefact (SF875) and a large piece of a ripple-decorated black- burnished cup (P275, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 12:45) were found in the fill of the pit.

A number of scattered pebbles or stones on trodden clay yard surfaces lay immediately to the s. These yards appear to have provided a focus for activity of some kind, since each surface was covered with bones, worked stone and sherds. Two large post-holes (one in E10/A and one in E10/B) and a line of three small post-holes may represent a light lean-to structure similar in construction to the type recorded in mn Phase Four (F20/B).

Finds recovered from the yards and lean-to structure include a butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (SF777), a stone adze (SF792), a stone axe (SF791), four stone waisted weights (SF743> SF745> SF797 and SF798), a marble ornament blank (SF770), a clay disk (SF845), a clay disk/plaque (SF945), a clay figurine (SF852), a piece of worked bone (SF1037), a bone tool (SF1029) and a chipped stone blade (SF763). Pottery from this area included many large pieces of fine black-burnished bowls with ripple decoration (P230-P232, Ridley and Rhomiopoulou 1973, figs. 9:3, 9:5, 9:2). Other shapes represented included a ripple- decorated black-burnished jar (P483, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 12:52).

The remaining ln Phase Seven deposits were more fragmentary. The western third of F30/A was covered by a clay floor whose eastern limit was defined by a contrasting line of softer earth, which may represent the fill of a foundation trench, and by a line of four post- holes (Structure 5). The archive records plank impressions beneath this clay floor surface. The floor was divided into two areas by a line of post-holes and collapsed clay packing located in the nw corner of the trench. The clay floor continued s to F20/C where a foundation trench with three post-holes and daub packing formed a second division within the floor.

A stone adze (SF169), a stone vase fragment (SF242), a grindstone (SF940), a stone waisted weight (SF510), a stone ornament blank (SF149), a clay spindle whorl (SF528), an antler haft (SF1074) and two chipped stone artefacts (SF83 and SF247) were found on the floor of Structure 5.

Two stone axes (SF127 and SF164), a stone axe or adze (SF1126), a stone waisted weight (SF240), a stone tool (?) (SF89), an ornamental pebble (SF281), a clay spindle whorl (sFin), a worked tooth (sfio8i) and three chipped stone artefacts (SF119, SF146 and SF168) were recovered from the fills of the four post-holes in F30/A. Two stone waisted weights (SF132 and SF141) and an impression in daub (SF1097) were recovered from those in F20/C.

Discrete patches of clay floor and two post-holes were recorded at the southern extremity of F20/C. In F20/D a clay floor (Structure 6) was divided into two areas by a wall, aligned NE-sw, which survived as a line of regularly spaced post-holes. A second wall, aligned


slightly off E-w, was seen only as a linear feature of burnt daub which continued E to Area G. Two curious clay 'pillars' (SF918 and SF978), and a chipped stone artefact (SF42) were found on the floor.

Traces of clay floor were recorded in F20/A (Structure 7). A stone core (?) (SF123), a shell pendant (SF152), a clay figurine (SF895) and a piece of worked bone (SF124) were found on this floor surface. Parts of two pots, a plain burnished bowl (P2i) and a lid with straw-impressed decoration (pi8), may represent vessels in use in this area.

Only limited evidence was recovered from Trench D. A clay floor, whose limits were not fully explored, extended over D10/A and D10/B (Structure 8, not illustrated). Post- holes contemporary with this floor were recorded. A hearth survived in the se corner of D10/B. A clay floor and hearth were also recorded in Do/C, but because of time constraints in the last season of excavation, it was not possible to establish whether these belonged to the structure immediately to the N, or whether they represented a separate contemporary structure. A pit, filled with domestic debris, sherds and bones was also recorded, but it is unclear whether this was sealed by, or cut into, the floor.

It is clear that ln Phase Seven occupation ended rather abruptly. In every area of the 1930 and 1970s excavations, structures suffered extensive fire damage before they collapsed. Clay floors, including the clay-covered beam floor in F10/D and F20/B, were completely burnt, as was the structural debris which became compacted over them. The number of pots and small finds found in situ on these floors gives some indication of the speed at which the fire spread and destruction occurred. The yards in Areas E and H showed more limited signs of burning, but were covered with debris from the adjacent structures.

fig. 2.1 1. Phase Seven, Area H, Structure 3.


Plate 2.7. (a) Phase Seven: Structure 2, Fio/D, F20/B from s. Burnt floor of beams (distance) and clay (foreground), Phase Nine hearth (centre right) (see figs. 2.10, 2.13); (b) Phase Seven: Structure

2, F20/B from s. Removal of clay surface of beamed floor.


Plate 2.8. (a) Phase Seven: Structure 3, Area H from w. Large post-holes of w wall; (b) Phase Ten: Yard to s of Structure 3, Fio/D, F20/B from E. Pebbled yard (left' margin between yard and

interior clay floor of Structure 3 (centré), Phase Seven beamed floor (right at lower level).


2.3.3 Heurtley's Stratum II - 'ln' i In the first report the mn and succeeding ln levels were not clearly separated. By 1939 (54-5) Heurtley had distinguished a separate level marked by the appearance of black- burnished pottery and noted the presence of areas of pebble floors. He also makes a possible connection between one of these floors and the cut into the underlying burnt debris (GG in fig. 2.4) which reinforces the belief that the walls considered by him to be mn in date (see 2.2.6) actually belong to the ln period.

In 1932 and 1939, Heurtley assigned a large circular pit with a human burial at its base to the ln. This can now be identified as a Byzantine (Phase Eleven) pit and burial, contemporary with one excavated in 1971-73 (see section 2.5 and plate 2.8 below). The 'layer of grey ash with fragments of black-polished and grey-on-grey vases' has no connection with this burial but is more probably a shallow refuse pit in which ashes etc. were allowed to accumulate. Its exact relationship to the circular pebble hearth 'placed immediately above the burnt debris' can no longer be established.

Heurtley believed that eba occupation followed on immediately from, and probably overlapped with, ln occupation at Servia (Heurtley 1939, 55). He interpreted the widespread destruction, and subsequent appearance of eba Tatar pottery (Phase Eight) as evidence for an influx of new people at Servia, who were responsible for burning and levelling the ln Phase Seven structures, before immediately establishing their own settlement. Although Heurtley was correct in identifying a policy of levelling in the eba, this did not take place immediately after the destruction. C14 dating has suggested that at least 2,500 years passed before occupation resumed at Servia in the eba (see section 1.7).

2.4 THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (figs. 2.12-2.14, plate 2.8Ä, F25-30)

The eba at Servia is represented by two distinctive ceramic phases, which could in 1971- 73 be assigned to successive stages in the history of the site. In his preliminary report Heurtley (1932, 227) treated this as a single stratum (HI), and correctly assigned the pottery from it to the eba, though without distinguishing the two types. By the time he had published Prehistoric Macedonia he had begun to recognize the two ceramic classes, calling the earlier 'Varnished' ware and regarding it as a neolithic form in contrast to 'other forms . . . some hardly to be distinguished from the well known EB form' (1939, 73). These are clearly the familiar coated and burnished wares typical of the later stages of the Macedonian eba. The mixture of the two types was regarded by him as the 'overlapping' of two cultures, though he recognised that the 'stratification is confused' (1939, 55).

D. H. French, in his classification of prehistoric pottery from Thessaly and Macedonia, designated Heurtley's 'Varnished' pottery as 'Tatar Ware' after the site near Larissa where it was especially frequent (French 1968, 69-70). The vegetable-tempered Tatar pottery which can be readily distinguished from the preceding ln black-burnished ware, is thick and fairly heavy, with a thick glossy slip on both surfaces; colours include orange, red and brown, with black being dominant. Forms are limited, the most common being a wide

open bowl with a short carinated upper body, some of which have a small vertical handle between the rim and carination (Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 14). This ware is the hallmark of the Phase Eight ditches of the 1971-73 excavations.


The second eba ceramic phase was not found as a separate level in 1930. The most distinctive pottery of this phase is a coated and burnished ware made from a thin, gritty fabric, with a black slip on the external surface only; the interior is wiped but is left uncoated. The most characteristic form is a wide open bowl with inturned rim and two or four ledge lugs below the rim, found with unslipped wares of the same fabric and in the same forms. This second ceramic phase is here divided into two stratigraphie phases, Phases Nine and Ten. In 1979 it was stated that 'phases 9 [Nine] and 10 [Ten] were separated by the series of house floors found in almost every area' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 218). This now appears to be an oversimplification as the Phase Nine pits were sealed by Phase Ten clay floors or yards and in one area (F20/D) a Phase Nine pit continued to be used in conjunction with a Phase Ten floor. It can now be stated that the Phase Nine pits antedate only the Phase Ten floors, not the eba floors in general.

The area of eba deposits excavated in 1971-73 was smaller than those of the ln. The mechanical excavation of the upper levels in Areas D, E and H in order to reach the intact ln stratigraphy meant that no eba levels were recorded in these areas.

2.4.1 Phase Eight (fig. 2.12, F25) The site at Servia was abandoned following the destruction of the ln settlement and remained uninhabited for a minimum period of 2500 years (see section 1.7). The ln destruction deposits became sealed by an accumulation of soft brown soil which varied in depth from 10-40 cm.

Activity resumed at Servia in the eba and is represented in the 1971-73 excavations by four, or possibly five, large ditches. One ditch cut across the ne corner of Area D. It curved slightly in this section and continued its course nw and se beyond Area D. A stone chisel (SF769), a shell bracelet (SF621) and a bone tool (SF784) were recovered from its fill.

A second ditch, aligned roughly E-w, cut across Trenches F30/A and F20/C. This section of the ditch was fully excavated and two post-holes, c. 2.2 m apart, were recorded at its base. Finds found within its fill include an unfinished stone axe (SF162) and a cylindrical stone tool with blade (SF324), a stone adze (?) (SF305), a clay spindle whorl (SF295), and two chipped stone artefacts (SF47 and SF163).

A third ditch, aligned nw-se, was recorded during mechanical excavation in Area H, but was not fully excavated. A stone waisted weight (SF398) and a sherd disk (SF461) were recovered from the surface of its fill. A fourth ditch, aligned N-s, may also have cut Area H. Later Phase Nine and Phase Ten disturbance and recent plough damage prevented a more certain identification.

The largest of the ditches, and most productive in terms of small finds and registered pots, was first recorded in E10/C. It continued ne to E10/D where it may have cut a smaller 'trench' which was recorded only in its w section, 2 m further s. The ditch, which appeared more constricted in E20/S and F20/A (F25), had two post-holes, 0.5 m apart, cut at the base of its s side. The ditch continued E to F20/B and F20/D where it widened and curved round to assume a more southerly alignment in Area G.

Finds recovered from the fill of this ditch were: a stone adze (SF287), a stone waisted weight (SF905), a grindstone (SF231), a stone tool (?) (SF222), a stone slab (SF235), a stone ornament (sF2oo), a butt end of a cylindrical stone tool (sFim), a stone vase fragment (SF778), eight stone beads (sf86, SF318, SF341, SF512, SF513, SF517, SF519 and SF527), two shell beads (SF516 and SF518), a shell polisher (?) (SF136), a shell bracelet (SF192), a


fragment of shell (SF283), a sherd disk (SF79), a clay loomweight (sfio6), a clay spoon (SF285), two bone points (SF1079 and SF1087), two bone tools (SF1032 and SF1046), a bone point/cutting edge (sFiogo), three pieces of worked bone (SF297, SF1042 and SF1080), a worked epiphysis (sfio88), an antler tool (SF199), a worked antler tine (SF190), five chipped stone artefacts (SF13, SF158, SF275, SF427 and SF428) and an impression in daub (SF177).

The registered pottery from this ditch provides a cross-section of the history of the site and illustrates the mixing of material as the sides collapsed and in the eventual eba fill. These include an unusual burnished bowl with applied pellets (P49, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 3:12) which is en in style, and much of a mn flame-patterned bowl (P303). LN pieces included a small orange-burnished bowl (P44), a conical black-burnished bowl (P51, ibid., fig. 12:48), the base of a 'black topped' jar (p8i), a straw-impressed lid (pi66, ibid., fig. 3:63). One typical eba wide bowl with incurving rim in Tatar ware with lugs below the rim (pi2O, ibid., fig. 14:67) illustrates the character of the pottery in use before the ditch was finally filled.

The width at the top of the ditches ranged from a minimum of 2.20 m to a maximum of 5 m. The profiles of all four, where fully excavated, were almost identical and in all cases truncated the earlier mn and ln stratigraphy. The ditch sides were cut steeply down to the natural river silt (c. 3.5 m) and the base was narrowly cut to form a 'V shape (c. 25-40 cm wide) (F25). The fill was remarkably consistent, comprising a soft matrix mixed with structural debris, burnt and unburnt daub, stone, pottery and small finds of preceding phases, as well as the distinctive Tatar potsherds. Ditches were also recorded 50 m to the sw of the settlement during the construction of the Limni Polyphytou bridge, suggesting that this complex originally extended over a much greater area than that excavated in 1930 and 1971-73.

The ditches were originally interpreted as a double concentric defensive system and then as enclosure boundaries for separate groups of structures. It is possible that the ditches cutting F20/A-F20/C and Area H could extend to form one corner of a square enclosure. Four post-holes at the base of ditches in F20/C and F20/A would lend support to an enclosure theory, but there is no evidence to relate them directly with the cutting of the ditches or with the earlier mn Phase One deposits. This uncertainty, combined with the lack of overall alignment and failure of the ditches to follow any regular plan, means that no function can be assigned to them. A geophysical survey of the area adjacent to the excavation was carried out by Dennis Mott in 1973 with mixed results since the trenches already open interfered with the signals. The hope was to trace the ditches further and indeed some anomalies were recorded which suggested the presence of other ditches in the vicinity, but the overall pattern was undetectable - perhaps because of the 50 cm+ of eba levels which overlay the top of the ditches. This, together with the presence of ditches of the same period in the Bridge Works, as already noted, makes us sceptical of the reconstruction of a double-ditched square enclosure with two or four entrances, proposed by Aslanis in his study of 'defensive' works (Aslanis 1990, 45, fig. 11).

Apart from a very fragmentary and disturbed white clay level associated with Tatar pottery in a trial trench (E50) close to the 1930 excavation area, no contemporary occupation deposits were recorded in 1971-73. The large portions of two Tatar pots recovered during the mechanical removal of the upper levels in area H20, pi 16, a carinated bowl with unusual vertical ribs (Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 14:6a) and pi 13, a typical wide bowl with incurving rim, may suggest that intact levels were present in this area, but close

inspection of the section of the cut failed to reveal any trace. Otherwise the only surviving


Ü fe" w ci

co (D

"I -§»

I ci Ü


evidence of a settlement contemporary with the ditches from the 1971-73 excavation is the fill of the ditches themselves. Three levels of domestic debris had accumulated at the V- shaped base of one ditch (F20/A) which suggests that the ditches remained open during a contemporary period of occupation. Although an E-w section drawing for F20/A does distinguish two separate contexts of backfill above the domestic debris, the excavation notebooks and remaining section drawings record no such separation. On this basis, it can only be suggested here that levelling or terracing of the Phase Eight settlement area must have taken place over a short period of time and that the ditches were deliberately backfilled with the remains of damaged structures. This effectively erased any evidence of Phase Eight occupation and created a level surface for rebuilding in Phase Nine. It was not possible to detect any traces of the banks which must have accompanied these ditches, and presumably they were demolished when the ditches were backfilled. The concentration of Tatar pottery within the ditches and in the patchy survival of contemporary occupation deposits in the 1930 excavation area can be more easily understood in this context.

2.4.2 Heurtley's Stratum III - W 2, eba

Heurtley described how all of the deposits containing the 'Varnished' ware (now classified as 'Tatar' ware) lay within 0.80 m of the surface and how it was impossible to discern structural plans since they were subject to quite extensive plough damage. Occupation evidence survived only as areas of irregular hard beaten floor with patches of roughly laid cobbles and two semi-circular hearths. The hearths were found in situ with two cooking pot bases. Traces of charcoal and ashes on the surviving floors led Heurtley to conclude that this settlement had been destroyed by fire (Heurtley 1932, 227; 1939, 55). It is, however, not possible to determine whether these are of Phase Eight date or belong to Phases Nine and Ten.

Heurtley did not encounter ditches of this date, but the recovery by him of largely complete Tatar ware vessels (1932, XLL2; 1939, pl. VIII, 65, 76) suggests that some of the level he excavated represented the occupation of this period.

2.4.3 Phase Nine (fig. 2.13, F26) A number of floors and pits can be assigned to Phase Nine. The fragmentary survival of the floors makes it difficult to define their stratigraphie relationship with the pits and possible to identify only two partial ground-plans for this phase. All the pits, except two, were sealed by Phase Ten yards or clay floors. One pit in Area G was sealed before the end of Phase Nine and one in F20/D continued in use to Phase Ten.

The proximity of eba deposits to the surface (c. 0.50 m) inevitably exposed them to later disturbance. In addition to modern plough damage, the deposits were truncated by ten large Byzantine pits. The most coherent stratigraphy, comprising pits, floor and yard surfaces, was preserved in Area F, with less discernible deposits in Areas E and G. Phase Nine stratigraphy could not be identified as a separate level in Area D, or in F20/C. These deposits will be described with Phase Ten.

Two types of shallow and irregular pits were recorded: type 1 was filled with structural debris and type 2 with soft earth and domestic waste. Only profile sections are recorded for the pits.


fig. 2.13. Phase Nine, Areas F and G.


Sixteen pits of type i were recorded. The pits were loosely filled with unburnt and burnt structural debris mixed with ash, stones, potsherds and bones. Large wood and reed impressions were preserved on the daub. One of the pits (Pit i) in G20/A contained a large amount of pottery which included several almost complete vessels. All but one of the type 1 pits were sealed by a Phase Ten floor or yard surface. One pit, in G20/C, was filled and sealed before the end of Phase Nine.

Finds recorded in the fill of Pit i were a stone bead (SF515), a spherical stone pounder (SF622), a stone waisted weight (SF1092), a clay figurine (SF954), six clay anchors (SF309, SF310, SF348, SF349, SF1107 and SF1108), three clay loomweights (SF339, SF340 and SF900), two clay spindle whorls (SF350 and SF538), a copper needle (SF345), two bone hafts (SF533 and SF1047), a bone tool (SF1048), a chipped stone artefact (SF347) and large parts of eight pots illustrating the range of the later eba pottery at Servia. These included coated and burnished bowls with incurving rim and tubular lug handles (P76, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 15:82) or ledge lugs (P122, ibid., fig. 15:81), ajar with a strap handle, tubular lug and spout (pi 23, ibid., fig. 15:92), the neck of a tall jug with ribbon handle (P77, cf. ibid., fig. 15:90). Vessels in uncoated ware included a lid with tubular lug handle at highest point (P2oi, ibid., fig. 16:96), parts of a storage jar with incurving rim, tubular lug handles and rows of incisions at the rim and top of handles (P485, ibid., fig. 16:97) wit^ tubular lug handles below a finger-impressed cordon at the base of the neck (pi 28, ibid., fig. 17:112). A particularly important find was the majority of a restorable baking plate (pi 24, ibid, fig. 17:1 13) of a kind represented by rim sherds throughout the eba levels.

Type 2 is contemporary with two floors, one stony and one trampled, and is represented by a single example in the e baulk of F20/D and in G20/C. The eba Phase Eight ditch, which cut through the area, was backfilled with Phase Eight structural debris to create a level surface. The backfilled ditch was sealed partially by a hard stony surface and partially by a trampled floor which was seen only in section. The trampled floor was cut by a relatively shallow, but wide, pit which extended E from F20/D baulk to G20/C and also cut the Phase Eight ditch fill. The pit did not contain structural debris, but was instead filled with a grey matrix, mixed with stone, pottery and bone fragments. A later yellow clay floor belonging to Structure 1 respected the pit's limits and this feature continued in use throughout the later Phase Ten settlement.

Three walls of this structure were recorded. The w wall was represented by a band of

yellow clay. The s wall was represented by a clear return of the floor itself; whilst the E wall was represented by a line of four post-holes, one of which, in G20/C, was cut into a foundation trench. The northern limit of this structure was not found, but it was at least c. 7.5 m long. A further trampled floor covered the ne corner of F20/B and extended E to G20/A, where it was covered by habitation debris, and N to F20/D and G20/C.

A stone axe fragment (sfi6), a stone adze (SF615), two stone waisted weights (SF326 and SF344), two stone pivots/sockets (SF338 and SF351), two clay anchors (sfii and SF1018), a sherd disk (SF99), two bone points (SF62 and SF1027), two chipped stone blades (SF14 and SF82) and one chipped stone artefact (SF15) were found in Structure 1, whilst three more

chipped stone artefacts (SF7, SF9 and SF72) as well as another three chipped stone blades (sf8, sfio and SF96), were recovered from the habitation debris.

Structure 2 was recorded 3 m to the w. A 2 m E-w by 3.5 m n-s hard floor was bounded

by two walls in F20/A. The s wall was represented by a daub and clay ridge, whilst the w wall was also marked by three large post-holes. A pebble-lined hearth is recorded close to the sw corner.


One cylindrical stone tool with blade (SF91), a stone axe (sfio8), a sherd disk (SF112), a chipped stone blade (SF97) and a fragment of glass (SF220) which is likely to be intrusive, were found in Structure 2.

A third structure (Structure 3) was recorded in F10/D. A clay floor was cut by a series of four shallow post-holes separated by surviving impressions of reeds and daub, which may represent an interior division. A horse-shoe shaped feature, identified as a hearth, was built into the floor (plate 2. 7 0, fi 8, 19). The hearth had its own clay floor, surrounded by a clay lip and further defined by two associated post-holes. It was mostly filled with pebbles and stones, with some daub and pottery. The floor was burnt in places and was covered with a soft charcoal-flecked habitation layer.

A stone pendant (SF300), a marble cylindrical pounding tool (SF323) and two bone tools (SF1085 and SF1098) were found on the floor and in the habitation layer of Structure 3.

A later structure (Structure 4) was identified (not illustrated here). A yellow clay floor which extended over the whole of F20/B was associated with a hearth, located in the nw corner of F20/B. The hearth survived as a burnt clay floor whose limits were marked by five small post-holes. Ash had been raked out to the E where a large coarse ware storage jar was found in situ, set into the floor. A pit, located in the ne corner of F20/B, was also contemporary with the clay floor.

To the s, in F10/D, the clay floor was sealed by a pebble yard which extended E to G 10/ C - a hearth was contemporary with this yard. The yard surface was subsequently remade and extended at least 1 m further s. A bone point (sfio6o), an antler haft (SF1084) and a chipped stone arrowhead (SF440) were found in the yard.

2.4.4 Phase Ten (fig. 2.14, plate 2.8e, F27-30) The effect of plough damage on the later eba Phase Ten deposits, most of which lay within 5-40 cm of the surface, was considerable. Structural debris, floor material and potsherds were churned up and redistributed, preventing any identification of structural distribution for this phase. The most coherent archaeology, comprising a sequence of white clay floors with yards and collapsed daub walls, was limited to F30/A, F20/C, G20/A and G20/C.

The northern third of F30/A was covered with a loose stony deposit, from which a quern (sfi8i) and a fragment of chipped stone (SF54) were recovered. The deposit was overlaid by a burnt clay floor (Structure 1) whose southern limit was defined by an edge marked by four post-holes and a line of burnt daub. Large parts of a baking plate (p8) came from a post-hole of the southern wall. A later hard-packed clay floor extended a further 3 ms. Although the later floor was very fragmentary, a concentration of white clay flecks in the lower plough soil may represent its original surface. A stone adze (sf8o), a stone waisted weight (SF58), four querns (SF226, SF227, SF228 and SF230), a whetstone (sfi8o), a clay figurine (SF1067), a clay anchor (sfi8), two sherd disks (SF35 and SF36), a shell pendant (SF24), a fragment of shell (SF22) and four chipped stone artefacts (SF23, SF25, SF56 and SF57) were found on the floor of Structure 1.

A well-laid, burnt, white clay floor at the centre of F20/C was bounded by two sections of wall, aligned nw-se and ne-sw. These represent Structure 2. Each was marked by a foundation trench which had one post-hole cut at its base. The floor was remade, rather less well, and extended s to F20/A. Debris from the collapse of this structure covered the floor.


A similar sequence was recorded in F20/B and G20/A where a thin white clay floor, which was overlaid by a hard-packed clay layer, represented Structure 3. Finds recorded on the floor of this structure were a marble bead (SF298), a clay figurine (SF980), two clay spindle whorls (SF27 and SF239), a sherd disk (SF271), a bone pipe (SF958), a bone point (SF1076), ten chipped stone artefacts (SF28, SF29, SF30, SF31, SF32, SF78, SF87, SF102, SF103 and SF272), a coated and burnished bowl with incurving rim (P4), and a large coarse jar with tubular lug handles (P3) set in the floor itself (F27, 28). A later, and larger, floor extended over F20/B, F20/D, and F10/D. The e edge of both floors was marked by collapsed daub wall material. A stone axe (?) (SF84), a stone waisted weight (SF77), a clay anchor (SF85), two clay spindle whorls (SF70 and SFioo), three sherd disks (SF64, SF76 and SF443), a bone point (SF40), a bone tool (SF289), three chipped stone artefacts (sF2, SF41 and SF98) and a tall jug in coated and burnished ware (P71, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 15:90) were recorded on the later floor.

Pebble yards extended 4 m to the E and to the s in F10/D (plate 2.8Ä, F29, 30). Another sequence of two clay floors and a hearth made solely of clay, where a bone haft (SF1038) was found, were recorded in G20/C. Both floors were again bounded to the E by a pebble yard. From the E yard, a stone waisted weight (SF302), a worked river pebble (SF342), a quern (SF466), a clay loomweight (SF301), a clay spindle whorl (SF336), a clay spool (SF337), a sherd disk (SF459), a bone haft (SF961), three chipped stone artefacts (SF273, SF435 and SF438) and a small clay scoop in uncoated ware (P98, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 16:98) were recovered, and from the habitation deposits above the yard came a fragment of sauceboat spout in ne Peloponnesian yellow mottled ware (P78); whilst from the s yard there were four clay anchors (SF105, SF290, SF292 and SF335), a clay loomweight (SF238), two clay spindle whorls (SF280 and SF319), three sherd disks (SF244, SF451 and SF1101), a bone point (SF962), two pieces of worked bone (SF293 and SF535) and six chipped stone artefacts (SF254, SF246, SF263, SF266, SF433 and SF436). Large pieces of pottery vessels, perhaps in use in this area, included the upper parts of a small coated and burnished jar with pierced ledge lugs (P69, Ridley and Wardle 1979, fig. 16:93) and a large coarse collar- necked jar with two handles (P70, ibid., fig. 16:111). An unusual shallow bowl in coarse ware with an internal handle may have been used as a stopper (p8o, ibid., fig. 16:109).

In 1979 the minimum dimensions for a structure (Structure 3 here) which covered G20/A, F10/D and F20/B were suggested (Ridley and Wardle 1979). An eastern edge to the structure is clearly delineated by a collapsed daub wall in G20/A and is further defined by a yard which extended E from the wall and which continued s to F10/D. However, the extent of plough damage, which is clearly described in the site archive, prevents the certain identification of any other limits to the structure.

On the basis of the surviving archaeology detailed above, it is not possible to suggest minimum dimensions for individual structures. However, the large area of the surviving deposits does suggest a large settlement in this phase. The recording of fragmentary and rough clay surfaces in Areas D and E, F20/A and F20/D indicates that this settlement would originally have extended over an area at least as great as that inhabited by the preceding mn and ln population.

2.5 PHASE ELEVEN (fig. 2.15, plate 2.9, F31-36) Ten large pits were encountered, dating to the Byzantine period (12th century ad) (F31- 34). These were cut well over 2.5 m deep and 2.05 m wide, and caused considerable


fig. 2.14. Phase Ten, Areas F and G.

64 CATHARINE A. MOULD, K. A. WARDLE AND JONATHAN MUSGRAVE

disturbance to the preceding neolithic and eba deposits, sometimes penetrating the natural subsoil.

Nine of the pits were filled with domestic waste, comprising a loose and mixed ashy deposit, with concentrations of bones, potsherds, river pebbles and fragments of tile. Much was prehistoric in origin and the pottery almost exclusively so. The tenth pit, located in F20/B and F20/D, contained a human burial (plate 2.90, F33-36). The female skeleton was found in a crouched position and had two ear-rings, one iron and one bronze (sf6i). The pit was backfilled with a layer of soft soil, mixed with pottery and tile, sealed by layers of clay, stones and soft soil. Once the pit had been backfilled, its limits were further defined by a line of stones and a series of deep post-holes which cut into the pit wall. These may have originally supported a structure over the burial pit.

A stone adze (SF113), a spherical stone pounder (SF94), a clay anchor (SF898), a clay spindle whorl (SF193), a clay spool (SF196), a terracotta disk (SF215), a chipped stone blade (SF115) and a piece of iron wire (SF194) were recovered from the fill of the burial pit. A large piece of a glazed sherd in the 'scraffito' technique (P62) suggests that all these pits should be dated to the 12th century ad.

In 1930, Heurtley excavated a large circular pit with a human burial at its base. He assigned this to the ln (Heurtley 1932, 230; 1939, 54). Moreover, Hammond (1967, 94) interpreted it as an early tumulus burial. However, in a number of letters which precede the publication of Prehistoric Macedonia, Heurtley expressed some doubt as to the phasing of the burial. Further study of the complete photograph, of which only part was originally published (plate 2.9Ã, cf. Heurtley 1932, fig. 4; 1939, fig. 58), and of site notes written by Heurtley and Skeat in 1930, indicates that Heurtley's doubt was well-founded and that this burial was at the base of a large pit which can now be identified as Byzantine (Phase Eleven), contemporary with the one recorded in 1971. Heurtley also reported another burial, dated to the Byzantine period, in his Trench D (1939, 55 n. 1)

C. A. M. K. A. W

2.5.1 The Human Skeleton from the Phase Eleven Pit, F20/B-F20/D.

Summary This skeleton belonged to a woman, perhaps 30-40 years old at death, and between 157- 64 cm tall.

Catalogue of Skeletal Remains Recovered Cranium Mandible 7 cervical vertebrae 1 1 2 thoracic vertebrae > representing the vertebral column complete 5 lumbar vertebrae J 24 ribs (12 right, 12 left) Sternum, complete


Fig. 2.15. Phase Eleven, Areas F and G.


Plate 2.9. {a) Phase Eleven: Byzantine burial, F20/D from above; (b) Heurtley's excavation 1930: Complete photograph of 'ln' burial used in part in Heurtley 1932 fig. 4, but showing the complete pit. Presumably another burial in a Byzantine pit not observed until Stratum II was

reached.


Both: Scapulae Clavicles Humeri Radii Ulnae Hands, virtually complete Innominate bones Femora Tibiae (left damaged) Fibulae (left damaged) Feet, incomplete but well represented

The only missing bones are one or two small bones of the hand and foot, and both patellae.

Sex Female. Each innominate bone possessed a wide sciatic notch and a preauricular sulcus. Application of a mathematical technique to certain measurements devised by Giles and Elliot (1962) confirmed this diagnosis.

Age Age could not be determined precisely from the microscopic evidence available. The appalling condition of her teeth suggested the onset of middle age, at least. However, the presence of only very slight traces of degenerative joint disease on her vertebrae indicated a lower estimate. We can do little to halt the remorseless progress of degeneration, but we can look after our teeth. Some people are more fastidious in the matter than others. It might be reasonable, therefore, to postulate that she was no more than 40 years old at death.

Stature This was determined from the lengths of her right femur and tibia by means of the appropriate regression equation devised by Trotter (1970). This yielded a score of 160.51 ± 3.55 cm.

Jaws and Teeth

Dental Chart:

Right Left S

?A A C C 876543211234567 8

876543211234567 8

S S

68 JONATHAN MUSGRAVE

Comments on Maxillary Dentition 8: Present. Wear stage 5. 7: Absent. Socket present. Tooth probably present at death or lost shortly

before. Abscess buccally. 6: Dentine stump. Abscess buccally. 5: Present. Very worn. 4321 1 2 : All absent. Teeth lost after death. Sockets present. 5678: All absent. Teeth lost before death. Sockets healed. 4: Present. Worn. Caries mesially: a large lesion. 3: Present. Worn. Caries on neck distally: in contact with the lesion on 4.

Comments on Mandibular Dentition 8: Present. Wear stage 5. 7 6: Both absent. Teeth lost before death. Sockets healed. 5: Dentine stump. 4 3: Both present. Worn, but less so than 3 4. 2 1 : Both absent. Teeth lost after death. Sockets present. 8: Present. Wear stage 4 to 4+. Small carious lesion mesially. 7: Absent. Tooth perhaps present at death in very poor condition, but it

appears to have been shed with consequent and incipient healing of its socket.

6: One root stump left. Rest of tooth lost before death. 5: Absent. Tooth lost before death. Socket healed. 234: All absent. Teeth lost after death. Sockets present. 1 : Absent. Tooth lost before death. Socket healed.

Pathology Apart from the widespread dental lesions listed above, the skeleton as a whole was remarkably free of pathological signs. For example, there was very little evidence of degenerative joint disease and no cribra orbitalia were observed in the roof of either eye socket.

Miscellaneous Points The right mastoid process bears a green stain, and a supratrochlear spur, an uncommon anomaly, is present on the left humérus.

Skull Measurements A large number of measurements were taken on both the cranium and mandible for the benefit of anyone interested in seeking further information about their owner's genetic affinities. Definitions of landmarks and explanations of abbreviations are given in full in Morant (1936), Howells (1973) and Brothwell (1981). These data are held in the Servia Archive.


POSTCRANIAL MEASUREMENTS A representative sample of postcranial measurements were taken and the results are held in the Servia Archive. Most of them are self-explanatory, but definitions of many of them may be obtained from Brothwell (1981).

Acknowledgements I should like to thank Cressida Ridley for inviting me to study this skeleton, Dr. Ioulia Vokotopoulou for giving me permission to do so, and the Royal Society for granting me the funds to visit Macedonia in the summer of 1983.

J.M.

2.6 POST-ROMAN OCCUPATION

A NE-sw aligned ditch cut across G20/A, G20/C and G30/A. The ditch was flat-bottomed with vertically cut sides and was filled with a soft grey-black deposit, mixed with fragments of tile, glass and pottery, including one example of an Early Helladic red ware rarely found in Macedonia. It is not impossible, given the history of recent military activity at Servia, that the ditch reflects one such episode.

C. A. M.


Fig. 2.16. Heurtley's excavation (after Heurtley 1939, fig. 45).

Chapter 3

The Architectural Remains

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The preservation of architectural features for the mn and ln is particularly good at Servia owing to the frequent destruction of the settlements by fire and the subsequent collapse of the buildings. Foundation trenches, post-holes (some with carbonised timber stumps in situ), clay and timber floors, yards, ovens, hearths and storage areas were all preserved beneath a deep build-up of structural debris. Smaller details of the materials used were also preserved. Wood, reeds and straw, which do not survive under most conditions, were carbonised by the fires and then sealed beneath the structural collapse. Although some element of levelling was practised in the mn and ln, actual clearance of earlier settlements did not occur until the eba Phase Nine. The normal practice was instead to level structural debris from the previous period and to build on top of the newly created foundation level. The high quality and extent of preservation enabled a detailed study of the architectural features and an examination of the architectural developments which occurred in the mn and ln and also in the eba. This chapter will first present an overall account of the architectural style, size and orientation of structures for each phase, referring back, where appropriate, to the Phase plans (figs. 2.1-2.15), and will then offer a more detailed comparative study by focusing on the different types of surviving architectural features for the mn and ln and the eba. Evidence recorded by Heurtley in 1930 will also be drawn upon (Heurtley 1932; 1939).

Only five complete ground-plans were traced, but the partial plans of another thirty structures were recorded. These were identified using their foundation trenches and post- holes as key features, and the survival of well-laid clay and timber floor surfaces as a secondary feature.

3.2 MIDDLE NEOLITHIC STRUCTURES (figs. 2.1-2.7, 3.1, table 3.1) Nineteen structures were recorded for the mn period. The majority of these used a combination of foundation trenches and post-holes to support a wooden frame. Stone foundations were occasionally used in Phases Three and Five, but the local availability of wood, especially oak, overrode the use of stone. Smaller branches and reeds were attached to this frame and were then covered with clay. The roofs are likely to have been pitched with wooden rafters covered with mud-plastered reeds which were weighted down with

71


locally available river stones. Internal divisions were noted in situ only in Phase Five, although several daub fragments carried impressions of closely-set reeds (fig. 3.3) appropriate for light partition walls. The walls of lighter, perhaps less permanent, structures built in MN Four and Five yards used only posts set into individual holes, not into foundation trenches.

The method of construction remained constant in all aspects but one during the mn. An innovation in style was introduced in Phase Three and was repeated in Phase Four. This involved the cutting of building foundations and interior floors to a lower level than contemporary yard surfaces. These areas have previously been referred to as 'basements' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 198), a term which implies a greater depth and more substantial construction than that recorded on site (average depth 0.50 m, see 2.2.3 above), and are here referred to as lower storage areas (see below). The innovation of lower floors in Phase Three was accompanied by the introduction of internal buttressing. Wall buttresses were only used at Servia in association with the lower storage areas (Phase Three Structure 3, and Phase Four Structure 7) and were not associated with any other type of structure. The extra strength which they would have given to the wooden house-frame would certainly have been sufficient to support two floor levels, creating a 'two-storied' building (figs. 2.3, 2.4 and 2.6). Independent evidence of the existence of two-storied houses is provided by a model of this form in the Larissa Museum (Gallis 1992, 165 fig. 30; Toufexis 1996, 328 no. 264) and by other models from the Balkans.

3.2.1 The Size of Buildings

This was dictated by the technology available at that time, so that the width and to some extent, the length, of mn buildings was limited by the level of carpentry skills. The dimensions of each mn structure are presented in table 3.1. Of the five reconstructed

ground-plans four were 5.50 m wide and one was only 3.50 m wide. These widths were dictated by the strongest structural support needed for a pitched roof. A wooden wall frame, even with the aid of a double line of central post-holes, can support only a limited roof weight. Maximum size might be dictated by technology, but variations below this maximum and in the shape could be due to differing function. Two buildings, one each in Phases One and Two, measured 5.5 x 6 m and the two largest mn structures in Phases One and Three measured 5.5 x 10 m and 5.5 x 8 m, respectively (figs. 2.1-2.3). The largest buildings may reflect structures of higher status, or a communal function.

3.2.2 The Orientation of Buildings

This varied slightly during the mn. All Phase One and Phase Two buildings, and two of the Phase Three buildings followed a nnw-sse alignment. Two other Phase Three buildings were angled nne-ssw and N-s respectively. The orientation of only one out of the six Phase Four structures could be determined - this followed a nnw-sse alignment. Two of the Phase Five structures were aligned ne-sw, whilst the latest building was aligned N-s. The orientation of these, and of later ln and eba structures, may have been determined by the prevailing weather conditions.

THE ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 73

a) Room and contents as seen from point of view of mn occupant (eye level at 1.55m) standing against hypothetical east side of room.

b) Stereo pair showing room and contents as seen from point of view of mn occupant (eye level at 1.55m) standing against hypothetical east side of room.

c) Stereo pair showing bird's eye view of room and contents. Staircase shown as dotted plane.

Fig. 3.1 a-c. Reconstructions of Phase Four Structure 7 by Richard Hubbard


Table 3.1: Dimensions (m) of the mn structures. (P) = preserved length.

Phase Walls/ Structures

Plan One 1 2 3

N 4-20(P) - O.9O (P) s 5.65 0.50 (P) w 3-oo(P) 0.40 (P) 3.55 (P) E 2.OO (P) - 8.4O (P) Plan 5.5x6 - 5.5 x 10

Square - Rectangle

Two 123

N - O.75 (P) s 4.20 (P) w - 2.50 (P) 3-6o(P) e - 2.20 (P) 3.85 (P) Plan - - 5.5x6

- - Square

Three 12345 (Floor only)

N - O.95 (P) 3.IO (P) s 4.20 (P) - 6.50 (P) w - 4.20 (P) 2.20 (P) 1.00 (P) E - - 5.70 (P) Plan - - 5.5x8

- - Rectangle

Four 1 2 3 4.5 6 7 Debris only Floor only Floor only

1 wall not planned

N - - - - - - LOO (P)

s - - 0.95 (P) - 3.30 (P) w - - - - 0.85 (P) 1.85 (P) 8

E - - 4.2O (P) - -

Five (A minimum of 5 structures were recorded: the only coherent plan is that of the latest) 1

n 3.50 s 3-65 w 8.00 E 8.30 Plan 8 x 3.5

Rectangle


3.2.3 Location of Buildings A gradual shifting of buildings occurred throughout the mn. There were also plots which were used for specific types of building in successive phases.

The N wall of Structure 1, Phase One, became the s wall for Structure 1 in Phase Two. The original Phase One plot became a yard surface. The plot was reused in Phases Three and Four, but was left vacant in Phase Five. In F20/D, building was limited to the northeastern quarter in Phases One and Two, whilst in Phases Two, Four and Five building extended over the whole trench. The building plot which spanned F20/A, F20/B and F10/D appeared to be in constant use from Phase One to Phase Three. The building here was the largest in all three phases, perhaps indicating that the location itself held some form of status. Two successive Phase Four buildings were also housed on this plot. The later one had a timber floor and was used for the storage of grain among other fonctions.

The focus of settlement shifted away from the excavated area following the extensive fire and destruction which swept through the Phase Four settlement. Features were restricted to pits, and recognisable surfaces to yards and isolated clay floors. Architectural activity was confined to F20/B and F10/D. A rapid succession of at least five structures was recorded; the latest of which measured 8 x 3 m. This supports the suggestion that larger structures were only built on specific plots.

3.3 LATE NEOLITHIC STRUCTURES (figs. 2.8-2.11, table 3.2)

Nine LN structures were recorded, only one of which was dated to the transitional Phase Six (F10/D). Fresh posts were inserted into the Phase Five foundation trenches and clay was packed around the posts to provide extra support. The rectangular 3.5 x 8 m Phase Five Structure 1 ground-plan and its n-s alignment were adhered to. The lack of any other architectural evidence within the excavated area, except in the fill of pits, suggests that the shift of occupation away from this area, which began in Phase Five, continued in Phase Six. The focus of occupation reverted to the whole area of the excavation in Phase Seven. Nine buildings were recorded and were mainly represented by floors, either on their own, or with one or two walls (figs. 2.9-2.1 1).

3.3.1 The Architecture and Size of Buildings Where the walls were recorded, they were represented only by a single, or sometimes a double, row of post-holes. Only one example of a foundation trench was recorded (Area E). Stone foundations were not used in the ln. Although only 'clay packing' was recorded, wall construction is likely to have followed the same method as used in the mn. Internal division of a building into two or three, and in one case four, areas was practised in the ln, occurring in four out of the nine Phase Seven structures. Internal walls were represented by a single line of irregularly spaced small post-holes. Clay packing from these walls was also recorded for Structure 3 and Structure 6 in Phase Seven.

Evidence for improvement and maintenance was recorded in two Phase Seven buildings. The internal division within Structure 1 was moved further to the E and a new wall constructed, so altering the spatial layout. The internal plan of Structure 4 was also changed


when the original clay floor and hearth were truncated by a later Phase Seven foundation trench.

The more fragmentary survival of ln architecture makes the reconstruction of any one ground-plan impossible. Nevertheless, as there were no obvious advances in architectural development during the ln, it is possible to say that the size of buildings is likely to remain within the mn range of 5.5 x 6 m to 5.5 x 10 m.

3.3.2 The Orientation of Buildings Orientation reflects the same fluctuations around N-s seen in the mn. The orientation of the Phase Six structure and seven of the Phase Seven structures can be gauged. Three follow a N-s alignment (Phase Six, Structure 1, Phase Seven, Structures 3 and 6), two are aligned nne-ssw (Phase Seven, Structures 1 and 2), one is aligned ne-sw (Phase Seven, Structure 7) and the remaining structure follows a nnw-sse alignment (Phase Seven, Structure 4).

Table 3.2: Dimensions (m) of the ln structures. (P) = preserved length.

Phase Six

Walls/ Structures Plan

1

N 3.5O s 3.65 W 8.OO E 8.3O Plan 3.5 x 8

Rectangle

Phase Seven

Walls 123 4 5 6 7 8

(Floor (Floor (Floor

only) only) only)

N - - - - - O.95 (P) s 3-45 (P) - - "----

w 3.30 (P) - 3-oo(P) 2.25 (P) - 1.50 (P) E - - - - ~ " "-


3.3.3 Location of Buildings Other than the most obvious shift in ln occupation, marked by construction activity reverting to the excavation area in Phase Seven, there is very little movement in the location of structures. Instead, plots are continuously occupied by a structure which is more often modified than allowed to deteriorate to such an extent that another is built.

3.4 EARLY BRONZE AGE STRUCTURES (figs. 2.12-2.14, table 3.3)

Despite the long break in settlement at Servia after the destruction of Phase Seven, house plans and construction techniques had not changed substantially by the eba. The traditions depended, of course, on local conditions and materials and may well have been maintained by the inhabitants of neighbouring sites in the Haliakmon Valley which were occupied during this interval.

Seven structures were recorded for the eba, a number which is markedly lower than for the preceding two periods. This is due to two factors. The first is the generally fragmentary nature of the upper deposits due to plough damage. The second is the complete levelling and clearance of Phase Eight structures in advance of the Phase Nine building programme. The only architectural details available for Phase Eight come from the fill of four, or possibly five, large ditches, a very fragmentary and disturbed clay level in a 1971 test- trench and from references made by Heurtley in 1932. The ditches were all filled with structural debris which included burnt and unburnt daub, most probably representing the remains of fire-damaged structures, though some burnt daub in the lower fill may well have originated from the collapse of the ditch sides where they exposed the mn and ln destructions. The white clay surface recorded in the 1971 test-pit is likely to represent a floor level similar to the hard clay floors recorded by Heurtley (1932, 227). Heurtley was unable to identify any structural plans and so dimensions of Phase Eight buildings cannot be given. The settlement layout is likely to resemble that of Phase Nine and Ten, in that wooden-framed and daub structures would have been separated by yards. Heurtley described these as areas of 'roughly laid cobbles', which were associated with hearths.

Four structures were recorded for Phase Nine and three for Phase Ten. These were identified as clay floors, usually on their own, the exception being one which was recorded with three surviving walls (Phase Nine, Structure 1). The Phase Nine walls were represented by a combination of clay and daub lines which were associated with post-holes. One foundation trench was recorded, with four post-holes cut into its base. The Phase Ten walls were recorded as lines of daub associated with post-holes, collapsed daub with post- holes and two foundation trenches with a post-hole cut into each. It is possible that foundation trenches were used for all Phase Nine and Ten structures, their fill being represented by lines of clay and burnt daub. The cuts may not have been identified due to later erosion and plough damage. Evidence for wall material was found only within Phase Nine pit fills. The impressions of wood and reeds on burnt clay fragments suggested that wooden-framed and daub structures were still the normal architecture at Servia.

The partial ground-plan of one Phase Nine structure (Structure 1) was identified, measuring 3.5 m wide by a minimum of 8 m long. These dimensions are similar in size to


buildings in the mn and the ln. No evidence was found either to suggest or to rule out the kind of apsidal buildings known from Sitagroi, or widespread in Mainland Greece in the eh in period. The lack of any central post-holes suggests a simple structural design as the walls alone, with or without foundation trenches, could not have supported a complex superstructure. One example of a Phase Nine interior division was recorded. A clay floor in Fio/D was cut by a series of four shallow post-holes, while fragments of clay packing bearing reed and straw impressions were recovered from in between the post-holes.

The orientation of two Phase Nine structures and three Phase Ten structures could be identified. Three followed a ne-sw alignment (Phase Nine Structure 1, Phase Ten Structures 2 and 3) and two followed a N-s alignment (Phase Nine Structure 2, Phase Ten Structure 1).

Individual building plots are difficult to identify for the eba. No Phase Nine structure was identified in F30/A, an area frequently occupied in the preceding phases. In contrast with the ln, but in common with the mn, there is less evidence for structures being upgraded. The slight shift in location of two successive structures in F20/B and in F20/C suggests that buildings were allowed to deteriorate and then replaced rather than being maintained.

Table 3.3: Dimensions (m) of the eba structures. (P) = preserved length.

Phase Walls/ Structures Plan

Eight No structures were recorded for this phase.

Nine 1234 (Floor only) (Floor only)

N

s 3-5° 3-75 (p) w 1.95 (P) 2.80 (P) E 7.5O (P)

Ten 123 N - 2.80 (P) S 2.85 (P) w - 1.45 (P) E - - 2.7O (P)


In the first case Structure 1 , with its three defined walls and white clay floor, fell out of use and a new clay floor, representing a later structural ground-plan, extended c. 2 m further w than the earlier building. The first Phase Ten clay floor in F20/C was later remade in Phase Ten and extended s into F20/A. It is not clear whether this represents an enlargement of the first building or whether the earlier floor did not survive in F20/A. Excavation in Area G and in an extension to F10/D showed that Phase Nine and Ten activity continued to spread eastwards and that no limit had been found for these settlements.

3.5 BUILDING TECHNIQUES

Although little of the buildings themselves survives above floor level, the destruction fires of MN Phase Four and ln Phase Six caused large parts of the clay packing around the timbers of walls and roofs to be burnt hard and thus preserve some traces of the upper structure as impressions in the burnt lumps, though it is not always clear which belong to the walls and which to the roof. We are particularly grateful to Richard Hubbard for recording a selection of these in drawings which illustrate so well the variety of building techniques (figs. 3.2-3.1 1). Together with the information about pits, foundation trenches and post-holes below floor level, these enable a relatively clear picture of construction techniques to be deduced.

3.5.1 Walls (figs. 3.2-3.7) In areas of maximum preservation exterior walls were represented below floor level by 'rows of closely set stakes or small post-holes placed in a narrow bedding (foundation) trench' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 195). Stone foundations were also recorded in Phases Three and Five, and in Heurtley's Stratum I (Heurtley 1932, 230), 'en' 2 and 4 (now known to be mn: Heurtley 1939, 49-59)- In the more disturbed areas walls were more often represented only by segments of foundation trenches, or where the cut could no longer be identified, by material representing the foundation trench fill. Where there was no evidence for a foundation trench, single, and sometimes double, lines of post-holes represented the wall. The carbonised remains of posts were also identified and in Phase Four carbonised stumps were recorded in situ. Interior partition walls were represented only by lines of small post-holes; foundation trenches were not used for these.

In the sides of the cut for Phase Four Structure 7, the uprights had normally poles c. 4 cm in diameter set little more than 1 cm apart, though there were traces of split or even squared timbers used in the same way (fig. 3.2). Clear impressions of these uprights were retained in the clay packed around them. The wall surface was then finished with a 2 cm thick coat of relatively coarse daub mixed with straw and chaff and a second finer coat of similar thickness. There was no sign of any horizontal branches or reeds in the 30-40 cm of the height of these walls, but perhaps these were not thought necessary below ground level. Even in the cases where a second row of poles was used to give greater solidity (fig. 3.4) some bonding will have been necessary to give rigidity to the structure and prevent the natural movement of the poles which would otherwise cause the clay packing to split and fall away. It is likely that horizontal branches (fig. 3.5) or reeds were used for this


purpose but no impressions were preserved of true 'wattling', - that is the weaving of pliant branches between the uprights, basket fashion. Although Heurtley (among other excavators) uses the term 'wattle and daub' frequently (1939, 52, 65) it is unlikely that he intended this precise form. He too (1939, 53) found lumps of clay with impressions of

Fig. 3.2. Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for Phase Four Structure 7. Closely set uprights including squared piece, packed with clay. Two layers of coating.

THE ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 8 1

beams or of reeds of a type too rigid for weaving, though suitable for tying to the uprights in bundles prior to daubing (plastering) them over with clay, or a clay and chaff mixture. It is clear, despite the captioning of one of these lumps as 'brick', that true bricks were never used as a building material at Servia.

Fig. 3.3. Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for Phase Four Structure 7. Partition (?) walling, closely packed reeds [Phragmites Australia), solid clay matrix, 6 cm thick.


Phase Four Structure 7 also produced impressions of a lighter wall structure, made from closely set vertical reeds (fig. 3.3), perhaps used for partitions similar to that detected in Phase Five, or for exterior 'fences' such as that observed in the yard area to the nw of Phase Four Structure 3 (fi 7). Traces of possible internal partitions were observed as ridges of clay on the floor of Phase Four Structure 7 (fig. 2.6). In both mn and ln periods, timbers were regularly split, to produce thin planks, or thicker squared beams. The 'wastage' from preparing these planks and beams was used in place of unsplit poles (fig. 3.5), while the planks might be used for uprights (fig. 3.7) or even as cladding (fig. 3.6) fastened to upright poles in a lighter structure.

o

Fig. 3.4. Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, from Phase Four, F20/A. Four uprights of different sizes. Solid clay matrix, outer face 2-3 cm of daub.


Fig. 3.5. Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, from Phase Seven Structure 5. Major upright 14 cm in diameter. Split segments of poles. Horizontal pole 2.5 cm in diameter. Solid clay

matrix.


/ / i I I

^m//^/X^ß'-' ■ '■/•'

1 :^i •. '

O

Fig. 3.6. Wall structure, based on preserved daub impression, for ln Phase Seven Structure 2. Upright post 4 cm in diameter. Horizontal overlapping planks and interior packed with clay as

revetment.


CO

2 CU xn

3

in <+* o 0) . 0) S T3

.

M •1 S3 «2 '5 e" -o .2 2 2 3

•S u

li

Ml O ^

0 g S 0 3

g S

8* 5

i I d


3.5.2 Buttresses Internal wall buttressing was recorded only in Phases Three and Four, in association with the lower storage areas. The buttresses were represented by substantial post-holes in the western and eastern wall line of Phase Three, Structure 3 and in the southern wall-line of Phase Four, Structure 7 (figs. 2.3, 2.6). Their main functions are likely to have been the reinforcement of walls and the provision of extra support for the wooden roof superstructure, within what appears to have been a 'two-storied' building.

3.5.3 Roofs (figs. 3.8-3.10) The roofs were supported by stout uprights often measuring 25-35 cm *n diameter set centrally in the buildings recorded for mn Phases One-Four and ln Phase Seven. The additional uprights placed close to the wall line in the two-storied buildings will also have served to support the roof as well as an upper floor. These posts were set in large pits measuring up to 1 m in diameter and which could be cut as much as 1.80 m into the ground in the case of the two storied buildings, though 1.50 m was more normal. The use of central post-holes, together with the evidence of house models from northern Greece and adjacent areas (Toufexis 1996, 161-2, 327-9; Marangou 1992, 179-80) suggests that the roofs at Servia were normally pitched.

Naturally the beams and rafters which supported the covering of the roof have long since disappeared - either burnt in the destruction fires or reused in other buildings before eventual decay. As with the walls, the accidentally fired clay has preserved some traces of both the roof structure and of its covering. Reeds and branches were clearly the favourite material for covering before plastering with clay, or clay mixed with chaff, to make them waterproof (figs. 3.8-3.10). Some of the fragments, which were especially common in the debris of Phase Four, preserved details of the rafters which supported the reeds (fig. 3.9). Heurtley clearly encountered similar traces of the roofs while in his account of the 'en' 5 settlement, he records 'the timber framework of roofs having fallen first and been followed by crumbling wall' and 'other fragments of poles were found, but their smaller size and position suggested that they had fallen from the roof (Heurtley 1939, 53)-

Lighter roofs may have been formed from thatch without a clay covering, as suggested by finds of phytoliths, probably deriving from straw, preserved as ashy patches in a number of places. Sometimes, as in F30/A in particular, the debris included large fallen stones which may plausibly be interpreted as weights for holding down such lighter roofs.

3.5.4 Floors (fig. 3.11, plate 2.7, F3, F18-23) In the absence of exterior walls, floors represent one of the key features used to identify the remaining structural ground-plans. The majority of floors were covered with a habitation

deposit and had pottery and small finds lying on the surface. The floors were repaired and fresh surfaces established on top of the habitation deposits. Optimum preservation occurred when structures had been destroyed by fire and the floors were baked hard and sealed by fallen structural material. Only one example of an upper storey floor surface survived. It


Fig. 3.8. Clay daub preserving impressions of reeds (SF177) and other roofing material. Phase Four destruction levels.


Fig. 3.9. Rafter, 2 cm in diameter, supporting reeds, u/s from F20/A.

O

Fig. 3.10. Close-set reeds [Phragmites australis), 1-2 cm in diameter, packed with clay and then faced. Lateral compression of these reeds suggests use horizontally or as roofing. From Phase Four

burnt pebble area in F20/B.


was recorded in Phase Four Structure 7, as a 'large slab of clay fallen intact onto the (lower) floor'. The archive also noted that 'the impressions of timbers in this slab did not match those of the adjacent walls' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 202). This mismatch of timbers, combined with large central post-holes for the structure should indicate the construction of a two-storey building.

Three types of interior floor surface were recorded: trampled, laid clay, and timber. Trampled floors were recorded in Phases One, Three, Seven and Nine. The term trampled implies a rough clay surface, hardened by use and is more a by-product of frequent use rather than a deliberately constructed feature. A trampled floor could imply low status of a building, but could equally suggest functional use or, more simply, the transitory nature of a building.

In contrast, a clay floor comprises deliberately laid deposits of clay which are intended to create a level, durable surface. Clay floors represent the norm throughout occupation at Servia. A fresh clay floor surface was often laid once a habitation deposit had built up over the original floor. In Structure 3 of Phase Three the clay floor was also covered with mat impressions. White clay floors occurred only in Phase Ten, Structures 1 and 3. Heurtley, in correspondence with Tait (1930), comments on hard 'plaster' floors found in the last EBA settlement. These are likely to correspond with the white clay floors recorded in the 1971-73 excavation.

Five timber floors were recorded, two in Phase One, one in Phase Four and two in Phase Seven. The beamed floor in Phase One, Structure 1 , was first recorded as a 1 9 x 1 8 x 6 cm piece of clay which bore the impression of a 14 cm wide flat split plank. Once the full extent of the floor was uncovered 'burnt impressions of beams or perhaps planks, more widely spaced than those in the se corner of F20/A' were noted. 'They are parallel to Wall C and there are six ... The beams seem to be 10-12 cm wide' (F3). The longest surviving beam measured 2.10 m. The partial survival of a beamed floor was recorded for Structure 3. The beams were 5-6 cm in diameter and were sealed by a yellow clay deposit. The only Phase Four timber floor was recorded in Structure 4, where a small patch of timbers, aligned E-w, were sealed by a layer of clay.

The technique for constructing split plank and beamed floors did not change from the MN to the LN. The best example of a beamed floor was found in the ln Phase Seven Structure 2, where parallel beams covered a 3 m e-w x 7 m n-s area (fig. 3.1 1, plate 2.7, F18- 23). The beams, or poles, were between 6-8 cm in diameter and set side by side. At intervals a slender transverse pole had been used to hold this substructure together and the whole was covered with a layer of clay which filled any gaps in between the wood. The clay was tempered with straw and sealed by a layer of what is called in the archive, 'mud plaster'. As suggested in the Preliminary Report (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 213), it seems unlikely that this or other floors at Servia were deliberately fired to preserve a durable surface. Instead, the burning is the consequence of accidental fire, resulting in the collapse and destruction of the whole building.

A second floor recorded in Phase Seven Structure 5 was formed of split planks covered with clay. It is difficult to judge how widespread the use of timber floors of different kinds may have been, either at Servia or other sites, since the wood may frequently have been salvaged for reuse or for firewood. Even when it has been left in position decay may have been almost total, leaving little trace for the excavator. Thus no conclusions can safely be drawn from the presence or absence of timber floors about either the status or function of particular buildings.

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3.6 ANCILLARY FEATURES

3.6.1 Yards Yards were multi-functional open areas which separated domestic structures. They served both as a waste disposal area and as a work-place, and housed a number of features, including ovens and hearths (3.6.3), storage structures and pits. Yards were recorded in all phases of occupation except Phases Six and Eight. The term yard is used here to describe an area whose surface was represented by a layer of river pebbles or by 'a thick deposit of soft brown-black earth ... rich in charcoal, pottery and bone' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 97). In 1979 it was stated that 'refuse was allowed to accumulate rapidly' over the yard surfaces which is true to a certain extent in Phase Three, N of Structure 3 and Phase Seven, Area E. It should also be noted that storage areas in yards were kept scrupulously clean, such as that of Phase Four, e of Structure 4 and that habitation deposits, or refuse, in the larger expanses were often levelled and a fresh river pebble surface established, e.g. Phase Four, F30/A. In Phase Ten the yard to the s of Structure 3 was marked by stones and fragments of pottery as well as bone and charcoal (F29, 30).

3.6.2 Storage Areas Storage areas, where consumable products were kept in reserve, were usually reflected at Servia by finds of carbonised grain and pulses which seemed to be too concentrated to be simply the product of rubbish disposal or hearth rake-out. These were recorded in defined structural areas and pits. Three types of storage were recorded: outside the buildings, in light structures within the confines of yards; inside the buildings, in lower storage areas; and in defined areas isolated from the main living area. In 1979 it was stated that 'unfired clay bins' were used for storage. However, one feature which was recorded as a clay bin (Phase Nine) has now been identified as a hearth (see table 3.4). Storage is also indicated by ceramic evidence which will be presented in Volume II.

The primary use of pits for storage is possible but unproved. All, when found, had been reused for rubbish disposal as in the case of a Phase Four pit, which may have been lined with clay, which contained some burnt grain and a loomweight within its fill. The pit was sealed by a light timber structure (see below).

Light structures built in yard areas were common in Phases One-Four of the mn. Discrete areas of a yard, usually close to a roofed domestic building, were kept very clean and were enclosed by a light wooden structure represented by lines of small post-holes. A clear example of such an area being used for the storage of grain was recorded in Phase Four, E of Structure 4. Here, a semi-circular area of burnt clay and pebbles was defined by a wooden fence which survived as carbonised stumps with burnt straw. A concentration of carbonised seeds lay within this area, 'stacked up' against the fence. Close by was a fragment of a quern (SF887), perhaps used for food preparation. The Phase Four evidence is equally good in F10/D and F20/B. A very clean area of yard, sealed by burnt clay, was covered with broken pottery (from storage jars?) and carbonised seeds. These included a concentration of lentils - a separate crop - and a mixture of barley and other cereal grains. The area was enclosed by a light wooden fence represented by small post-holes (fi 7). Similar clean yard areas, defined by a light walled structure were recorded in Phases One, Two and Three. It is not clear whether the light structures were roofed or left open,


but no roofing material was specifically associated with these areas. It seems likely that part of the crop was stored in ceramic containers and that the carbonised grain concentrations represent spillage in an otherwise scrupulously clean area.

Lower storage areas inside buildings were limited to Phases Three and Four. Clay floors of the type found inside roofed domestic buildings were not recorded in these areas, perhaps indicating a function other than domestic occupation. Although no grain concentrations were recorded in Phase Three lower areas, a significant cluster was recorded in Phase Four Structure 7 in Area D. Here, a number of pots, pithoi and small finds were found on the lower floor area, with an unusually large concentration of carbonised grain in the sw corner. These lower areas would have provided cool, dark conditions, perfect for storage.

Richard Hubbard suggests that some storage may also have taken place in the roof spaces, or hanging in bags or skins from the upper floor in quantities possibly suggesting seed-corn rather than a food supply. He notes that some concentrations, such as the Lathyrus crop associated with P283 (see also section 5.2.3), may represent food preparation rather than storage.

Defined storage areas within buildings and on the same level as domestic occupation were also recorded elsewhere in Phase Four. In F20/A, a nnw-sse interior wall division created a small area which contained a concentration of carbonised grain.

No evidence for storage was recorded for Phases Five-Seven. Pits were a common feature in Phases Six and Nine, but there was little surviving evidence to suggest that they were used for storage. It is likely that more pits were used for this purpose and the presence of carbonised seed mixed with domestic waste in the pits may suggest former storage use. Unfortunately, only the latest function can be identified in the majority of cases, and this tended to be for the disposal of domestic waste or structural debris. The lack of evidence for Phases Five to Seven may be due to consumables being kept in portable jars or pithoi, or that they were stored away from the centre of occupation and were therefore not seen within the excavation limits. A storage jar (P3) recorded in situ in an interior clay floor, Phase Ten, Structure 3, supports the former option.

It is noticeable that clean yard surfaces with light structures are consistently recorded in trench F10/D throughout the mn and it is possible that areas were set aside for specific purposes, such as storage, in this period. The lack of any structural evidence for the ln and the EBA perhaps suggests that storage facilities became more portable in these later periods.

3.6.3 Hearths and Ovens (figs. 3.12-13, table 3.4, plate 2.5, F13, 77-78) The most common feature associated with yards at Servia was a hearth or oven. An oven is termed here as a roofed construction with an entrance, whilst a hearth is positively identified as an unroofed structure, comprising a discrete area of clay and pebbles, blackened with ash and charcoal, sometimes surrounded by a ridge of fired clay. It is also negatively defined as any feature in this class which does not meet the criteria for an oven. Table 3.4 lists those features which have been identified.

Of the three ovens, one was set into a floor, one into a yard and one into an occupation build-up. Of the seventeen hearths, eight were located in yard areas, seven were associated with floor surfaces, one cannot be related to any other feature, but one more was certainly located within a roofed structure (Phase One, F10/D). The identification of this hearth


Table 3.4: Features defined as Ovens or Hearths.

Current 1971-73 Phase Trench Archive evidence definition

Oven Hearth Three n of Structure 3 entrance faces e ... lumps of orange burnt mudbrick may have been a ...

collapsed roof.

Oven (?) Oven Four s of Structure 1 pebble and clay floor, enclosed by a 'wall'.

Oven Hearth Seven w of Structure 3 entrance to the se.

Hearth Hearth One w of Structure 3 outline plan only.

Hearth Hearth One Between Structures 1 & 2 removal of hearth floor.

Hearth Hearth One Inside Structure 3 construction typical . . . pebbles and

clay.

Hearth Oven Two s of Structure 1 no evidence of walling.

Hearth Hearth Two N of Structure 3 two layers of river pebbles set in a burnt clay floor.

Hearth Hearth Four s of Structure 3 pebble and clay floor.

Hearth Hearth Four Road Section none.

Hearth Hearth (?) Five F30/A less well constructed, pebble layer mixed with rough sherds.

Hearth Hearth/ Oven Seven Area E no wall evidence.

Hearth Hearth Seven w of Structure 3 no wall evidence.

Hearth Hearth Seven Area D none.

Hearth Hearth Seven Area D clay floor.

Hearth Clay Bin/ Nine s of Structure 1 pebbles and clay base surrounded by Hearth clay lip.

Hearth Hearth Nine s of Structure 3 none.

Hearth Oven/Hearth Nine F20/B no wall evidence.

Hearth Hearth Ten G20/C clay floor.

means that an interim statement 'there is no proof that hearths were placed inside any roofed building' (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 198) should be modified.

The construction technique for ovens does not appear to change from the mn to the ln. All the ovens have pebble floors, and the pebbles are often covered by a fired clay layer.


Fig. 3.12. Phase Four oven (?) to s of Structure 1 (F20/C): cross-section {top); plan after partial section to w (bottom left); (c) bird's eye view (bottom right).


Fig. 3.13. Phase Nine hearth from F20/B.

In contrast, the technique for hearths does change. In the mn hearths are represented by two layers of river pebbles set into a clay base and covered with a layer of clay whose surface has been smoothed. By the ln hearths are represented only by clay floors. This tradition is carried on into the eba - although here one of the hearths is recorded as being 'pebble lined'. Heurtley also recorded an eba hearth 'consisting of one or more layers of small river pebbles bedded in clay' (Heurtley 1932, 227).

Heurtley also noted that one of his mn hearths may have been protected by a light shelter (Heurtley 1939, 49, 'en' settlement 2). The only mn example recorded in 1971-73 was in the Road Section cut (plate 2.5), but one was noted for a ln Phase Seven oven and one for an eba Phase Nine hearth. In the case of Phase Seven, an oval-shaped area adjacent to the oven's entrance was marked by a number of post-holes while a hearth floor which was bounded by a clay lip with two associated post-holes was recorded for Phase Nine.

3.6.4 Pits During the long history of occupation of the mound and exploitation of its strategic position, pit digging seems to have been a regular activity as part of the construction methods, possible provision for storage (although this is hard to demonstrate) or rubbish disposal.


The large pits of the Byzantine period remain enigmatic - unless their function, like those dug at the beginning of this century, was military or defensive. As already noted, the excavation and refilling of pits caused considerable disturbance in many parts of the site, truncating features and redepositing objects in misleading contexts, especially when, as was often the case, these pits were not detected immediately during the archaeological excavation. Fortunately, these errors proved only minor impediments to understanding the history and character of the site - with one major exception, the 'ln' burial reported by Heurtley (above 2.5). This can now be recognised as another of the series of large Byzantine pits while the theories founded on it about the character of ln burials must be reconsidered.

The foundation trenches and post-pits used in construction are, of course, the primary evidence for the plan and scale of each building, as well as for the construction methods employed for each. In the case of all the larger timbers, whether the central rows of the rectangular buildings (Phase One Structure 3, Phase Seven Structure 3), or those placed at regular intervals along the walls and across the interior of the two-storied square buildings (Phase Three Structure 3, Phase Four Structure 7), deep, more or less cylindrical pits c. 0.80-1.00 m in diameter had been cut to support the uprights. These were then simply filled in with no additional packing to hold the timbers firmly in place. The size and depth of these pits provides some of the most striking evidence of the weight the timbers supported and the probability of buildings with two storeys. Although the timbers had long since rotted away, or were preserved as charcoal in the first few cm below floor level, their position at the centre of the pit was usually clear. Occasionally two posts could be seen to share a single pit. The posts could sometimes be traced through the cavities their decay left behind. Though time did not permit the excavation of the pits into the natural subsoil which supported the timbers of Phase Three Structure 3, these cavities were tested and reached a depth of well over 1.5 m.

The smaller poles or split timbers which formed the walls were usually set in relatively shallow foundation trenches, though in some cases they may simply have been rammed into the ground. Except in the destruction levels where charcoal survived, these were often only to be traced with difficulty where a difference in colour or texture could be detected.

Pit digging does not appear to have been a feature of the mn phase at Servia, except for construction purposes. In the ln, however, other pits, irregular or with a bottle shape - rather wider at the base than the mouth - were dug, but their primary function is unclear (2.3.1). The largest of these was about 1.2 m in diameter and cut 2.5 m through the underlying deposits. The cylindrical pits were carefully shaped and could have been lined with basketry for storage purposes, while one at least had been lined in part with clay. No other trace of their original use survives and the fill was generally a mixture of building debris, including burnt daub with reed impressions, domestic rubbish, such as ash and bone, and a variety of broken tools or ornaments.

Pits were again a feature in the eba, when two different types could be recognised in Phase Nine (2.4.3). ̂ot^ tyPes were shallow and irregular, and could possibly have served initially as 'borrow pits' for digging earth to cover the walls. One group was filled with building debris including hard burnt lumps of daub with reed impressions. One of these also contained large parts of eight broken pottery vessels, perhaps the debris of some localised domestic accident. The second group of pits simply contained earth and rubbish, and were presumably not open at the time of this event.


The large Byzantine pits, which caused such damage to the prehistoric levels, were all more or less circular and cut right to the base of the mound. Their slightly swelling shape suggests they were intended to be cylindrical but left open long enough for slippage to occur, especially where they were cut through the unstable mn destruction level. Clearly they had some function other than rubbish disposal (even if we include the two human skeletons under this heading) but without any information about other 12 th century ad activity beside the river or on the mound at Servia, no further conclusions are possible.

3.6.5 Ditches The perimeter of the mound at Servia has hardly been explored, and there is thus nothing to show whether it was delimited in any way, either to mark the boundary of the settlement or to provide some kind of defensible perimeter. The ditches which were found are all in the central area of the site and their function is obscure. They represent, however, some considerable effort on the part of individual family groups or by the community as a whole, since some of them reach a depth of 3.5 m and similar width at the top. One of these ditches belonged to the earliest phase of occupation (Heurtley's 'en' 1), but was out of use by his 'en' 2, underlying the floors of that phase (1939, 49; fig. 1.3). A series of ditches was cut in the eba Phase Eight, and one at least was reçut. Whatever their purpose, they appear to have become filled in before the start of Phase Nine, since no examples of the pottery of the new types in use in that phase was found in the ditch fill.

With the exception of the west side of the mn ditch found by Heurtley, which was remarkably vertical, the ditch sides were cut at a steep angle of c. 6o° with a narrow slot at the base. Although the fill at the base seems to have been the product of the erosion of the sides, the upper part of the fill appeared to be building debris. This clearly accumulated in stages since there were a number of trodden surfaces found in the fill and in one case large fragments of animal bones. No trace survived of the banks which must have been created by the cutting of these ditches, though it is unlikely that the spoil would have been removed to any distance. The pottery from the eba ditches reflected all the strata through which they have been cut and in many cases it is not possible to be sure which of the small objects found in them should be treated as eba in date.

3.7 SUMMARY

Despite the lapse of 2500 years in occupation at Servia (see Chapter 2), architectural style changed little from the mn to the eba. The use of lower storage areas in Phases Three and Four stands out as an isolated innovation alongside the slight fluctuations in the combination of foundation trenches and post-holes which were recorded from one phase to another. The latter may be related more to fluctuations in survival than in architectural style. If anything, the settlement appeared more cohesive in the mn than in the ln and the eba, but this may be due to more comprehensive survival of the earlier and deeper deposits rather than to actual organisation of the community. Continuity of spatial organisation could be detected throughout the occupation at Servia in the reuse of specific building plots, the separation of buildings with expanses of yard and the possibility of hearths being associated


with specific buildings. Where it was possible to identify shape, the buildings in all phases were either square or rectangular and were often divided into two or three areas. Size remained uniform in the mn, ln and eba, being limited to a width of 3.5 or 5.5 m and to a length of either 6, 8 or 10 m, and orientation remained remarkably constant.

The materials used were dictated by their local availability, thus walls were usually built of wood, especially oak, reeds and clay. Clay was also used for floors and yards were surfaced with river pebbles. Although the river bed provided a ready source of rounded stones for tools such as pounders and querns, there are no convenient outcrops of angular stone suitable for construction.

The size of the settlement in each Phase is difficult to estimate, although each must have extended well beyond the bounds of the combined areas excavated in 1930 and in 1971- 73. This is supported by the survival of deposits along the line of the bridge foundations which now support the Limni Polyphytou bridge. The mound itself extends over 150 m NE-sw and nearly as far nw-se giving an area of over 2 hectares.

3.8 PARALLELS AND COMPARISONS

This study confines itself to a limited number of sites for comparison: Thessalian Achilleion, Sesklo, Tsangli, Dimini and Otzaki; western Macedonian Nea Nikomedeia and Makrygialos, eastern Macedonian Sitagroi and Dikili Taç and Balkan Anza.

Architectural technique cannot be used as a cultural yardstick - style of construction in earlier prehistoric contexts is due more to the local availability of natural resources than to the effect of cultural influences. However, the establishment of a broad relative chronology (see section 1.7) does facilitate a comparative study of architectural techniques which, in turn, highlights a number of structural similarities between neolithic and eba sites contemporary with Servia.

3.8.1 Early Neolithic A recent study of the en structures at Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994; Rodden and Wardle 1996, 39-53), which cannot be much earlier than the first at Servia, suggests similarity in the available natural resources. At Nea Nikomedeia, as at mn-eba Servia, this is expressed in a preference for wooden-framed structures, with pitched roofs. In addition, smaller branches and reeds with clay covering are used as wall fabric on both sites (Rodden and Wardle 1996, 42). In general, dimensions for the en Nea Nikomedeia structures were greater than those recorded for buildings at Servia. The preserved dimensions of the largest building at Nea Nikomedeia were 1 1.78 x 13.64 m, which contrasts with 3.5 x 10 m for the largest structure recorded at Servia. In addition, there was variety in the size of buildings at Nea Nikomedeia, whereas at Servia size remained fairly constant throughout the phases. Similarities may be seen, however, in the use of internal buttressing, in the orientation of buildings which, at both sites, remained constant, and in a respect for established 'property boundaries', which is represented by the reuse of individual building plots for a succession of structures.


3.8.2 Middle Neolithic In Thessaly Achilleion III and IV are characterised by the presence of classic Sesklo pottery while radiocarbon dating indicates that Phase IVb is directly comparable with the mn at Servia. The discussion of architectural technique in this phase is not extensive in the publication (Gimbutas et al. 1989, 63-6), but a consideration of the earlier Phases III and IVa does facilitate a comparison of the two sites. While the area of excavation was more extensive at Servia than that at Achilleion, a full plan of the mn settlement was not exposed at either site and in both cases it is unclear how representative the excavated evidence is of the settlements as a whole. One important difference between Thessalian sites and Servia, indeed those of Macedonia in general, is the widespread use of mudbrick as a building material, usually on a stone footing (see also Treuil 1983, 268, carte 5). The combination of a timber framework and mudbrick infill is likely for the upper parts of many structures where only the stone walls are preserved. In central Macedonia mudbrick does not come into general use until the lba when it is typical of the steep-sided tell sites such as Assiros, Axiochori, Kastanas and Toumba Thessalonikis.

Although no architectural evidence was recorded for Phase Ilia, a comparison with Servia Phases Five and Six can be made, as at each site there was a marked shift in occupation away from the area of excavation. At Achilleion, occupation reverted to the excavation area in Illb, a situation which is again parallelled at Servia, although here it occurs in ln Phase Seven.

The utilisation of natural resources at Servia and Achilleion resulted in differentiation in materials used at each site. However, the technique and style of construction and a number of the architectural features in Servia Phases One-Five are comparable with Achilleion Phase Illb and IV. Walls were represented in Achilleion Illb by post-holes or large fallen stones, and foundation trenches were not recorded. The wall fabric was most commonly of clay plastered over branches and the use of 'wattle and daub', a technique which was not employed at Servia, is also reported (Gimbutas et al. 1989, 39). However, in common with Servia, the structures at Achilleion did incorporate a central line of post-holes, which suggests the use of a pitched roof. The preservation of roof material was of a higher quality than at Servia, and allowed a detailed reconstruction of the roof design to be attempted (Gimbutas et al. 1989, fig. 4.36). The provision of sheltered areas adjacent to the domestic structures is also a shared feature. These are represented at Servia by small lines of post- holes, which are thought to represent light lean-to structures. The lean-tos were built on to the larger building and acted as storage facilities. At Achilleion, the shelters were more substantial. They were incorporated into the design of the larger structure, and their function was solely for the protection of a cooking hearth. At Servia, the hearths were located a short distance away from the domestic buildings and only a small number were protected by light wooden shelters.

Changes in architecture may be seen in mn Phase IV at Achilleion. This phase has a house with stone foundations, whose advantages are likely to have included strength and durability which, combined with the first use of foundation trenches at Achilleion, provided greater lateral stability. The re-adoption of stone as a building material may have been accompanied by an advance in the carpentry of the roof structure. The absence of central supporting post-holes suggests that greater distances could now be spanned, an advance which is likely to have been made possible by the felling and working of large beams. These could have been incorporated into a flat roof design (Gimbutas et al. 1989 fig. 4.43.

loo CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

Although the impression is given in this drawing of stone walls built to the roof height, the text and diagram on p. 33 indicates that a pisé superstructure is normal).

The construction of stone and of 'wattle and daub' houses side by side at Achilleion may suggest variations in status of the buildings. The stone buildings were thought to represent shrines or cult centres. No such distinction in status can be made, on the basis of materials, at Servia, where the limited role of stone was due more to the local abundance of timber, clay and reeds, than to any lack of masonry skills. Some distinction may, however, be indicated by variations in the size of structures, and in the repeated use, throughout the MN, of a building plot in the s of Area F for the largest structure.

There appears to have been more movement in the location of structures at Achilleion than at Servia, up to 3.5 m, as opposed to 1-2 m. Whereas structures at Servia were more often than not destroyed by fire, Achilleion did not seem to suffer so much from fire damage, which is surprising considering the proximity of hearths to the domestic wooden structures. Structures were allowed to deteriorate and left to stand in ruins whilst a new structure was built in the immediate area. Only when the later structure became uninhabitable was the original building plot reused. The settlement organisation appears to be comparable. Structures, at both sites, are separated by yard surfaces which include hearths and which provide a focus for domestic activity. The orientation of buildings at Achilleion changed within the later mn, from e-w to n-s (Phase IVb). This contrasts with Servia where orientation fluctuated around N-s and nnw-sse from the mn through to the EBA.

At mn Sesklo the most striking feature is the regularity in the plan of building plots. Excavation has revealed a settlement which extends over 20-25 acres, although it is not certain how fully this was 'built-up'. This may reflect a conscious attempt at what we would now term town-planning (Theocharis 1973, 65; Pyrgaki 1987, 65-149, planche 22-30; Kotsakis 1996, 52). The structures are either square or rectangular, follow a similar orientation and are regularly spaced. The standard form of construction was of stone with a mudbrick superstructure. This seems to have completely replaced the timber construction recorded for the en at the same site (Pyrgaki 1987, 221-4). Here the surviving impressions of smaller wooden posts and reeds, and the use of central supporting post-holes and buttresses suggest a style, although not incorporating foundation trenches, very similar to that recorded at Servia.

Another site which contains clear evidence of settlement organisation is Tsangli. Here, the lower half of a wall comprised stone, bonded together with mud or clay, whilst the upper half consisted of mudbrick. The superstructure of the roof appears to have been supported by central supporting post-holes and by a system of internal buttresses, one or two to each wall (Wace and Thompson 1912, 115-17). The four structures recorded were built square to a standard size (House T measuring 7.75x6.75111). They all observed a similar orientation and were contained within a very restricted space. The superimposition of these four structures suggests a respect for neighbouring property boundaries and it is possible that the buildings are located on a 'private' plot. This is supported by evidence of repairs to House P (Wace and Thompson 1912, 117).

The excavation of the mn levels at Otzaki (Milojcic 1983 a) revealed a series of closely packed square or rectangular houses of mudbrick, Although these were generally slightly smaller than at Tsangli (6.00 x 5.00 m) they employed single (Fläche I, Planum 6, Haus C2, d2; Plan III) or double (Fläche I, Planum 8, Haus C2; Plan IV) buttresses on each wall.

Internal wall buttressing was used at Servia only in association with the 'two-storied'


buildings - Structure 3 in Phase Three and Structure 7 in Phase Four. It was not associated with single-storied buildings. The incorporation of buttresses within structures at Otzaki, Sesklo and Tsangli and possibly Nea Nikomedeia (Rodden and Wardle 1996, 40) may, on this basis, suggest the presence of two-storied buildings at these sites. However, it should be remembered that the main functions of a buttress are to support the roof superstructure and/or to reinforce the walls of a building. The association of buttresses with two-storied buildings at Servia is not, therefore, to be automatically transferred to these other sites, though, as already noted, there are two-storied house models from both Greece and the Balkans (section 3.2).

The settlement organisation recorded at mn Servia is thus comparable with that recorded at Achilleion, Sesklo and Tsangli. In all cases structures were built close together, the same building plot was used and the majority of structures were built in the same style, to a standard size; and observed, except in the case of Achilleion IVb, a standard orientation. Repairs to structures were also frequently recorded at Servia, Sesklo, Tsangli and at Otzaki. This repair of individual structures which repeatedly respect the limits of neighbouring buildings suggests that building plots were owned, or regarded as private pieces of land. The continuity in property boundaries over a period of time may, in turn, indicate socially stable surroundings. Within this climate, the existence of a social hierarchy is hinted at by the size of domestic and communal structures, the association of hearths and ovens with particular building plots and of large communal buildings within particular areas of the settlement. In the case of Servia, this occurred from the mn through to the ln. The evidence recovered from these sites can be used to promote the idea of a socially and economically stable environment in mn Thessaly and Macedonia - evidence from Anza suggests that this may also be true for the Balkans.

Gimbutas has argued that Anza II and III are part of a central Balkan culture and are architecturally and stylistically different from the late mn Sesklo culture in Thessaly (Gimbutas 1976, 415-16). No detailed study of the architecture at Anza has been published to date and any contrasting interpretation based on information in the 1976 publication must, therefore, remain tentative. None the less, a study of an account of the stratigraphy and chronology published in 1976, does suggest that, in architectural terms at least, similarities exist between Anza II and III and Servia Phases One-Five.

In terms of mn architectural technique, it is suggested here that Anza (Phases II and III) is the settlement most comparable to Servia, a likeness which is due, more probably, to the local availability of similar materials than to any cultural interaction. As at Servia, the Anza Phases II and III structures were built using a frame of wooden posts and the wall fabric was daubed with clay. It is not stated whether the posts were inserted into foundation trenches. Mudbrick, which had been used in Anza Phase I, was not recorded for Phases II and III. Stone foundations were recorded but, as at Servia, did not represent the normal practice. The size of structures are similar, those at Anza measuring 8-10 m long and 4 m wide, compared with 8-10 m long x 3.5 or 5.5 m wide at Servia. No reference to orientation or spatial distribution is made in 1976, other than that intra-settlement distribution changed from Anza I (en) to Anza II. However Gimbutas does make the assumption that the Anza II and III structures were separated by yards and working areas, and were not interconnected as in Anza I. If so, the social organisation suggested by structural design and respect for property boundaries at sites in Macedonia and Thessaly, is also present in the Balkans.

1O2 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

3.8.3 Late Neolithic In terms of the absolute chronology suggested by the available radiocarbon dates, no published ln site, with architectural remains preserved, in Thessaly, the Balkans, or in eastern Macedonia is directly comparable to Servia, but it is clear from the variety in settlement organisation and house form that the ln culture of northern Greece was anything but uniform, as indeed the wide range of ceramic products in this period indicates.

The ln deposits at Nea Nikomedeia were unfortunately severely truncated prior to excavation in 1961. A number of 'defensive' ditches were cut around the contour of the mound, but no structures contemporary with the ditches survived. It is unlikely, however, that the supply of natural resources available would have changed drastically since the en period, and it is probable that wooden-framed, wattle and daub structures would have represented the normal practice at ln Nea Nikomedeia.

The extensive excavations conducted at Makrygialos since 1993 (Besios and Pappa 1997 et seq.) have revealed a very different kind of settlement in the ln period. Instead of dense occupation in a limited area, resulting in the kind of mound seen at Servia, in Thessaly or eastern Macedonia, the houses were spread over an area of some 28 hectares in the manner of many sites now recognized in central Macedonia and the Strymon Valley. In Phase 1, characterized by the presence of Larissa-type pottery, and therefore not too far in date from Servia Phases Six and Seven, the houses themselves had a very different form, although posts and clay were also the normal building materials. The houses were circular and semi-subterranean, set in shallow cuttings below ground level (Besios and Pappa 1997, 217)

At Olynthus two phases of structure with stone built footings were discovered. Although Mylonas suggested a mudbrick superstructure above this level there is no positive evidence for it (Mylonas 1929, 8). The building of the second phase seemed to consist of an agglomeration of rooms (loc. cit., fig. 9) in a manner otherwise unknown N of Dimini and Sesklo.

Architectural style and choice of building material at Sesklo did not change from the mn to the ln. Although the orientation of the settlement shifted slightly, the buildings remained rectangular in shape. The one difference is represented by large, thick walls, which define the western limit of the settlement and which may represent fortifications.

Evidence for defensive building is more convincing at Dimini, where total excavation of the site revealed a series of concentric wall fortifications (Hourmouziadis 1979; Pyrgaki 1987, 151-210). Domestic structures, which ranged in size from 3 m wide x 6 m long to 4.5 m wide x 12 m long, were built up against these walls and their orientation respected that of the surrounding fortifications. A strict organisation of space is suggested by the plan of structures outside the central courtyard. These are built very close to one another and are sandwiched between the courtyard and one wall of the inner fortifications. The building materials were essentially the same as those used at Sesklo.

The survey of mn sites suggested that, in terms of architectural technique, Anza is the site most comparable to Servia. This similarity is also seen in the ln period, which seems to start 150 years later than at Servia. The ln structures at Anza IVb were built more solidly than those in the mn Phases II and III. The wall framework now incorporated split planks which were covered with a layer of tempered mud, 0.20 m thick in places. Evidence for the use of split planks at Anza comes from their impressions which, as at Servia, were preserved in fallen structural debris. Split planks were occasionally recorded as part of the

THE ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 1 03

wall framework at Servia, and they were used in the construction of floors in mn Phase One and ln Phase Seven. The size of the Anza ln structures was smaller than for the mn, measuring 8 m long x 3 or 4 m wide, as opposed to 10 m long x 4 m wide. This contrasts with Servia, where the size of structures remained remarkably consistent from the mn through to the ln and again in the eba. A similarity can be seen, however, in the extent of the two ln settlements, which at both sites covered a larger area than previously occupied.

Occupation at Sitagroi in the Drama Plain started, according to available radiocarbon dates, at approximately the same time as the ln at Servia and endured for several hundred years (Sitagroi I- III). The difficulties experienced in identifying in situ structures for this phase of occupation prevents even a general comparative study. Recent excavations in ln levels at Dikili Taç, 25 km from Sitagroi, have uncovered, for die first time at this site, the remains of four long rectangular houses with walls of posts daubed with clay which compare well with those at Servia (Koukouli-Chrysanthaki et ai 1997, 689-96, figs. 5, 6, pl. 13), but any detailed discussion will need to wait for full publication.

3.8.4 Early Bronze Age Structural evidence for eba Sitagroi IV, Va and Vb was well preserved (Renfrew et al 1986, 177-212) and a comparison with Servia Phases Eight, Nine and Ten is possible. Evidence for Phase Eight architecture at Servia is limited to the fragmentary remains of fire-damaged wood and daub structures identified within the fills of four, or possibly five, ditches, the identification of a very disturbed floor level and to references, made by Heurtley in 1932, to beaten floors and pebble yards associated with hearths. The survival of Sitagroi IV architectural remains is a little better.

Only two structures could be certainly assigned to Phase IV at Sitagroi and one other structure may belong to Phase IV or Va. The buildings were represented by burnt floors (it is not stated whether these were clay or trampled surfaces), and by wall foundation trenches set with post-holes. They were built close together and were aligned nnw-ese, an orientation which was also followed in Phase Va. Although only a limited plan of the eba settlement was revealed, its regularity does suggest that some form of planning was being practised.

Phase Va at Sitagroi was represented by two apsidal structures. One survived only as a single line of post-holes representing the exterior wall, whilst the other was seen as discrete areas of clay floor defined by walls which comprised lines of post-holes and clay tumble. A foundation trench was recorded only at the apsidal end. The survival of plaster on the interior faces of these walls is similar to Servia Phases Nine and Ten, where fallen plaster was recorded, but at Servia it proved difficult to attribute the plaster with any certainty to the floor or walls. Structures appear to be of a similar size at both sites: at Sitagroi the Burnt House measured 8 x 5.3 m, whereas the preserved dimensions for Phase Nine Structure 1 were 7.50 x 3.5 m. Phase Vb was represented by a single apsidal structure, whose ground-plan was defined by wall foundation trenches and post-holes, with some post-holes providing central support for the building's timber frame. No floors could be associated with this structure, which measured 15.5 x 5.2 m.

Although Renfrew mentions the possibility of mudbrick being used in Phase V, the majority of architectural evidence is represented by large timbers, and in one case flat planks, which provided a framework for the structures. The wall material was usually

1O4 CATHARINE A. MOULD AND K. A. WARDLE

represented by smaller pieces of wood, mud and daub, found in the layers of structural collapse. Although the possible use of wattle and daub is discussed for the roof construction the method of wall construction is not specified. Despite the increasing use of mudbrick as a building material in Southern Greece, in Macedonia timber framing with mud plastering was still normal, with the exception of Skala Sotirou on Thasos, where stone constructed walls indicate an Aegean, rather than a mainland, connection. At Kritsana (Heurtley 1939, 21-2) and Kastanas (Aslanis 1985, 18-68) the walls used posts and clay in the same manner as at Servia. Similarities in technique are represented by the use of timber frames set in foundation trenches, the incorporation of internal dividing walls and the use of plaster within the buildings. This comparison of the eba settlements at Sitagroi and Servia, although necessarily rather restricted, has suggested that, as in the mn and ln periods, structures are being built to a standard size, style and orientation. The separation of structures by yards may again represent a respect for individually owned building plots, which in turn can be used to infer a socially stable environment within eba Macedonia.

3.8.5 Defensive Features It had generally been assumed that agricultural communities in Greece found no need to protect their settlements with ditches or palisades until the ln period. The exceptions to this include a ditch revealed at Nea Nikomedeia, probably to be dated to the en period (Rodden and Wardle 1996, 34, 52), and that noted by Heurtley in the first mn level at Servia (1939, 49), though neither can be seen as forming a boundary to the site as a whole.

Another deep ditch has been reported at Soufli Magoula near Larissa and it seems that this view should now be modified [cf. Kotsakis 1996, 52). ln sites, though not Servia, are regularly provided with a protective perimeter. Parallel ditches were cut through the en levels at the outer edge of the ln settlement at Nea Nikomedeia (Rodden and Wardle 199Ö» 52> %• 3-3> an^ have recently been reported at Makrygialos Phase I (Besios and Pappa 1997, 2 16). A section of ditch was also encountered in the small area of excavation at Arapi-Magoula (Hauptmann and Milojcic 1969, 3), while at Otzaki three different ditches ran through rather than round the settlement (Milojcic 1983 b9 32-5). Rough stone walls have been noted at Mandalo (Pilali-Papasteriou and Papaefthemiou-Papanthemou 1986, 451-65; 1990, 411-21; 1993, 1207-16) while both Dimini and Sesklo have walls which define at least the central part of the ln settlements. At Maliq in the Koritsa basin, a defensive perimeter was created by a palisade of closely set posts (Maliq Ila: Prendi 1966, 257 fig. 3).

The function of these 'defensive' arrangements remains a matter of debate. Boundaries may have symbolic as well as practical functions and knowledge of neolithic society is still insufficient to allow differentiation between these functions, if indeed those who lived within the perimeter had themselves any perception of a difference. This is discussed briefly in Andreou et al 1996, 534-44 and at greater length in Aslanis 1990, 17-64.

The Phase Eight ditches at Servia are, in form, very like those at Argissa (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 12-19). The pottery from the earliest of them (Graben 2/3) also matches that found at Servia, but the later ditches contain an admixture of later pottery similar to that found in Phases Nine and Ten at Servia. It is not yet clear whether this indicates that this pottery came into use earlier at Argissa or whether the ditch systems at Servia went out of use earlier. At Mandalo the ln wall may have remained in use into the eba (Pilali-


Papasteriou and Papaefthemiou-Papanthemou 1997, 144), but few other eba sites in Macedonia have been explored sufficiently to know whether they were generally fortified like many in the Southern Aegean at this period. One of the exceptions is Skala Sotiros on Thasos where parts of a substantial eba stone perimeter wall have been explored (Koukouli- Chrysanthaki 1993).

C. A. M. K. A. W.

Chapter 4

The Small Finds

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The thousand small finds from Servia form a moderately large and diverse group representing all the prehistoric periods at the site, though, naturally, the greatest number are from mn contexts. The significance of many of these objects is still poorly understood since the range of comparanda is limited and unrepresentative. There is, in general, still little consistent information about type artefacts other than pottery for specific stages of the Greek neolithic. Thus our account of these objects can often be no more than factual, giving details of provenance, material and dimensions, while descriptions of type often remain conventional rather than functional. It is hoped, however, that this report will add to the present sum of knowledge about neolithic and eba tools and ornaments and provide a basis for further study where appropriate.

Few Greek neolithic sites have been published in full and detailed reports on the finds other than pottery - the 'small finds' of many excavation registers, are only available for some. These include part of the excavations of neolithic Knossos (Evans 1964), ln Saliagos in the Cyclades, (Evans and Renfrew 1968), palaeolithic and neolithic Franchthi in the Péloponnèse (Talalay 1993; Perlés 1987, 1990), en Achilleion (Gimbutas et al 1989) and the excavations initiated by V. Milojcic in Thessaly, especially Argissa (Milojcic et al. 1962) and Pefkakia (Weisshaar 1989). There is also published material from Olynthus in Chalkidike (Mylonas 1929), Dimitra (Grammenos 1991, 108-14; 1997, 48-57, pl. 34, 36-41) and Dikili Taç (Treuil 1992) in Eastern Macedonia, Paradimi (Bakalakis and Sakellariou 1981) and Paradeisos (Hellström 1987) in Thrace. Comparable material has also been published from the American sector of the Starcevo and Vinca-Plocnic periods at Anza in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Gimbutas 1976). Important surveys of material including examples of the tools, equipment, ornament and figurine types in use in Thessaly (Tsountas 1908; Wace and Thompson 1912), Macedonia (Heurtley 1939; Grammenos 1991; 1997; Aslanis 1992) or more generally (Theocharis 1973; Papa- thanassopoulos 1996) help to complete the picture of life in the neolithic period as do in- depth studies of specific categories such as polished stone tools (Christopoulou 1979, 1992), or shell ornaments (Kiparissi-Apostoliki 1992) relevant to this volume. In addition, we have been able to make comparisons with unpublished material from en Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994) and data from the forthcoming publication of Sitagroi, kindly supplied by E. Elster (Elster and Renfrew, forthcoming).

Similar problems occur with any discussion of the eba finds, for which few comparable accounts are available, such as that of the eba levels at Argissa (Hanschmann and Milojcic

107

io8 K. A. WARDLE

1976) and Pefkakia (Christmann 1994) in Thessaly, Kastanas in Macedonia (Aslanis 1985) or Ezero in Bulgaria (Georgiev et al. 1979). Some parallels may be drawn with sites in the ne Aegean such as Poliochni (Bernabò Brea 1964, 1972), Thermi (Lamb 1936), Emborio (Hood 1982, 623-78) and, of course, Troy (Biegen et al 1950; 1951). Parallels with southern Greek eba assemblages are less relevant since they are so different in character. There the finds generally come from graves with prestige items of valuable materials or requiring considerable input of labour. Whereas these assemblages regularly contain new 'exotic' items, the continuity of the predominantly agricultural eba culture of Macedonia from its neolithic predecessors can be seen clearly at Servia, through the range of tools and equipment which served age-old needs. Only a few items, such as the clay 'anchors' (section 4.3.10, cf. Weisshaar 1980) and a few scraps of metal, mark the profound changes taking place in all parts of the Aegean.

The small finds from Servia seem comparable with those from many of these sites, but contrast with the exceptional richness in both number and variety of the assemblage from Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994). Nearly a third (315) originate from the mn levels, while there are fewer from ln (144) and eba (253) contexts in part as a natural consequence of the more disturbed deposits. The en small finds (108) from Servia-Varytimides have been included here for convenience, but the small scale of that excavation and disturbed nature of the deposits seems to preclude any spatial or chronological division of the material. In many cases small finds from the main area are likely to be residual - that is, items brought up from lower mn levels in the process of digging ln foundation trenches and pits, or those found in the eba Phase Eight ditches and in the large Byzantine (Phase Eleven) pits. These pits cut through all earlier deposits and as a result of this, their backfill contained a wide range of material from all earlier periods (75 objects). Apart from the improbability of Byzantine stone axes for example, it is rarely possible to assign the manufacture of such items to, or preclude them from, a specific period. Further material was collected from the site of the engineering works for the new bridge across the Haliakmon. Some of this has proved useful typologically in supplying good examples of a type, while some pieces could be specifically associated with one of the burnt destruction levels (Phases Four or Six), which could be observed here as well as in the excavated area - in the section provided by the works.

Table 4.1 shows the distribution of the finds by major type and period. Objects from mixed contexts (e.g. Phase Five/ Seven) have normally been assigned to the later Phase in this and subsequent tables but are not included in the discussion of provenance in the text. These tables make no attempt to identify typologically the many pieces surviving in late contexts. The percentages given for each of the broad periods (en, mn, ln, eba and u/s (unstratified), and Phase Eleven, post-prehistoric) are based on the total number of registered small finds, including those of chipped stone and worked bone - although the final study of these has yet to be completed - and are intended to allow some broader comparisons with other sites.

It cannot of course be assumed that the distribution of finds at Servia directly reflects the popularity of different types at different periods, rather than spatial differences in function within different parts of the site. It is, however, worthwhile highlighting the occurrence or absence of certain types in each major phase.

In the en levels at Servia-Varytimides, which contain 1 1% of the registered small finds, there are clay spools, which are almost unrepresented in later periods as well as a quantity of pierced sherd disks which do not recur until the eba. Stone vases are present while the

THE SMALL FINDS: INTRODUCTION 1 09

prevalence of cylindrical cutting and pounding tools rather than fine polished axes and adzes may indicate a different type of site from say contemporary Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994; Rodden and Wardle forthcoming or later mn Servia, one where fine carpentry is not being practiced. Figurines are more common than in later periods. Stone 'waisted weights', clay ring weights and shell objects are all conspicuously absent while quernstones and bone tools are rare. Unlike Nea Nikomedeia, there are no clay sling bolts or stone 'studs'.

MN levels contain the majority of the finds (31%). This period saw the loss of stone vases, clay spools and the majority of the sherd disks, while waisted weights, clay ring weights and small burnishers or polishers make their appearance together with shell ornaments, especially bracelets, also manufactured in stone and clay. Axes and querns are frequent while there is the sole example of an unfinished stone macehead as well as a single group of clay sling bolts from Phase Four.

The shallow ln deposits, unsurprisingly, do not contain very many finds (11% of the total) and the similarity of the assemblage to that of the mn period emphasises the continuity between the two periods at Servia. Stone waisted weights form the largest category.

The EBA ditches, with 7% of the finds, provide no innovations apart from an increase in the number of chipped stone tools, perhaps because of the regular availability of obsidian. It is debatable what proportion of the objects found in their fill are actually contemporary with their use rather than residual. The presence of several shell objects may reflect this situation. Although the eba occupation levels (Phases Nine and Ten) are both superficial and relatively shallow, a large range of objects was recovered (19% of the total) including some, such as clay figurines, which are apparently residual. Innovations include the presence of arsenical bronze objects, a stone shafthole axe, clay 'anchors' and pyramidal clay weights, together with the first large numbers of spindle whorls and a recurrence of sherd disks.

The disturbance of the site by the Byzantine ditches and the collection of good unstratified examples from the Bridge Works are reflected in the number of objects (22%) with this provenance, mostly typical of the neolithic period.

Without a full report on Heurtley's excavations at Servia, it is difficult to assess accurately how the finds made by him compare with those from the 1971-73 excavations. The brief account given by him (1939, 64-5, figs. 6-7, 77-8, figs. 34-3, 86-7, fig. 65) includes only a small number of additional types, such as the bone combs and clay pintaderas illustrated in his fig. 35. Reference will be made to his finds where helpful.

The study of the contexts and spatial distribution of different classes of finds, in relation to their use or storage in structures, or their particular frequency in yard areas and rubbish deposits has highlighted particular concentrations. Numbers of waisted stone weights, for example, can be associated with the Phase Two Structures 2 and 3, while finds in the destruction level of Phase Four help to indicate that Structures 2 and 3 may have been a working area. The deep level of debris in Structure 7 preserved an unusual number of objects, with querns to suggest that crop processing took place in the area, a group of clay ring weights perhaps from a loom, and a range of ornaments which had possibly been stored together for safety.

With the exception of the chipped stone tools of various silicates and the objects of bone and antler from ln and eba levels, which will be presented in Volume II, this account includes all registered small finds which were clearly artefacts or were utilized. Some items which were originally registered were subsequently found to be natural, or did not show sufficient traces of use for any utilisation to be certain and, thus, have been omitted from this account.

no K. A. WARDLE

The small finds have been classified by material in the first place (stone, clay, shell and metal), but in several cases, small finds of different materials may have served similar functions. Thus weights, whether for weaving, fishing or other purposes, are made of clay and stone, while ornaments are made from a wide variety of materials. The term 'clay' has been used, for brevity, to refer to all fired clay objects, (including those sometimes elsewhere described as terracotta), while unfired clay objects will be termed unbaked. Dimensions given in the catalogues are extant, unless stated otherwise. A key to the abbreviations used for the dimensions of each category of object is given at the beginning of each catalogue.

The original registration numbers have been retained throughout, both in this chapter and that on stratigraphy, as well as in the illustrations.

The account of over 400 items of polished and worked stone, including adzes and axes, querns, pounders and ornaments and other items (4.2) has been prepared by C. A. M. and K. A. W. with substantial contributions by R. C. A. and D. E. H. W. on the basis of original data checked by H. C. R. and C. A. M. and a final visit by K. A. W. and D. E. H. W. in September 1997. W. W. Phelps has catalogued and discussed the small group of clay figurines with reference to parallels from other parts of northern Greece (4.3.1), while the large number of clay items which seem to be connected with weaving have been discussed by J. Carington Smith with a full catalogue of parallels (4.3.2-10). The account of the remaining clay objects has been completed by H. C. R., C.A. M. and K. A.W. (4.3.11). The small number of ornaments and other items of shell has been presented by C. A. M. and K. A. W. (4.4) together with a discussion of all the ornament types such as beads, pendants and bracelets whatever their material (4.5). The very limited number of items of metal from the eba and later contexts (4.6) and of glass, presumably of historic date (4.7), completes the account of the small objects. C. A. M. has provided, for each group, the details of context and associations where these seem significant.

Outline catalogues are presented after the discussion of each group or type in numerical order using the original small find registration numbers with details of phase and zembil Note that finds from Servia-Vary timides are sometimes classified as Upper (en u), Middle (en m) or Lower (en l). A large selection of typical or interesting examples of each group in line drawings or photographs can also be found in this section. Colour photographs can be found on CD-ROM frames F38-76. The index to these colour images is printed on pp. xxiii-v.

Copies of the full catalogue in numerical order will be provided on CD-ROM with Volume II in due course and will be filed at the British School at Athens, (where it is expected that the archive will be deposited in due course), with the IZ! Ephoria, at the University of Birmingham, and with the finds (currently in Fiorina Museum). Further copies may be obtained, at cost, on paper or in digital format, from K. A. Wardle.

K. A. W.

THE SMALL FINDS: INTRODUCTION 1 1 1

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1 1 2 CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

4.2 THE STONE SMALL FINDS A total of 416 stone small finds were recorded at Servia, which represents the highest number of any one material at the site. These fall into a number of broad groups: polished stone cutting tools with a flat cross-section such as axes and adzes (4.2.1); polished stone objects with shafthole (4.2.2); pestles or cutting tools with a circular cross-section and pecked rather than polished finish (4.2.3); quernstones of more or less saddle shape used for food preparation (4.2.4) and smaller grinding stones/whetstones (4.2.5) and palettes of a variety of shapes (4.2.6). Small numbers of spherical pounders (4.2.7) and different kinds of polishing and burnishing stones (4.2.8) were clearly used for a variety of purposes while the waisted pebble weights (4.2.9) form one of the largest and most uniform groups. Other artefacts of distinct type include fragments of stone vases (4.2.10), a range of stone bracelets, pendants and other ornaments (4.2.11) and a group of pivots or sockets (4.2.12). There is also a miscellaneous collection of objects from the site which appear to have been utilized as they were found or modified during use without belonging to any identifiable morphological type (4.2.13). The chipped stone tools, whose study is still incomplete, will be included in Volume II. Although Heurtley reported two stone figurines (1939, fig. 34f, g), only clay examples were found in the 1971-73 excavations.

The raw materials for almost all these tools and objects are likely to have been found locally, especially in the bed of the river Haliakmon whose course cuts through a vast variety of geological formations. Examination of the river bed upstream from the site before the valley floor was flooded revealed marble pebbles and other stones not deriving from the geology of the immediate area. A study of the petrology of the tools will be included in Volume II.

4.2.1 Polished Cutting Tools with Flat or Flattened Cross-section - Chisels, Axes and Adzes (figs. 4.1-8, plates 4.2-5, F37-45, 47)

Typology The distinction between this category with flattened cross-section and that of the tools with circular cross-section (4.2.3) is a reasonably clear one, on the basis of size and quality of finish, as well as the shape of the cross-section. The functions are also likely to have been rather different (see also Moundrea-Agrafioti 1996, 104). Without micro wear studies such as those conducted by Christopoulou on the polished stone tools from Sesklo A (1977; 1992), the classification of those from Servia is based on simple morphological criteria which may well reflect function to some extent. The 104 tools in this category form the largest group of stone objects, a quarter of the total. They have been classified under three types: chisels, adzes and axes.

Eight small, more-or-less parallel-sided tools below 2.5 cm in width, probably used for delicate woodworking, have been classed as chisels (fig. 4.3). These are sometimes of softer stones such as serpentinite and are highly polished with a sharp cutting edge. They may have been hafted for striking, used in the hand or provided with a wooden or bone mount to facilitate use. In many, if not all, cases chisels were made by splitting axes or adzes in half. Most are completely finished by grinding to remove all traces of the process, except for the often distinctive asymmetrical shape (SF789, SF873) or a cross-section which can be almost trapezoidal (SF769). Unfinished examples like SF769 (which, freshly snapped,

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE 1 1 3

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1 14 CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

demonstrates the technique employed) are found more rarely. A polished axe which may or may not already be damaged is first grooved on both sides by using an abrasive and water with the aid of a cord or a bone, antler or even wooden tool. This grooving is continued around the cutting edge as well as on each side until the axe can be broken in two with simple pressure. The scar left by snapping is then ground away (fig. 4.3). Evidence of this manufacturing process has also been published from Sesklo, showing the preparatory grooving (Tsountas 1908, pl. 39:2, 40:16) as well as an unfinished chisel (Tsountas 1908, 310, fig. 234). The distinctive shape of a chisel manufactured in this way can be seen in illustrations from many sites (e.g. Tsountas 1908, pl. 40:1, 3, 4; Moundrea-Agrafioti 1996, 239, no. 64c, d). Another grooved axe is illustrated from Rini by Wace and Thompson (1912, fig. 79a). The same technique of manufacture can be seen on the marble tool, SF222 (see 4.2.13).

The terms adze and axe denote different methods of hafting appropriate to the intended use: axes are hafted with the blade parallel to the handle for cutting, while adzes are hafted with the blade at right angles to the handle for shaping ox dressing timber to size (fig. 4.1). The cross-section of an adze is likely to be asymmetrical, with a much more marked bevel on the one side than the other, while the cutting edge should ideally be straight and at right angles to the axis. The cross-section of an axe will be symmetrical without any marked bevel, while the cutting edge may well be more curved on one side than the other. Some of these polished tools may have been modified after manufacture, after initial use as an axe to become an adze or vice versa. We have chosen to classify each item on the final use. The distinction in some cases is uncertain as shown by the addition of a '?' to the description in

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the catalogue. Some seem to have ceased to be useful as cutting tools and been used subsequently as hammer stones or grinding tools.

In broad terms this group of tools conforms to Tsountas' categories B and A (1908, 309- 14). The few complete examples from Servia of his category A with a circular or oval cross- section (ibid., 307-9), which was the most common at both Dimini and Sesklo, have been included in section 4.2.3.

The distribution of complete axes and adzes by length is plotted in fig. 4.2. Each type falls into three size ranges which broadly correspond to the material used and the 'finish' given to each. The distinction between the two types on this basis is not very marked: the group of small axes is perhaps more sharply defined than that of the adzes. These groups presumably reflect the choice of suitably sized tools for a variety of functions. Some are so small, so well finished and show so little sign of use that it is possible that they served no practical purpose. Small examples less than 5 cm long are generally of 'softer' stone and have a superb polish and sharp blades; functionally this group may overlap with those defined as chisels. Indeed, one axe (SF771) and two adzes (SF615 and sf66q) are less than 2.5 cm wide, but all three are markedly trapezoidal. Medium size tools (from 6-10 cm) are of harder stone, such as andésite, basalt, microgranite or metaquartzite, and well polished but with blunter blades. The largest examples (from 1 1-20 cm in the case of adze SF169) are often of similar stone to the last, but may only be well polished in the blade area. Some of the tools of this size may have been used agriculturally as hoes or pick-axes as well as for felling or shaping building timbers.

The illustrations have been arranged on the basis of size while the catalogue that follows for chisels, axes and adzes is in numerical order with each item headed 'axe' 'adze' or 'chisel' to denote suggested function. Butt ends and broken fragments are included, but naturally cannot always be assigned further. The largest tools with a blade all have a circular cross-section and are included in the discussion of 'cylindrical' tools (4.2.3) though they may have been used in a similar fashion.

There is no obvious variation through time in the materials selected or the range of size or type, with one important exception. Servia-Varytimides produced only two of the polished stone axes, together with fragments of two others, of the type so familiar from the mn levels at the main site, or from other en sites such as Achilleion or Nea Nikomedeia. The remainder of the polished tools from Servia-Varytimides were of the 'cylindrical' type. This may indicate some basic difference in the nature of the activity carried on at that site which will be discussed further with the full publication of the stratigraphy and contexts of the finds in Volume II. On the whole the assemblage of cutting tools does not seem to be very different from those found at other neolithic sites.

Four unstratified finds provide evidence that stone tools were being manufactured at Servia. A stone flake (sf68), from Area D, had been removed from a stone core during the roughing-out process, whilst SF178 and SF252 appear to be fragments from the same process. It is harder to be sure how far the tools of this type found in eba levels are representative of that period. Several were found in the ditches and could come from earlier periods, while those from Phases Nine and Ten may also be upcasts or reused. The only innovation to be seen at this period is the piece of a shafthole axe, SF299 (4.2.2), found in the debris above the Phase Ten floors at the southern end of the excavated area. Axes of this type are first known in eba contexts. A fragment of a bronze axe blade, SF236 (4.6), from a mixed context represents a tool of similar form and presumably similar date.

ii6 CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

Distribution of axes by length Total number of axes = 27

Distribution of adzes by length Total number of adzes = 33

2 5 IO I5 cm

Fig. 4.2. The distribution of axes and adzes by length.


Provenance Only two damaged axes were found at Servia-Vary timides (SF229, SF643), together with two more broken pieces, in contrast to fragments of twelve cylindrical tools.

Phase One levels included a single axe (SF368) found directly above the clay subsoil in F20/A which could have been used to prepare building materials for Structure 3. A complete adze (SF472) with polished surface, apart from the area close to the butt end which may have been left rough to aid hafting, was found within Structure 1. A second complete, highly polished adze with faceted sides (SF481), was found in the debris of Structure 2.

Phase Two levels contained eleven axes or adzes. An unfinished axe (sfiio6) was found in a yard area to the s of Structure 1 . Its edges showed evidence of 'roughing out' and battering. Two axes (SF397 and SF482) were found in Structure 2, while an axe (SF476) and two adzes (SF363, SF391) were incorporated into its walls. An axe (SF872) and a butt end (SF752) were found on the floor of Structure 3 and an adze (SF308) close to a hearth to the N. A chisel (sf8si) was found in the yard to the E of Structure 3. Another adze (SF790) was found within structural debris to the E of the lean-to structures in F10/D.

Among nine examples from Phase Three was a second unfinished axe (SF1095) which was found in the debris of Structure 2. It had probably been abandoned when a split developed during grinding. Two adzes (SF366, SF382) were found in Structure 1, while fragments of two more came from Structure 2 (SF155, SF157). The debris of Structure 4 produced an indeterminate tool (SF702) and the collapse in F10/D an adze (SF684). Of two chisels found in this Phase, one came from occupation debris associated with Structure 2 (SF143) and the other was on the floor of Structure 5 (SF873).

Phase Four levels included fifteen axes and adzes. An axe (SF165) and a broken adze (SF131) were discovered in Structure 2 and a fragment of an axe (SF364) had been incorporated into the oven floor in this structure. An axe (SF648), two adzes (SF641, SF685) and a very small adze (SF669) were found on the floor of Structure 3. Two medium-sized axes (SF700, SF794) and one very small axe (SF771) as well as the butt end of an axe or adze (SF793) were recorded from the debris of Structure 7. Two more complete axes were recovered during monitoring of the excavation of the Bridge Works (sf6o2, sf6o6).

The shallow deposits of Phase Five revealed no axes or adzes, and only a single flake (SF276) came from the pits of Phase Six.

In Phase Seven there were twelve tools of which two were unfinished. The surface of SF169, an adze, was pecked with wear traces on the butt and blade ends: polish was present on one side only. SF1126, an axe, had pecking on the surface and a partly ground blade. Two complete and polished axes (SF127, SF164) were also found in Structure 5. An almost complete, polished adze (SF792) with a faceted surface was found in the yard in Area E as was an axe (SF791). Another adze from the burnt stratum of this phase (SF624) w^s collected during the monitoring of the Bridge Works. A chisel (SF387) was found in Area H.

The Phase Eight ditches included one certain (SF287) and one possible (SF305) adze as well as three axes (sf6o8, sf6i2, SF162) of which the last may have been unfinished, and a chisel (SF769) formed from a split axe.

The Phase Nine levels contained a very small adze (SF615) incorporated into the fill of a post-hole for Structure 1, while an axe (sfio8) lay on the floor of the same structure. The disturbed levels of Phase Ten included an adze (sf8o) from the fill of a post-hole in the southern wall of Structure 1, a fragment of axe (SF84) from above the floor of Structure 3, as well as two small flakes which may reflect the production process for axes or chisels.


Fig. 4.3. Stone chisels and chisel manufacture: SF882, Phase u/s; SF387, Phase Seven; SF871, Phase Two; SF789, Phase u/s; SF769, Phase Eight; SF873, Phase Three. 1:2.


Fig. 4.4. Stone axes: SF602, Phase Four; SF218, Phase u/s; SF791, Phase Seven; SF73, Phase u/s; SF613, Phase Seven; SF994, Phase u/s; SF643, Phase en; SF164, Phase Seven. 1:2.


Fig. 4.5. Stone axes: SF612, Phase Eight; SF916, Phase u/s; SF648, Phase Four. 1:2.


Fig. 4.6. Stone adzes: SF615, Phase Nine; sf8i, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF669, Phase Four; SF790, Phase Two, SF363, Phase Two; SF792, Phase Seven; SF684, Phase Three; SF624, Phase Seven;

SF471, Phase Five/Seven. 1:2.

122 CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

Fig. 4.7. Stone adzes: SF287, Phase Eight; sfiooi, Phase u/s; SF391, Phase Two; SF237, Phase u/s; SF995, Phase u/s; SF390, Phase u/s; SF996, Phase u/s. 1:2.

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE 123

Fig. 4.8. Stone adzes: sf6ii, Phase Five/Six; SF472, Phase One; SF992, Phase u/s; SF113, Phase Eleven; SF165, Phase Four. 1:2.


Plate 4.1. Small polished stone tools: (a) Top row from left: adze SF363, Phase Two; adze SF685, Phase Four; axe SF771, Phase Four; Bottom row from left: adze SF131, Phase Four; adze SF669,

Phase Four; (b) Top row from left: chisel SF387, Phase Seven; adze SF287, Phase Eight; adze SF624, Phase Seven; Bottom row from left: axe SF127, Phase Seven; adze SF471, Phase Five/Seven.

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE 1 25

Plate 4.2. Small polished stone tools: (a) From left: adze SF684, Phase Three; chisel SF789, Phase u/s; adze, SF792, Phase Seven; (b) From left: axe SF218, Phase u/s; axe sf8i,

Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven; axe SF73, Phase u/s.


Plate 4.3. Polished stone tools: (a) Top row from left: adze SF481, Phase One; adze SF308, Phase Two; axe SF872, Phase Two; Bottom row from left: cylindrical cutting tool SF321, Phase Two; Axe SF368, Phase One; (b) From left: adze SF366, Phase Three; adze SF391, Phase Two/Three; axe

SF700, Phase Four; axe SF648, Phase Four.


Plate 4.4. Polished stone tools: (a) axe sf6o6, Phase Four, axe/adze SF702, Phase Three, adze SF113, Phase Eleven, adze SF390, Phase u/s; [b-cj SF769, stone axe split to make chisel, Phase

Eight.


Plate 4.5. (a) Medium polished stone tools. From left: adze, SF237, Phase u/s; axe SF612, Phase Eight; adze SF472, Phase One; (b) from left adze SF1004, Phase u/s; axe SF1002, Phase u/s; axe

SF916, Phase u/s.

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE 1 2g

Catalogue of the chisels, adzes and axes

L. = max. length in cm from butt to blade; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SFl6 Zembil: 109; Phase: Nine L. of fragment 4.9; W. 1.8; Th. 1.2; Wt. 28 Axe Small fragment only. 'Groove' from working remaining. No original surface preserved. Serpentinized basaltic (?).

sf68 Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s L. 5.9; W4.2; Th. 1.4 Flake Unworked. From axe production (?). Irregular shape with two broken edges and surface damaged.

SF73 FIG. 4.4, PLATE 4.2Ä, F40 Zembil: 1 ; Phase: u/s L. 6.8; W4.2; Th. 1.9; Wt. 76 Axe Complete except for slight damage to butt. Trapezoidal and symmetrical, with tapering, pointed butt; oval cross-section. Polished all over. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

sf8o Zembil: 100; Phase: Ten L. 8.4; W4.3; Th. 1.5; Wt. 87 Adze Complete. Triangular-trapezoidal. Plano-convex, with tapering, flattened butt. Faceted blade. Dacite (?).

sf8i fig. 4.6, plate 4.2^, F40 Zembil: 301 ; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven L. 3.9; W. §.'' Th. 1.3; W7. 20 Adze Complete except for small chip on butt. Trapezoidal. Plano-convex, elliptical cross-section, faceted blade; Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF84 Zembil: 102; Phase: Ten ¿.5.8; W.4.7; Th. 2.2- Wt. 119 Axe(?) Broken, missing butt and blade. Rectangular with elliptical cross-section. Polished all over, surviving over most of undamaged surface. Very fine-grained extrusive igneous (?).

SF93 Zembil: 60; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven ¿.8.5; W3.9; Th. 2.1; Wt. 115 Axe Broken, missing most of blade. Trapezoidal and symmetrical, with elliptical cross-section and slightly squared butt. Originally polished all over, but worn and rough. Partially serpentinized dunite (?).

SF108 Zembil: 9; Phase: Nine L. 7.8; W2.6; Th. 1.9; Wt. 104 Axe Almost complete, damaged along one side and along blade and butt. Parallel-sided, with rounded butt and symmetrical blade. Well polished on upper and lower surfaces, but sides worn. Basaltic.

SFl 13 FIG. 4.8, PLATE 4.4a Zembil: 196; Phase: Eleven L. 13; W5; Th. 2.7; Wt. 251 Adze Complete except for slight chipping on blade and convex face. Elongated trapezoidal. Slightly plano- convex, with faceted blade. Polished surface, with abrasions. Olivine basalt (?).

SF127 PLATE 4.1b, F39 Zembil: 354; Phase: Seven Z.6.5; W3.9;Th. 1.8; M.59 Axe Complete. Slightly asymmetrical, almost triangular in shape, with one surface flattened and oblique cutting edge. Plano-convex. Highly polished surface, but badly pitted in a few places. Mylonitic serpentinite.

SFI31 PLATE 4.1a Zembil: 274; Phase: Four L.5.7; W.2,; Th. 1.3; M.39 Adze Almost complete, with damaged sides and chipped blade. Trapezoidal. Sharp, faceted blade. Polished on upper and lower surfaces and on remaining surface of sides. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF143 Zembil: 288; Phase: Three L. 5.9; PK2.3; Th. 1; Wt. 16 Chisel Almost complete, large chip at butt end and badly damaged surfaces. Rectangular, formed from split axe, with almost triangular cross-section. Faceted blade with no wear traces. Polished. Basalt (?).

i3o CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

SF155 Zembil: 292; Phase: Three L. 2.6; W3.3; Th. 0.6; Wt. 28 Adze (?) Fragment, with part of blade, upper surface and one edge remaining. Rectangular with faceting on the remaining surface, probably for blade. Polished. Chalcedonic silica (?).

SF157 Zembil: 293; Phase: Three L. 6.8; W4.4; Th. 2.3; Wt. 108 Butt end of axe or adze Rounded butt and sides. Smoothed and polished. Basalt (non-porphyritic).

SF162 Zembil: 356; Phase: Eight ¿.8.4; W4; Th. 2; Wt. 81 Axe Unfinished. Slightly plano-convex with asymmetrical cross-section. Polished. Damaged surfaces, butt and blade ends.

SF164 FIG. 4.4 Zembil: 355; Phase: Seven L. 10; W3.7; 7%. 2.9; WÏ. 162 Axe Complete. Almost triangular. Narrow butt, circular in cross-section; fine symmetrical blade edge. Polished. Porphyritic basalt.

SF165 fig. 4.8 Zembil: 258; Phase: Four L- 7-9; W5.5; Th- 1-7' Wt- lS5 Adze Broken, blade chipped. Rectangular. Flat with squared sides; one facet on blunt blade; use traces on edge of blade; no surviving polish. Metacarbonate/metalimestone.

SF166 F47 Zembil: 60; Phase: Nine/Ten/ Eleven L. 8.4; W3.5; Th. 2.2; Wt. 138 Adze Complete, slight damage only. Triangular. Plano- convex with polish all over, worn in parts. Wear traces on blade. Serpentinite.

SF169 Zembil: 308; Phase: Seven L. 20; W7.6; Th. 4.1; Wt. 1194 Adze Unfinished (?). Trapezoidal. Elliptical profile and cross-section. Marks of working by striking on one end, and pecking on rest of surface. Polished on one side. Quartz microdiorite (?).

SF178 Zembil: F20/B; Phase: Ten L. 2; W0.9; Th. 0.6 L. 2; W 1.4; Th. 0.7 Fragments Two flakes, worked and polished. Possibly by-products of manufacturing process.

SF218 FIG. 4.4, PLATE 4-2¿, F40 Zembil: Baulk A/C; Phase: u/s L.4.5; K4.1; m 1.5; m. 35 Axe Almost complete; chipped blade. Trapezoidal. Sub- rectangular cross-section and symmetrical blade. Use traces on blade, worn butt. Highly polished. Traces of drilling on one side. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF229 Zembil: 3530; Phase: en L. 17; PK7; Th. 4.8; Wt. 1105 Adze (?) Almost complete; partly broken blade. Slightly trapezoidal with irregular plano-convex profile. Butt end tapering and blunt, almost square in cross-section. Blade blunt, mostly missing. Butt end polished, with wear or hafting marks. Quartz microdiorite.

SF237 FIG. 4.7, PLATE 4.5a, F43 Zembil: F20 C/A; Phase: u/s L. 7.8; W4.1; Th. 1.5; Wt. 98 Adze Complete, slightly chipped. Trapezoidal with rounded tapering butt; sharply faceted blade with uneven wear traces; slightly squared sides; sub-rectangular cross- section. Polished surface, worn along side and butt. Serpentinized dolerite.

SF241 Zembil: F20 Baulk D; Phase: u/s L.4.1; W4.3; Th. 1.5; Wt. 54 Adze Broken, missing butt. Possibly rectangular. Plano- convex, with one facet on blade. Blade has slight groove parallel with edge, possibly natural. Polished surface and blade. No visible wear traces on blade. Porphyritic andésite or basalt.

SF252 Zembil: 1300; Phase: u/s L. 1.8; W. 0.8; Th. 0.75 Fragment Flake from manufacturing process. Worked, smoothed surface.

SF265 Zembil: 1003; Phase: Seven/ Eight


L. 13.2; W7.2; Th. 1.7; Wt. 366 Axe Complete except for slight chipping. Thin with flaring blade and rounded butt. Smooth, flat surfaces. Polished, possibly natural river polish. Worn blade. Olivine basalt.

SF276 Zembil: 1307; Phase: Six L. 4.25; W. 1.1; Th. 0.6 Axe Rake only. Long and narrow fragment of blade. Polish on surviving surface. Chalcedonic silica (?).

SF287 FIG. 4.7, PLATE 4.1Ô, F39 Zembil: 1 101 ; Phase: Eight L. 7; W4.5; Th. 1; Wt. 98 Adze Complete. Almost triangular with plano-convex cross- section. Symmetrical with bevelled blade and rounded butt. Polished. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF305 F47 Zembil: 1 23 1 ; Phase: Eight L. 7; W4.9; 2%. 2.2; Wt. 192 Adze (?) Broken, missing butt. Almost rectangular with squared and smoothed sides. Sub-rectangular in cross-section, with slightly convex upper and lower surfaces. Faceted, sharp blade. Well polished. Crush breccia or cataclasite of ultrabasic igneous rock (?).

SF308 PLATE 4.3a Zembil: 1 1 1 1 ; Phase: Two L. 8.9; W3.6; Th. 1.7; Wt. 91 Adze Almost complete, with slight chip in butt. Rectangular with curved profile. Doubly faceted blade. Unpolished; working traces on surface. Serpentinite (or dunite).

SF363 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.1a Zembil: 1355; Phase: Two L 4.7; W. 3; Th. 1.2; Wt. 27 Adze Almost complete, butt damaged. Trapezoidal with doubly faceted blade. Fully polished. Mylonitic serpentinite.

SF364 Zembil: 1 200; Phase: Four L.3.8; W3.1; Th. 0.4 Axe Fragment of blade only. Thin, with flat surfaces and symmetrical blade. Chalcedonic silica (?).

SF366 PLATE 4.3Ä, F44 Zembil: 1360; Phase: Three L. 14; W4.8; Th. 2; Wt. 194 Adze Almost complete with badly chipped and damaged surface. Elongated trapezoidal. Plano-convex. Cataclasite (or mylonite) of ultrabasic igneous rock/ serpentinite (?).

SF368 plate 4.3a Zembil: 1 130; Phase: One L. 14; W5.5; Th. 2; Wt. 261 Axe Almost complete but with badly chipped and damaged surface. Originally polished. Crush breccia of altered ultrabasic igneous rock (dunite or peridotite) or serpentinite (?).

SF382 Zembil: 1362; Phase: Three ¿.7.5; W3.3; Th. 1.5; Wt.b6 Adze Complete except for small chips and damage to surface. Trapezoidal. Slightly plano-convex with one squared side. Resharpened, faceted blade. Cataclastic serpentinite (?).

SF387 FIG. 4.3, PLATE 4.1 b, F39 Zembil: 2 103; Phase: Seven L. 3.6; Wi.i' Th. 0.8; Wt. 5 Chisel Almost complete, c. 90%. Elongated trapezoidal with squared butt. Ovoid in cross-section. Faceted blade. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF388 Zembil: Area H; Phase: u/s L. 5.4; W 1.8; Th. 1.4; Wt. 21 Chisel Incomplete, c. 90%. Butt missing. Rectangular chisel formed from split adze. Faceted blade. Oval-sub- rectangular in cross-section. Basalt (?).

SF390 FIG. 4.7, PLATE 4.4Ä Zembil: Area H; Phase: u/s L. 9; W4.9; Th. 2.7; Wt. 166 Adze Almost complete, c. 90%. Trapezoidal. Slightly rounded butt, oval-sub-rectangular in cross-section. Broken blade, faceted on both sides. Highly polished. Basalt, or serpentinite (?).

SF391 FIG. 4.7, PLATE 4.3*, F44 Zembil: 1206; Phase: Two L. 8.3; PK4.3; Th. 2; Wt. 101 Adze


Complete, with slight damage to butt. Trapezoidal- triangular. Both surfaces slightly convex with rounded butt and tapering, faceted blade. No visible wear traces on blade. Highly polished all over. Basalt/serpentinite (?)•

SF397 Zembil: 1206; Phase: Two ¿•3-9; W34; Th. 1.2; Wt. 17 Axe Broken, blade end only. Slightly squared sides, elliptical-sub-rectangular cross-section. Polish on surviving surface. Lightweight. Pelite (pelitic schist ?).

SF468 Zembil: 2124; Phase: Five/Seven I.5.9; W4.5; 7». 3.7; W. 138 Adze Broken; butt missing. Faceted blade, polished. (Porphyritic) basalt.

SF469 Zembil: 2128; Phase: Four ¿.5.9; W.s.^JTi. 1.1; Wf.57 Adze Broken, butt missing. Rectangular with faceted blade. Polished, with abraded sides Basalt (?).

SF470 Zembil: 2124; Phase: Five/Seven Z. 4.1; W3.5; Th. 1.2; Wt. >32 Adze (?) Incomplete, c. half only. Symmetrical with one facet on blade. Polished. Very fine-grained extrusive igneous.

SF471 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.1^, F39 Zembil: 2124; Phase: Five/Seven I.5.1; W.^Th. 1.5; Wt. 49 Adze Complete. Slightly flaring rectangular shape with reworked, squared butt. Doubly faceted. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF472 FIG. 4.8, PLATE 4.5Ä, F43 Zembil: 1255; Phase: One L. 12.3; W4.9; Th. 2.7; Wt. 268 Adze Complete, except for very slight chipping on butt. Rectangular. Convex surfaces with rounded butt and tapering, faceted blade. Polished, except for butt.

SF476 Zembil: 1253; Phase: Two L. 8.3; W4.9; Th. 2.8; Wt. 221 Axe

Almost complete, blade chipped and part of butt possibly missing. Almost rectangular with rounded butt; oval cross-section; blade badly damaged. Polished. Serpentinite (?).

SF481 plate 4.3a Zembil: 1263; Phase: One L. 8.7; W5.1; Th. 2; Wt. 121 Adze Complete with slight damage. Trapezoidal and asymmetrical with faceted blade and sides; highly polished with signs of wear. Basalt (?).

SF482 Zembil: 1204; Phase.Two L. 6.6; W4.5; Th. 1.5; Wt. 67 Axe Almost complete, with badly chipped haft. Straight- sided with symmetrical, faceted blade and flat surfaces. Polish on undamaged surfaces. Serpentinite (?).

SF505 Zembil: 213; Phase: Nine/Ten L. 6.4; W4.2; Th. 2.2; Wt. 84 Butt end of adze or axe Tapering, rounded butt, widening towards (missing) blade. Elliptical section. Partly damaged surface, polished over most of surface. Basalt.

SF602 fig. 4.4 Zembil: 3207; Phase: Four ¿•3-3; W3.3; Th.o.b-, Wt. 13 Axe Almost complete, slightly chipped on butt and one side. Trapezoidal and slightly asymmetrical in plan, sub-rectangular-elliptical cross-section and symmetrical profile. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

sf6o6 plate 4.4a Zembil: 3206; Phase: Four Z.7.4; W 4.4; Th. 2.5; Wt. 138 Axe Complete. Trapezoidal with blunt, rounded butt and blade. Elliptical in profile. Butt and blade both worn and abraded and blunt through use. Andésite.

SF608 Zembil: 3209; Phase: Eight L. 6; W4.7; Th. 1.7; Wt. 78 Axe Complete, with slight chipping on butt. Irregular, trapezoidal shape with symmetrical profile and faceted blade. Originally polished all over (?), now worn and surviving in small areas only. Deformed mudstone (argillaceous) (?).

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE ! 33

sf6ii fig. 4.8 Zembil: R. Section; Phase: Five/Six L. 9.3; W4.7; Th. 2.4; Wt. 135 Adze Complete. Convex surfaces with rounded butt and flared, faceted blade. Polished. Andésite.

sf6i2 fig. 4.5, plate 4.5a, F43 Zembil: 3203; Phase: Eight L. 10.7; PK4.6; Th. 2 Axe Complete, with slight damage on sides. Elongated trapezoidal shape with symmetrical profile and blade. Slightly pointed butt with wear traces. Polished.

SF613 FIG. 4.4 Zembil: 3000; Phase: Seven L. 7.4; W3.7; Th. 2.4; Wt. 119 Axe Complete. Slightly trapezoidal, thick axe with squared butt and symmetrical blade. Polished. Porphyritic basalt.

SF615 FIG. 4.6 Zembil: 3403; Phase: Nine L. 3.9; W2.3; Th. 1; Wt. 14 Adze Complete, except for tiny chip on blade. Triangular. Small with pointed butt and sharply faceted blade. Polished, no visible wear marks. (Mylonitic) serpentinite (?).

SF624 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.1¿, F39 Zembil: 3220; Phase: Seven L. 4.1; W4.2; Th. 1.2; Wt. 29 Adze Almost complete, with small chips. Trapezoidal. Slightly convex surfaces and squared sides. Squared butt and sharply faceted blade. Polished; no visible wear marks except for small chip on blade. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF641 Zembil: 3024; Phase: Four L. 3.7; W3.4; Th. 1; Wt. 20 Adze Almost complete, with partly broken butt. Trapezoidal. Convex surfaces with faceted blade. No visible wear marks. (Cataclasite ?)/serpentinite (or dunite).

SF643 FIG. 4.4 Zembil: Varyt. 12/2; Phase: en L. 10.5; W4.8; Th. 1.3; Wt. 122 Axe Almost complete, blade end badly chipped with chips

along side. Trapezoidal-rectangular in shape. Thin, almost rectangular in profile with slightly rounded butt. Squared 'blade' chipped, may be broken or unfinished. No polish. Allochemical limestone- calcarenite (intramicrite ?).

SF648 FIG. 4.5, PLATE 4.3*, F44 Zembil: 302 1 ; Phase: Four L. 16.5; W5.6; Th. 2.7; Wt. 364 Axe Complete. Triangular with tapering, rounded butt, symmetrical blade; elliptical-sub-rectangular cross- section. Andésite.

SF655 Zembil: F10/D; Phase: u/s L. 5.8; W3.3; Th. 1.2; Wt. 36 Adze Almost complete, with chips at edges and corner. Trapezoidal. Almost plano-concave in profile, possibly broken along surface during manufacture. Faceted blade. Polished; no wear traces on blade.

SF663 Zembil: 3524; Phase: en Z.5.5; W3.6; Th. 1.4; Wt.6ò Butt end of axe or adze Rounded butt, polished (?). Basalt (or andésite).

SF664 Zembil: 3027; Phase: Four L. 9.9; W6; Th. 2.2; Wt. 319 Axe(?) Broken, missing butt. Approximately rectangular with sub-rectangular cross-section at butt end, tapering to plano-convex cross-section at blade. Unpolished. Basalt.

SF669 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.1a Zembil: 3027; Phase: Four L. 4.5; W2.4; Th. 1; Wt. 24 Adze Almost complete, slightly chipped at butt. Asymmetrical trapezoidal. Faceted blade. Polished. Mylonitic serpentinite.

SF684 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.2a, F37 Zembil: 3033; Phase: Three L. 4.6; W3.8; Th. 1.2 Adze Complete except for slight chipping along one side and on blade. Trapezoidal. Convex surfaces and faceted blade. Squared butt. Polished.

SF685 PLATE 4.1a Zembil: 3 1 07; Phase: Four


Z.5.4; W3.5; Th. 1.5; M.56 Adze Almost complete with broken butt. Probably trapezoidal. Very slightly convex surfaces with faceted butt. Polished. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF700 PLATE 4.3Ô, F44 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four L. 10; W.$' Th. 2; Wt. 207 Axe Complete. Trapezoidal, slightly irregular shape in plan, with elliptical-sub-rectangular cross-section. Parallel upper and lower surfaces with tapering, squared butt and symmetrical blade. Andésite.

Found together with two long pebbles, possibly rubbers, not separately registered.

SF702 PLATE 4.4a Zembil: 3036; Phase: Three Z.9.6; W4.7; Th. 2.3; Wt. 191 Axe/Adze Almost complete. Damaged on blade and on butt. Trapezoidal. Basalt (?).

SF752 Zembil: 3123; Phase: Two L. 4.2; K4.1; Th. 2.5; Wt. 60 Butt end of axe or adze Slightly squared butt, sub-rectangular cross-section. Dacite or andésite.

SF769 FIG. 4.3, PLATE '.'b-C, F41 Zembil: 3336; Phase: Eight L. 5.9; W2.6; Th. 1.4; Wt. 28 Chisel Slightly trapezoidal. Formed from split axe. Polished. Epidote/serpentinite (?).

SF771 plate 4.1a Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four L. 3.2; W1.5; Th. 1; m. 18 Axe Complete, with chipped butt. Trapezoidal and symmetrical with doubly-faceted blade, possibly re-sharpened. Polished all over. Mylonitic serpentinite (?).

SF789 FIG. 4.3, PLATE 4.2a, F37 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 4; PK1.5; Th. 0.7 Chisel Almost complete, but with slight damage to butt. Rectangular, slightly curving sides with elliptical cross- section at blade. Minimal (if any) traces of wear on blade. Polished.

SF790 FIG. 4.6 Zembil: 3061 ; Phase: Two ¿.4.4; W.$; Th. 1.3; Wt. 24 Adze Complete. Almost trapezoidal. Slightly asymmetrical, abraded butt and one side of blade faceted. Polished. (Mylonitic ?) serpentinite (?).

SF79I FIG. 4.4 Zembil: 3716; Phase: Seven ¿.5.6; W3.7; Th. 1.4; M.41 Axe Complete except for slight damage to butt and surface. Trapezoidal, plano-convex with asymmetrical blade. Polished. (Mylonitic) serpentinite (?).

SF792 FIG. 4.6, PLATE 4.2Ä, F37 Zembil: 373 1 ; Phase: Seven ¿.5.2; W4; Th. 1.3 Adze Complete except for damage on surface. Trapezoidal with rounded butt and faceted blade, elliptical cross- section. Polished.

SF793 Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four L. 6.2; W4.9; Th. 3; Wt. 130 Butt end of axe or adze Squared butt with sub-rectangular cross-section. Polished surface with wear traces and damage to butt. Basalt.

SF794 Zembil: 3340; Phase: Four L. 12.5; Wò.6;Th. 3.1; Wt. 356 Axe(?) Almost complete, broken at blade. Slightly tapering, rounded butt, elliptical cross-section. Patch of polish on butt and on blade end. Dacite (or quartz microdiorite).

SF871 fig. 4.3 Zembil: 3083; Phase: Two L. 3.8; W0.9; Th. 0.6; Wt. 5 Chisel Complete. Bullet-shaped with pointed butt and squared, oblique blade. Irregular cross-section, almost pentagonal. Central part of tool squared and faceted. Polished. (Mylonitic) dunite (?).

SF872 PLATE 4.3a Zembil: 3048; Phase: Two L. 8.5; W4.4; Th. 2; Wt. 135 Axe Complete except for a few slight chips. Almost


triangular. Upper and lower surfaces slightly convex with tapering butt and symmetrical blade. Elliptical cross-section. Originally polished all over. Andésite (or dacite).

SF873 fig. 4.3 Zembil: 307 1 ; Phase: Three ¿.7.7; W2.3; Th. 1.7; m.50 Chisel Complete except for slight damage to butt and underside. Rectangular with sub-rectangular cross- section. Polished all over. Cataclastic/iserpentinite ?).

SF882 fig. 4.3 lambii: - ; Phase: u/s L. 2.5; W1.2; 7ft. 0.5; Wt. 6 Chisel Almost complete, with damaged butt. Slightly trapezoidal and symmetrical, with sub-rectangular cross-section. Faceted blade. Polished all over, with no wear traces on blade. (Mylonitic) serpentinite (?).

SF914 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s I.5.1; W4.5; Th. 1.6; Wt. 78 Adze Broken, with missing butt. Rectangular shape with squared sides. Chipped, faceted blade. Polished.

SF915 Zembil: Ploughsoil; Phase: u/s ¿.5; W5; Th.S; Wt. 112 Axe Broken, butt missing. Rectangular with oval cross- section and symmetrical blade with small chips. Polished, with wear traces on blade. Peridotite (?).

SF916 FIG. 4.5, PLATE 4. $b Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 11.8; W5.6; Th. 1.8; Wt. 225 Axe Complete. Elongated trapezoidal with sub-rectangular cross-section, squared butt and slightly rounded, blunt blade. Sides rough and worn with some encrustation. Basalt.

SF992 fig. 4.8, plate 4.6r, F45 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 11; W.$.9-Th. 2.4; Wt. 165 Adze Complete, except for slight damage to butt and chipping of blade. Triangular. Symmetrical, oval cross- section, with pointed butt and slightly faceted blade. Polished blade; sides ground and originally polished (?). Mylonite/polished basalt (?).

SF993 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 10.7; WT3.7; Th. 2; Wt. 104 Adze Broken and badly damaged across surfaces. Trapezoidal (?). Elliptical cross-section and possibly faceted blade.

SF994 FIG. 4.4 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s Z,. 8; W4.3; Th. 1.9; Wt. 114 Axe Almost complete, with chipped blade. Slightly trapezoidal. Squared butt with rectangular cross- section; elliptical cross-section at blade end. Symmetrical blade. Originally polished all over, preserved on most of surfaces. (Olivine) basalt.

SF995 fig. 4.7 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 7.8; W4.6; Th. 2.1; Wt. 147 Adze Complete, except for slight damage to blade and butt. Trapezoidal, slightly asymmetrical, with rectangular section, squared sides and slightly faceted blade. Originally polished all over, with most polish preserved. Basalt.

SF996 fig. 4.7 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 9.8; PK4.7; Th. 2.2; Wt. 160 Adze Complete, except for slight chipping on blade. Almost rectangular with sub-rectangular section, squared butt. Slight faceting on one side of blade. Originally polished all over, preserved over part of one surface and one side. Dolerite/basalt.

SF997 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s Z.7.1; W3.5j7i.L8; Wt.bo Adze Complete except for slight damage to butt and sides. Slightly trapezoidal. Sub-rectangular cross-section, with squared butt and faceted blade. Originally polished but now surviving in patches only. Semi- pelite.

SF998 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L.9.1; W4.5iTh. 2; Wt.i52 Axe Almost complete, with chipped blade, butt and one side. Trapezoidal (?). Sub-rectangular cross-section, with tapering butt and symmetrical blade. Polished,


preserved over most of surfaces. Serpentinite/mylonite (?).

SF999 F38 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 7.1; W4.3; Th. 2.1; Wt. 92 Axe Almost complete, with damage on one side and on butt. Symmetrical, with rounded butt and flared, doubly-faceted blade. Highly polished. Serpentinite (?).

SFIOOO F38 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 4.6; W3.6; Th. 1.4; W. 47 Axe Complete. Trapezoidal with rounded sides and squared butt. Symmetrical bevelled blade, resharpened. Well polished. Crush breccia (?).

SFlOOl FIG. 4.7, F38 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 7.2; W4.3; Th. 1.9; WÏ. go Adze Almost complete, damage along one side. Trapezoidal. Elliptical cross-section, rounded butt and faceted blade. Well polished. Use traces on blade. Basalt (?).

SFIOO2 PLATE 4. 5¿ Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s I.6.5; W3.9; 7k 2; W. 88 Axe Almost complete, with damaged butt and slight chipping on blade. Irregular shape, almost trapezoidal with asymmetrical elliptical cross-section. Polished, but with worn and abraded surfaces. Crush breccia (?)•

SF1003 F38 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 6.2; W4.1; Th. 1.1; W. 63 Adze Complete except for damage on one surface. Trapezoidal, almost triangular, with sub-rectangular cross-section; sharply tapering butt and faceted blade, highly sharpened. Lightly polished. Basalt (?).

SFIOO4 PLATE 4. 5¿ Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 8.1; W4.2; Th. 1.8; W. 97

Adze Almost complete, with damage at butt and blade. Elliptical cross-section. Pointed butt and damaged, flared, faceted blade (?). Polish traces. Metamorphic: semi-pelite.

SF1007 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s L. 9.1; W. 6.2; 7%. 2.6; Wt. 302 Axe Broken, missing end of butt. Rectangular with slightly rounded sides. Cross-section oval at haft, tapering to sub-rectangular at blade. Roughly made with unsmoothed cut marks on upper surface. Natural polish. Basalt (porphyritic).

SF1008 Zembil: Bridge W; Phase: u/s ¿.6.5; W5.5; Th. 2.8; Wt. 133 Axe Broken, with most of butt and blade missing. Complete profile possible. Approximately rectangular, oval cross-section. Highly polished all over. Basaltic (?).

SF1095 Zembil: 276; Phase: Three ¿.5; W.^Th. 1.5; M.85 Axe Unfinished blank fragment. Grinding marks visible; split, probably during working. Shiny surface, probably natural river polish.

SF1106 Zembil: 1 36 1 ; Phase: Two L. 11.2; W6.i' 7%. 3; Wt. 294 Axe Almost complete (?), with damaged blade and surfaces. Possibly unfinished. Triangular. Oval cross- section with slightly pointed butt. Ground and polished, possibly natural polish. Sides abraded.

SF1126 Zembil: 355; Phase: Seven L. 11.3; W5.8; Th. 2.8; Wt. 315 Axe/Adze Blank. Slightly trapezoidal with oval transverse section and sub-rectangular longitudinal section. Ground edge, blade and butt with pecking elsewhere. Some damage on blade edge. Polished, natural (?).

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE i57

Catalogue of the palettes L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face.

sf66 Zembil: 3 1 09; Phase: Six L. 14; W3.2; Th. 1.1 Fragment. Upper and lower surfaces concave; all edges broken.

SF234 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 9; Ws' Th.3 Incomplete, with two edges damaged. Small, roughly triangular shaped fragment with smooth, concave upper surface. Arenaceous sandstone.

SF65I FIG. 4.15 Zembil: 1255; Phase: One L. 11.2; PO.4; Th. 2.2 Fragment, dish (?). Upper surface concave; lower surface flat. Rounded edge, possibly worked.

SF893 FIG. 4.15 Zembil: 3017; Phase: Five L. 9.9; W3.5; Th. 0.4 Fragment, possibly rim. Smooth, concave upper surface; sub-triangular in cross-section. Argillaceous/ arenaceous siltstone/sandstone.

SF908 fig. 4.15 Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four L. 21.6; W. 19; Th. 2.7 Seven fragments (mended) to form hexagonal (?) shaped slab. Five edges remaining. Both upper and lower surfaces concave and utilized. Fine-grained sandstone with muscovite clasts.

SF920 FIG. 4.15 Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s L. 8.8; PK5.8; Th. 2.5 Fragment. Rim of dished stone palette. Chipped and broken. Surface smooth but unpolished. Chloritic schist or sandstone.

SF946 Zembil: 3740; Phase: Seven Fragment A: L. 6.7; PK5.7; Th. 1.2 Fragment B: L. 3.1; W. 2.9; Th. 1 Two fragments (A and B). Fragment A has ground edges. Both surfaces smoothed but crackled. Calcareous sandstone.

SFlOll FIG. 4.15 Zembil: 3129; Phase: Two L. 6.9; WT 7.2; Th. 0.7 Fragment. Originally square in shape, but only one corner remaining. Ground edge. Flat upper and lower surfaces, rectangular in cross-section. Upper surface smoothed. Calcareous mudstone.

SFIOI4 FIG. 4.15 Zembil: 3033; Phase: Three L. 3.8; W. 3.4; Th. 0.66 Two fragments, joined. Corner of thin slab with two, possibly three, ground edges. Upper, and possibly lower, surfaces also worked.

SFl 105 FIG. 4.15 Zembil: 2004; Phase: en u L. 8.8; W8.2; Th. 1 Fragment of irregular or trapezoidal slab. One very flat surface and two possibly ground edges. Natural (?).

4.2.7 Pounders (fig. 4.16, plate 4.8) Three facetted sub-spherical pounders were recorded which were all complete. Of these, two came from secure eba contexts: SF622, which was found in the fill of Phase Nine Pit i in Area G, had five flattened facets, all of which were stained an orange-red colour; SF327, found in Phase Ten Structure 1, had four flattened facets and its edges were abraded by use; SF94, found in the fill of a Phase Eleven pit, had only two slightly flattened facets. The form is characteristically ba in date and widely used in the lba, for example at Assiros Toumba, in central Macedonia, 1 2 were found in levels belonging to the lba, with a further 15 coming from eia or u/s levels (Assiros: Vol. I, the Early Iron Age, in preparation). 1 1 were registered from the 1959-69 excavations in the Citadel House Area at Mycenae (Mycenae Archive). They are also present at Kastanas, where 20 were recorded. Here they were often found in conjunction with querns, however, these come primarily from eia levels, with a concentration (13) from a Phase 12 yard (Hochstetter 1987, 55-6, taf. 13).


Catalogue of the pounders

Di - maximum diameter in cm.

SF94 FIG. 4.16, PLATE 4.8a Zembil: 196; Phase: Eleven Di. 6.4 Complete. Spherical with two small areas worn smooth. (Porphyritic) andésite.

SF327 FIG. 4.16, PLATE 4.8a Zembil: 1 7 1 2 ; Phase: Ten Di. 6

Complete. Approximately spherical with four

flattened facets and edges abraded through use. Veined quartz.

SF622 FIG. 4.16, PLATE 4.8a Zembil: 3406; Phase: Nine Di. S

Approximately spherical with five flattened facets. Metaquartzite.

SF1O22B FIG. 4.16 Zembil: 1 1 10; Phase: Two Di. 6.5; Ht 3.6 Plano-convex pebble with use traces on under surface and on part of edge. Associated with SF1022A.

Fig. 4.16. Stone pounders. SF94, Phase Eleven; SF327, Phase Ten; SF622, Phase Nine; SF1022B, Phase Two.


4.2.8 Polishers and Burnishers (fig. 4.17, plate 4.8, F48) Eight examples of utilized river pebbles were recorded at Servia. Six came from mn levels and two were found in later contexts but could also have originated in the mn period. All had an exceptionally high polish through repeated use. Three of this total are thought to have been used as an alternative to sand and water for finishing stone tools and have been termed 'polishers'. The remaining five examples had wear marks and could have served as pottery burnishers.

One polisher (SF715), a narrow, shiny river pebble, was found in the debris of Phase Four Structure 7. Also from Phase Four, SF673 came from a post-hole in Structure 3, whilst the third (SF206) was found where the fill of a Phase Eight ditch had been cut by a Phase Eleven pit.

Four of the five burnishers were complete. Two were found inside structures: SF343 in Phase Three Structure 1 and SF819 in Phase Four Structure 7. SF211 came from the w wall of Phase Three Structure 3. One (SF501) was found in a Phase Four yard, whilst SF207 was found in the same context as SF206 above.

Fig. 4.17. Stone polishers (sF2o6, Phase Eight/Eleven; SF715, Phase Four) and burnishers (SF207, Phase Eight/Eleven; SF211, Phase Three; SF343, Phase Three; SF501, Phase Four; SF819, Phase

Four). 1:2.


Plate 4.8. (a) stone tools. From left, top: burnisher SF207, Phase Eight/Eleven; burnisher SF501, Phase Four; polisher SF715, Phase Four; bottom: polisher SF673, Phase Four; ornament blank (?), SF149, Phase Seven; burnisher SF343, Phase Three; (b) A selection of spherical stone pounders.


Catalogue of the polishers and burnishers

L. = maximum length in cm; W - maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g.

SF206 FIG. 4.17 Zembil: 41 7; Phase: Eight/Eleven I.7.5; W1.9; Th. 1.1; Wt. 28 Polisher Complete. Plano-convex in cross-section. Smoothed at one end. Non-porphyroblastic quartzo/feldspathic chlorite schist.

SF207 FIG. 4.17, PLATE 4.8#, F48 Zembil: 417; Phase: Eight/Eleven L. 5.1; PK1.9; Th. 1.2; Wt.2% Burnisher Complete. Approximately triangular in shape with two flat sides and one rounded side. Blunted point at one end. Worked edges. Highly polished. Altered basic igneous rock.

SF211 FIG. 4.17 Zembil: 419; Phase: Three L. 4.3; PK2.3; Th. 2; Wt. 29 Burnisher Smooth with flattened top and bottom. Oval in section. Slightly rounded sides. Worn patch on one side. Meta- (allochemical) limestone.

SF343 FIG. 4.17, PLATE 4. 80, F48 Zembil: 1337; Phase: Three L. 7.2; W. 2.1; Th. 1.2; Wt. 43

Burnisher Complete. Facetted upper surface and wear marks. Metacarbonate .

SF5OI FIG. 4.17, PLATE 4.8£, F48 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four L. 3.9; W.2' Th. 0.6; Wt. 14 Burnisher Complete. Thin and fairly flat. Highly polished, through use (?). Antigorite, lamellar serpentinite.

SF673 PLATE 4.8Ô, F48 Zembil: 303 1 ; Phase: Four Z.4.1; W1.5; Th. 1; Wt. 14 Polisher Complete. Slightly facetted at ends, wear traces along edges. Polished. Metacarbonate.

SF715 FIG. 4.17, PLATE 4.8Ô, F48 Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four L. 4.5; W 1.8; Th. 1.4; Wt. 14 Polisher Complete. Narrow elongated shape. Basaltic.

SF819 FIG. 4.17 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four L. 6; W2.7; 7%. 1.7; PR 46 Burnisher Almost complete, damaged at one end. Smooth, oval. Wear marks near chipped end. Polished though use. Microcrystalline carbonate.

4.2.9 Waisted Weights (figs. 4.18-19, plate 4.9, F49) Waisted weights, which are a distinctive feature of the Servia assemblage, are oval river pebbles which have a narrow elliptical section and have been notched on either side. Of the total of 97 registered, nearly a quarter of the stone small finds, two only (SF672, SF1122) have a flattened elliptical section. The majority were 100% complete, with only four (SF50, SF142, SF506 and SF1092) being 70% or less. A small number (SF77, SF614, SF1021 and SF1122) appeared to be unfinished. Three (SF50, SF210, SF245) had suffered damage to their surfaces, which may be indicative of extensive wear or use. One (SF142) was broken longitudinally and another (SF765) was broken on one side only. A wide range of stone types were represented within this assemblage and this is likely to reflect the range of river pebbles present in the nearby River Haliakmon rather than a deliberate searching out of particular materials.

Many of these weights are remarkably uniform in size and in weight Typically they measure 8 x 7 cm and are c. 2 cm thick. Of the 90 more or less complete examples, half weighed between 85 and 115 g as can be seen from fig. 4.18. Examples of this size fit

i62 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

WAISTED WEIGHTS 250 -i 1

200 ¿>

v «>♦♦

I 150 ■4>-

& -♦****

£ ^-ym" ******

i ***** 50

*

0 J

Each symbol represents a single waisted weight: 90 plotted

Fig. 4.18. The distribution of the various weights of the waisted weights.

snugly in the hand and were presumably selected for a specific (though uncertain) function, while the very large (SF743, 241 g, from an unstratified context) or smaller examples (e.g. SF632, 61 g, from a mixed mn/ln context) may simply have used the same principle of notching river pebbles for a different purpose.

Weights of this kind have been noted occasionally at other sites such as Rachmani where one was suggested to be a figurine (Wace and Thompson 1912, 41, fig. 27h), but the numbers at Servia are exceptional, perhaps because the proximity of the river bed provided a ready source of suitable pebbles. No examples were reported by Tsountas, nor are any recorded from Nea Nikomedeia. Further afield they are well represented at Makrygialos (Pappa pers. comm.), Saliagos in the Cyclades (Evans and Renfrew 1968, 88, fig. 87, pl. 61:9-20) and Poliochni on Lemnos (Bernabò Brea 1964, tav. 188:11, 13, 14).

The uniform appearance and notching suggests the intention of securely attaching rope or some form of twine around the stone for a standard function. The twine must have been coarse in texture, as a finely textured twine would wear through relatively quickly against the weights' crude notching. This rules out their use as weights for weaving, and in any case that practice is already well-provided for by clay weaving equipment (see 4.3.2-10). One possibility is that the weights were used as fishing net-sinkers in the adjacent river, which could provide a ready source of suitable pebbles. (In recent years, before the creation


of the lake, the river was regularly fished by the inhabitants of Neraïda by means of a net carried by a line of men across the river.) Presumably weights of some type were used to hold the net, especially in view of the rocky nature of the Haliakmon river bed. The concentration of weights within structures as in Phase Two, Structure 2, Phase Three, Structure 3 and Phase Four, Structure 2, could also imply an indoor function. However, the safe storage of fishing nets and the accompanying weights, which were probably quite labour-intensive to produce and therefore valuable, would provide an equally feasible explanation for this concentration. Whatever their function, one cannot tell whether they were separate weights or attached to a net or some other item, since the rope which would have been attached around these notches was destroyed in one of the successive fires or decayed naturally. Heurtley's suggestion that the waisted weights 'were in fact a kind of axe' (1939, 64) does not seem helpful.

The main period of their use was the mn when they were commonly found within structures. In contrast, after the mn, the weights were found in use as packing material for walls and post-holes, as material for oven and yard surfaces or as discarded items within the fills of pits. Only five weights were found within structures and even these may have been residual rather than objects in primary use.

A single weight (SF1021) was recorded from ploughsoil at Servia-Varytimides. In contrast, 42 were recovered from the mn, 18 from the ln and 1 1 from the eba. 1 1 were found in the backfill of Phase Eleven pits and 1 5 were unstratified. Heurtley records the discovery of another 45 examples in the lowest stratum and reports them 'used' as late as the eba (1939, 64), but gives no information about contexts.

Of the mn weights, the sole Phase One example (SF410) was found on the clay floor of Structure 1. The Phase Two weights were divided spatially into two distinct concentrations; one represented by four weights (SF205, SF381, SF380, SF393) which were found on the floor of Structure 2, and the second by five weights which were found within the immediate vicinity of Structure 3. Of these, three weights were from the yards to the E (SF799, sf8oi) and s (SF846) of Structure 3; one weight was found on the floor of Structure 3 (SF307) and one was recovered from its debris (SF746).

Five (SF174, SF175, SF209, SF21O and SF243) of the six weights from Phase Three were found inside Structure 3; SF742 was recovered from the collapsed debris of Structure 4. A much larger total of twenty-four weights was found in Phase Four. Two weights were recovered from the debris of Structure 1 (SF286 and SF284) and six were found within Structure 2 (SF137, SF140, SF142, SF369, SF370 and SF1120). Of these, two (SF369 and SF370) had been incorporated into an oven floor. Three weights were found on the floor of Structure 3 (SF672, SF695 an<^ SF697)> anc^ two within the debris which sealed the floor (SF662 and SF665). One weight was recovered from the w wall of Structure 6 (SF418) and a further two were recovered from Structure 7, one from the s wall (sf886) and one from the structural debris (sf8oo). The remaining six weights were recovered from a pit in F20/B (SF687), a pebble-strewn burnt area which sealed the pit (sf666), a yard surface over the debris of Structure 1 (SF502 and SF506) and from sections excavated during the road construction (sf6oo and SF605). Two weights were recovered from Phase Five, one from the floor of Structure 1 (SF411) and one from a floor in F20/C (SF150).

The four weights from Phase Six were recovered from the fill of two pits, one located in F20/B (SF765) and one in F30/A (SF264, SF268 and SF269). No obvious concentrations were apparent in Phase Seven. The foureen weights were instead scattered across the settlement, incorporated within post-holes (SF132 and SF141), walls (SF240), debris (SF396),

1 64 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

on yard surfaces (SF797 and SF798), within a soil build-up over Fio/D (SF614), from the road section (SF609 and SF885), and from F30/A (SF510).

Three weights were recovered from the fills of Phase Eight ditches (SF398, SF607 and SF905). Three of the Phase Nine weights were clustered in Structure 1 (SF326, SF344, SF617), while one (SF1092) was recovered from the fill of Pit i in Area G. Four weights recovered from Phase Ten appeared to be isolated finds, from a yard in Area G (SF302), a post-hole for the southern wall of Structure 1 (SF58), the floor of Structure 3 (SF77) and from Structure 1 in F30/A (SF320).

SF268 SF175 SF21O ^

SF269 SF302 SF326

M) ^4 10 äf 7 fr SF381 SF396

Fig. 4.19. 'Waisted Weights': SF175, Phase Three; SF210, Phase Three; SF268, Phase Six; SF269, Phase Six; SF302, Phase Ten; SF326, Phase Nine; SF381, Phase Two; SF396, Phase Seven. 1:2.


Catalogue of the waisted weights

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. - thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF44 Zembil: 306; Phase: Eleven L. 7.6; PK7; Th. 2.1; W. of waist 6.1; Wt. 178 Complete. Conglomeratic. Clastic - poorly sorted carbonate clasts including coral fragments.

SF50 Zembil. 306; Phase: Eleven L. 6.9; W6.3; Th. 1.6; W. of waist 4.5 70% present; large part of surface missing. Crypto crystalline marble/metacarbonate.

SF53 Zembil: 301; Phase: Nine/Ten/ Ele ven L. 8.4; W6.7; Th. 1.9; W. of waist 5.2; m. 68 Complete. Clastic - poorly sorted carbonate clasts including coral fragments.

SF58 Zembil: 8 1 ; Phase: Ten Z.7.7; W7.7; Th. 2.8; Wt. 215 Complete. Slightly waisted. (Meta-) allochemical carbonate.

SF77 Zembil: 154; PA¿zj¿: Ten W8.5; 7%. 1.6; W*. 196 Complete. Unfinished (?); one notch only. Dolerite.

SF95 Zembil: 76; Phase: u/s L. 6.7; W6; Th. 1.9; W of waist 5.2; Wt. 109 Complete. Cryptocry stalline marble/metacarbonate.

SF117 Zembil: 3 1 2 ; /%u$¿: Eleven ¿. 8.2; W4.7; Th. 1.3; W. of waist 3.7; PR 73 Complete. Chipped. Metacarbonate.

SF128 Zembil: 315; /%oí¿: Nine/Ten/Eleven Z,. 7.7; W6.i' Th. 1.4; PK. 0/ waist 5. 3; W¿. 114 98% present; chipped. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF130 Zembil: 48; PA¿zj¿: Eight/Eleven L. 8; W3.6; TÃ. 1.7; W. 84 Complete. Finely laminated crystalline carbonate/ metacarbonate.

SF132 Zembil: 329; Phase: Seven L. 7.6; W6.3; 7%. 1.8; W. 0/

~ waist 5.3; M. 112 Complete. Meta- (crypto ?) crystalline carbonate/ marble.

SF134 Zembil: 323; PA¿w¿: Eleven L. 9.9; W6.2; TÄ. 1.8; W. of waist 5.4; M. 157 Complete. Medium grained arkosic (or lithic sandstone) (with carbonaceous cement and/or clasts ?).

SF137 Zembil: 331; Phase: Four L. 5.4; W5.3; 7%. 2.2; Wt. 97 Complete. Micro- (cryptojcrystalline carbonate.

SF138 Zembil: 330; PAö^: Eleven L. 7.1; W6; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 5.2; M. 89 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF140 Zembil: 332; PAo5¿: Four Z, 6.6; W5.5; 7%. 1.9; îy: of waist 4.5; PR 89 Complete. Micro- (crypto) crystalline carbonate.

SF141 Zembil: 329; Phase: Seven ¿. 7; W5.4; 7%. 2.1; W 0/ 'waist 4.5; M. 105 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate (?) metacarbonate.

SF142 Zembil: 404; Päöm: Four L. 7.7; ̂ 5.6; PK 0/ waist 4.7 50% present; broken longitudinally. Dark carbonate (marble).

SF150 Zembil: 326; PAûm: Five L. 8; W6; 7%. 1.9; W of waist 5.4; WÍ/131 Complete. Clastic- ('marble' clasts) terrigenous.

SF174 Zembil: 336; Phase: Three ¿. 7.1; W5.2; 7%. 1.2; W of waist 3.9; M. 68 Complete. Allochemical carbonate.

SF175 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 336; /te^: Three L. 7.1; PK7; 7%. 0.9; W. of waist 5.8; Wt. 112 Complete. Quartz (?) microgranodiorite (with mica ?).

i66 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Plate 4.9. Waisted weights: (a) sf6oo, Phase Four; (b) SF605, Phase Four; (e) SF607, Phase Eight.


SF205 Zembil: 341; Phase: Two L. 7.3; Ptf 6.4; Th. 1.8; W. of waist 4.9; PR 107 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF209 Zembil: 420; PAom: Three ¿. 8.9; W6.3; Th. 1.1; PK of waist 4.9; Wt. 92 Complete. Sandstone (?).

SF21O FIG. 4.19 Z¿m¿i7: 418; Phase: Three £• 7-5; W5.9; W of waist 4.1 90% present; part of surface missing. Marble/ metacarbonate.

SF224 Zembil: F20/A; Pto: u/s ¿. 6.7; W5.4; 7%. 1.6; W. of waist 4.3; PR. 95 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF240 Zembil: 1301; PAtfj¿: Seven L. 7.5; ̂ 5.9; 7%. 2.2; W. of waist 4.7; PR. 141 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate (meta)- carbonate.

SF243 Zembil: 1115; PA#5¿: Three L. 6.3; Pii 5; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 3.7; PR. 74 98% present; slightly broken at waist. Crystalline marble.

SF245 Zembil: F20/B, d/b; PAöm: u/s Z. 7.2; PJÍ6.2; 7%. 1.6; W. of waist 5; PR. 102 85% present; surface damaged. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/marble metacarbonate.

SF264 Zembil: 1306; Phase: Six Z, 8.1; Pf/7.1; 7Ä. 1.7; Py: of waist 6.7; PW. 153 Complete. Clastic- (carbonate clasts) conglomeratic.

SF268 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 1307; Z%oj¿: Six L. 6.4; W5; 7%. 1.5; W. of waist 4.2; PR. 85 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/marble metacarbonate.

SF269 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 1307; Phase: Six L. 6.1; PK4.9; 7%. 1.6; W. of waist 3.9; PR. 74 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/marble metacarbonate.

SF270 Zembil: 1 3 1 1 ; Päö^: u/s L. 6.8; PK5.9; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 4.8; PR 102 Complete (?). Clastic - carbonate clasts, conglomerate.

SF284 Zembil: 1318; Phase: Four Z, 5.5; PK5; TÃ. 1.5; PK of waist 4.5; Wt. 64 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF286 Zembil: 1314; Paoj^: Four I. 6.8; W 5.2; TÄ. 1.8; PK of waist 4.6] Wt. 100 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF302 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 1437; /%&$£: Ten Z. 6.7; PK4.8; TÄ. 1.8; PK 0/ waist 3.9; PR. 83 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate.

SF307 Zembil: 1114; Phase: Two ¿. 8.2; PK6; Th. 0.9; W o/^w/4.6; PR. 108 Complete. Allochemical limestone.

SF320 Zembil: 1718; Phase: Ten L. 7; PK5.8; TÄ. 1.8; PK of waist 4.8; PR. 117 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonate (microcrystalline carbonate/marble with some indistinct relict features).

SF326 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 1468; Phase: Nine L. 9; W6.1; 7%. 1.7; W. of waists Wt. 146 98% present; chipped. Metacarbonate/very fine- grained crystalline carbonate/marble.

SF344 Zembil: 1472; Phase: Nine L. 8.1; W6.5; m 2.1; PK of waist 5.8; Wt. 166 Complete. Sparry allochemical limestone.

SF369 Zembil: 1200; /%#$£: Four L. 7.7; PK6.1; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 4.6; PR 112 Complete. Coarse clastic ('marble' clasts) terrigenous rock.

SF370 Zembil: 1200; Phase: Four L. 8; PK6.1; 77L 1.1; Pf. of waist 4.4; PR. 94 Complete. Fine grained quartzo (feldspathic)/chlorite- (muscovite) schist.


SF380 Zembil: 1204; Phase: Two L. 7.2; WÍ5.7; Th. 1.7; W. of waist?,; Wt. 105 Complete. Coarse clastic ('marble' clasts) terrigenous.

SF381 fig. 4.19 Zembil. 1204; Phase: Two L. 6; W5.3; TA. 1.6; W. of waist 4.6; PR 79 Almost complete; 98% present. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF393 Zembil: 1205; Phase: Two L. 6.6; W5.8; 7%. 1.9; W 0/ waist 4.1; PR 100 Complete. Clastic (fine 'marble' clasts) terrigenous.

SF396 FIG. 4.19 Zembil: 2102; Phase: Seven L. 7; PK5.5; TA. 1.7; PK of waist 4.5; Wt. 113 Complete. Dark crystalline carbonate/marble. Metacarbonate.

SF398 Zembil: 2100; Phase: Eight £• 9-3; W7.4; ^ ^i W ofwaist6.%' Wt. 199 Complete river pebble. Arkosic sandstone (with accessory musco vite).

SF410 Zembil: 1210; Phase: One ¿. 6.1; W5.7; Th. i.i'W. of waist 4.9; PR 84 Complete. Non-porphyritic basalt.

SF411 Zembil: 1155; PA¿w¿: Five L. 7.9; W6; 7%. 1.9; W. of waist 5.2; PR 103 Complete. Sandstone with calcareous cement.

SF417 Zembil: 1250; PAöj^: u/s ¿. 6.9; PK5.7; 7%. 1.3; W. of waist 4.7; Wt. 90 Complete. Andésite (?).

SF418 Zembil: 2123; Phase: Four L. 9.5; W7; 7%. 1.5; PK 0/ waist 5.7; M. 162 Complete. (Microgranite ?) sandstone (?).

SF473 Zembil: 2124; PA&œ: Five/Seven Z. 9; W.r, Th. 1.7; PK of waist 5.3; Wf. 155 Complete. Clastic (carbonate clasts) conglomeratic.

SF474 Zembil: 2124; PAûî^: Five/Seven L. 8.8; W6; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 4.6; Pfif. 112

Complete. Quartzo/(feldspathic)-biotite, chlorite- schist.

SF475 Zembil: 2124; Pääj^: Five/Seven L. 8; W5.5; 7%. 2; W. of waist 4.6; W?. 129 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonates.

SF502 Zembil: 1336; /%¿z$¿: Four Z. 8.8; W5.9; TÄ. 1.2; FT. of waist 4.7; PW. 98 Complete. Quartzo (feldspathic ?) musco vite-biotite schist, non-porphyroblastic.

SF503 Zembil: 1 6 1 1 ; PAö5^: Four/Five/Seven L. 7.5; WT6; 7%. 2.3; W. of waist 4.5; PR 134 Complete. Meta-cryptocrystalline carbonate/marble.

SF506 Zembil: 1327; i%<25^: Four L. 5.8; W6; TÄ. 5.2; W. of waist 3.6; W?. 50 60% present; broken. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF510 Zembil: 1727; PÄö5e: Seven L. 7.3; WT6; 7%. 1.6; W. of waist 5. 9; PR 121 98% present; chipped. Clastic (carbonate clasts) conglomeratic.

SF511 Zembil: 1609; Phase: Four/Five/Seven L. 8; W6.7; Th. 1.8; W of waist 5.5; M. 140 90% present; broken. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

sf6oo plate 4.9a Zembil: 3206; Phase: Four Z. 6.6; W5.4; Th. 1.6; W. of waist 4.5-, Wt. 95 Complete. Cryptocrystalline marble, veined/ metacarbonate.

SF605 PLATE 4. 9¿ Zembil: 3207; Phase: Four ¿. 6.4; PK5.6; Th. 2; W of waist 4.7; Wt. 116 Complete. (Micro) crystalline marble and impurities.

SF607 PLATE 4. 9¿ Zembil: 3208; PA&stf: Eight L. 7; W5.6; TÃ. 1.3; PK of waist 4.3; M. 74 95% present; chipped. Finely laminated cryptocrystalline carbonate with white (calcite ?) vein.

SF609 Zembil: 3201; Phase: Seven L. 8.8; P^5-7; Th. 1.7; W. of waist 4.2; PW. 132 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.


SF614 Zembil: 3001; Phase: Seven L. 6.1; W4.4; Th. 1.5; W. of waist 3.8 90% present; broken along one side. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/marble/metacarbonate.

SF617 Zembil: 3403; Phase: Nine L. 6.7; W. 5.2; 7%. 1.3; PK of waist 4.6', Wt. 92 Complete. Coarse clastic with 85% carbonate clasts, conglomeratic.

SF632 Zembil: 3201; Phase: Five/Seven L. 5.7; W.$' Th. 1.3; W. of waist 4; PR 61 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF662 Zembil: 3104; Z%¿«¿: Four Z,. 7; W6.5; 7%. 0.6; PK 0/ waist 5.3; PR 99 Complete. Medium grained sandstone.

SF665 Zembil: 3104; PAizm: Four L. 6.8; W5.9; Th. 1.6; PK of waist 4.8; Wt. 103 Complete. Marble with banding/metacarbonate.

SF666 Zembil: 3103; PA¿Z5¿: Four L. 8; W7.2; 7%. 1.2; W. of waist 4.9; PR. 164 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF672 Zembil: 3107; PAoj¿: Four Z,. 6.1; PfT 5.3; 7%. 1.1; W. of waist 4.5; PR. 70 Complete. Flattened elliptical section. Non- porphyritic basalt.

SF687 Zembil: 3108; Phase: Four Z,. 6.7; PK4.8; 7%. 1.4; PK 0/^^4.4; PR 78 Complete. Fine grained micaceous sandstone with calcareous component.

SF695 Zembil: 3107; Phase: Four L. 8.3; W5.5; 7%. 1.5; W. ofwaist3.9; Wt. 114 Complete. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF696 Zembil: E10/D; Pto^: u/s Z,. 6.1; P1^5-3; 7%. 1.2; W. of waist 4.1; PR. 75 Complete. Fine grained, calcareous sandstone.

SF697 Zembil: 3107; Phase: Four

L. 6.4; PK5.5; Th. 0.6; PK of waist 4.^ Wt. 63 Complete. Sandstone with calcareous component.

SF741 Zembil: 3707; PA¿w¿: Eleven L. 8.2; W5.5; 7%. 2.1; W. of waist 4.6', Wt. 146 Complete. Very fine grained crystalline carbonate or cryptocrystalline/metacarbonate.

SF742 Zembil: 3036; Phase: Three L. 7.5; PK6; Th. 1.5; PK of waist 4.8; Wt. 112 95% present; one end chipped. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF743 Zembil: 3710; /%&œ: u/s L. 8.8; PK6.7; 7Ä. 3; PK of waist 5.1; Wt. 242 Complete. Non-porphyritic basalt.

SF745 Zembil: 3710; Päö5^: u/s L. 8; P^7; 7Ä. 2; W. of waist 6; PR. 121 98% present. Fine grained crystalline carbonate/ metacarbonate.

SF746 Zembil: 3118; Phase: Two Z,. 7; PK6.5; Th. 0.9; PK. of waist 5.2', Wt. 102 Complete. Non-porphyritic basalt.

SF765 Zembil: 3110; /%&$£: Six Z,. 7.1; P^5-3; 7Ä. 0.9; PK of waist 4.5 85% present; broken along one edge. Meta- cry stalline carbonate/marble.

SF797 Zembil: 3730; Phase: Seven L. 7.3; W. 4.y' Th. 2; W. of waist 4.3; PR 109 Complete. Meta-allochemical carbonate.

SF798 Zembil: 3731; Phase: Seven L. 7.6; PK6.3; 7%. 1.8; Pf. of waist 5. i- Wt. 111 Complete; smooth. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/ marble. Metacarbonate.

SF799 Zembil: 3126; PAû^: Two Z,. 7.1; PK5.7; Th. 1.8; PK of waist 4.6; Wt. 91 Complete. Metasandstone (metaorthoquartzite ?).

sf8oo Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four L. 6.1; PK4.3; 7%. 1.2; W. of waist 3.8; PR 54 Complete. Cryptocrystalline carbonate.

1 7O JILL CARINGTON SMITH

sf8oi Zembil: 3126; Phase: Two L. 7.5; W5.6; Th. 1.5; W. of waists Wt. 93 Complete. Metacarbonate/cryptocrystalline carbonate.

SF846 Zembil 3067; Phase: Two ¿. 7.9; W5.3; ^- 1.4; W of waist 4.5; Wt. 88 95% present; chipped at both ends. Cryptocrystalline carbonate/metacarbonate.

SF885 Zembil: 3210; Phase: Seven L. 7.8; W6.4; 7%. 1.4; W. of waist 5.5; M. 118 Complete. Hard arkosic sandstone with some muscovite flakes.

sf886 Zembil: 3345; Phase: Four ¿. 7-5i W5.7; 7Ä. 2; W 0/ waist 4.5; W. 98 Complete. Marble clastic - terrigenous.

SF897 Zembil: 369; /%uí¿: Eleven ¿. 7.8; PK6.5; TA. 1.2; W of waist 4; M. 96 Complete. Fine grained, well sorted (lithic) sandstone, including calcareous cement and/or clasts.

SF905 Zembil: 222; Phase: Eight L 5.8; W5; Th. 1.5; W of waist 4.6; Wt. 66 Complete. Cryptocrystalline limestone/metacarbonate.

SF913 Zembil: Area D; /%ûj^: u/s Z,. 6.8; PK4.4; 7%. 2; W of waist $.g; Wt. 94 Complete. Sparry allochemical carbonate.

SF986 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 9.5; W7.3; 7%. 2; W. of waist 6.3; Mft 188 90% present. Marble.

SF987 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 7.3; WT6.3; 7%. 1.3; W. of waist 5.2; M. 101 Complete. Picrite (?).

SF988 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 6.6; W6.5; 7%. 1.9; W. of waist 5.2; W. 106 Complete. (Meta) allochemical limestone.

SF989 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 8.5; W6.8; 7%. 1.2; W. of waist 5.5; Wt. 111 Complete. Calcareous sandstone.

SF1021 Zembil: Ploughsoil, en; Phase: u/s Z, 7.4; W6.4; Th. 2.4; W of waist 5.4; Wt. 156 Complete. Unfinished (?). Metacarbonate. Allo- chemical cryptocrystalline.

SF1092 Zembil: - ; Phase: Nine L. 5.8; W4; 7%. 1.2; Wt. 38 25% present; damaged fragment.

SF1120 Zembil: - ; Phase: Four Z,. 6.6; W6.4; Th. 2.2; JK of waist 5.3; Wt. 125 Complete. Metacarbonate allochemical.

SF1121 Zembil: - ; Phase: Eleven L. 7; W6; Th. 2; W. of waist 5.8; PR 125 Complete (?). Working unfinished. Metacarbonate/ cryptocrystalline (?).

SF1122 Zembil: - ; Phase: Eight/ Eleven L. 8; W7.5; Th. 2; PK of waist 6.7; Wf. 188 Complete. Unfinished (?). Flattened elliptical section. Metacarbonate.


4.2.10 Fragments of Stone Vases (fig. 4.20, plate 4.11, F50, 52) Three fragments of stone vases were found at Servia-Varytimides. SF772 is a body sherd from a marble bowl while SF820 may have been part of a bowl or a mortar. Its form was open and rounded, with a flattened base and it had been ground and pecked, but not polished. SF979 is from quite a large vessel.

Three fragments which seem to be polypod vase legs, though we know of no exact parallels in stone, were found on the main site. An almost complete example (SF943), which was found in debris of Phase Six or Seven, may have had a secondary use as a pestle. This is suggested by signs of battering and wear on the tip. Another (SF778) was recovered from the fill of a Phase Eight ditch. A conical fragment of stone (SF242), included here because of its shape, which had traces of wear and polish on one side may rather have been made as a pestle. It was found within a Phase Seven habitation deposit which extended over F30/A. All these might also be small examples of cylindrical tools (4.2.3).

Stone vases, though always rare, are present in en deposits as at Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994, 116; Rodden and Wardle forthcoming where 3 were found, Achilleion, Nea Makri, Sesklo and other sites in mainland Greece (Devetzi 1996, 135, 286-8). The majority of finds are only fragments and it is difficult to suggest the original shapes manufactured with considerable expenditure of time and effort, although some could be remarkably complex (Devetzi 1996, 288 no. 175 from Kouphovouno). Heurtley found a ring foot from his 'en' (= mn) Stratum (1939, 65) and two marble lids, of which one had a central knob and three perforations, from his 'ln' Stratum (1939, 78, fig. 34k) though an eba date is also possible.

Plate 4.10. Stone vase fragments: (a) SF979, Phase en; (b) SF820, Phase en


SF82O ^ ts^^v^"^ SF979

SF772 ' II SF943 ' f SF778

Fig. 4.20. Stone vase fragments. SF820, Phase en; SF979, Phase en; SF772, Phase en; SF778, Phase Eight; SF943, Phase Six/Seven. 1:2

Catalogue of the vase fragments

L. - maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Di. = maximum diameter; Th. - thickness from face to face; Est. Di. = estimated diameter.

SF242 Zembil: 1305; Phase: Seven Ht. 3.6; Di. 2.8 Polypod leg (?) Conical. Worn surface, with small patch of polish remaining on one side. Basalt.

SF772 FIG. 4.2O Zembil: 3645; Phase: en L. 3; W. 2.2; Ht. 0.6; Est. Di. 13 Bowl. Incomplete. Body sherd. Marble/metacarbonate. C.f. SF979

SF778 FIG. 4.2O, PLATE 4.1 od, F5 2 Zembil: 3702; Phase: Eight Ht. 4; Di. 2.1 Polypod leg

Conical. Microsyenite/intermediate igneous (?). SF82O FIG. 4.20, PLATE 4.10a Zembil: 3642; Phase: en Ht. 11; Th. 2.6; Di. 9.6 Bowl/Mortar Fragment, possibly 25%. Open, rounded shape with flattened base, ground and pecked surface. (Meta) sparry allochemical limestone.

SF943 FIG. 4.2O, PLATE 4. IOC, F52 Zembil: 3701 ; Phase: Six/Seven L. 4.7; Di. 2.6 Polypod leg Conical with oval cross-section. Battered at foot. Non- porphyritic andésite.

SF979 FIG. 4.2O, PLATE 4. 'ob, F50 Zembil: 3636; Phase: en Ht. 5; L. 8; W7; Th. 1.3; Di. 12 Bowl Incomplete, fragment only. Body sherd. Meta- carbonate.


4.2.11 Ornaments (figs. 4.21-4.23, plate 4.11, F74-75) A total of 47 ornaments, worked from marble, malachite and other attractive stones, were recorded. Three main types can be identified: beads (27), bracelets (3) and pendants (6), as well as another 1 1 items which may be ornaments or are 'blanks' selected for further working. No examples of the stone 'studs' or 'nose plugs' frequent at en Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994, 1 1 1-12, fig. 37) were found at Servia.

Beads (fig. 4.21, plate 4.11, F74) A total of 27 stone beads was found, including four examples of marble and one of a bright turquoise stone, possibly malachite. Most were tiny, often less than 1 .0 cm across. It was usually difficult to determine readily whether they were made of stone or shell and indeed the same types were made without distinction in either material. All, with the exception of SF856, were complete. One more or less spherical bead (SF488) was probably unfinished. The flattened ends were slightly hollowed where drilling had just started.

Three beads of the total were tubular, two cylindrical and one (unfinished) spherical. The remainder were disks, including one quite large example (SF298). Beads have been classified as tubular where the length is greater than the diameter. Those where the thickness and diameter are approximately equal may be cylindrical or spherical, while those where the thickness is substantially less than the diameter are defined as disks. Regardless of material, the cylindrical and tubular beads were pierced axially, whilst the disk beads were pierced centrally. Three beads (SF513, SF500 and SF856) had a polished surface and two (SF490 and SF491) had manufacturing marks on their outer edge. Colours for the beads included black, dark grey with white marbling, red with darker veining and yellow-brown. The marble beads were white, and the malachite bead was turquoise with a white core. The average dimensions for this assemblage were a bead diameter of 1.03 cm, a hole diameter of 0.34 cm and a length of 0.64 cm.

Only one bead was recovered from the en settlement (SF856), and none were recovered from Phases One, Two or Three. In contrast, a total of 1 2 were found in Phase Four. One tubular example (SF751 marble) was recovered from the debris of Structure 7, whilst the remaining 1 1 were found in the debris of Structure 1 (SF259 marble) or were recovered from the yard surface which covered that debris (SF489-492, SF494-499). It is possible that these beads may originally have formed one necklace.

The only bead recorded for the ln was from a mixed mn/ln context (SF500). Eight (SF527 marble, sf86, SF318, SF341, SF512, SF513, SF517, SF519) were recovered from the fills of Phase Eight ditches and one (SF515) from the fill of Phase Nine Pit i in Area G. Two beads from Phase Ten were recovered from the floor of Structure 3 and the structural collapse which covered F20/A (SF298 and SF488 respectively).

Stone beads of these types are frequent at many sites but perhaps often under-represented unless the deposits have been systematically sieved (4.5). The hemispherical bead with double perforation near one edge characteristic of en Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994, 122) is not present either at Servia-Varytimides or the main site.


Catalogue of the beads

L. = maximum length in cm; Th. = thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter

sf86 Zembil: 215; Phase: Eight Th. 0.15; Di. 0.35; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced from both sides, reground. Red veined stone.

SF259 fig. 4.21 Zembil: 1318; Phase: Your L. 1.11; Di. 0.65; Di. of perforation 0.3 Complete. Tubular, pierced axially, tapered ends. Marble/metacarbonate .

SF298 fig. 4.21, F74 Zembil: 1435; Phase: Ten Th. 0.3; Di. 1.6; Di. of perforation 0.15 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally. Metacarbonate/ marble.

SF318 fig. 4.21 Zembil: 1461; Phase: Eight Th. 0.25; Di. 0.55; Di. of perforation 0.4 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF341 Zembil: 1469; Phase: Eight Th. 0.2; Di. 0.9; Z)í. of perforation 0.3 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF488 fig. 4.21 Zœmbil: F20A; Phase: Ten Z)i.i.5 Complete, unfinished (?). Flattened spherical, piercing not begun.

SF489 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four Th. 0.2; 2)i. 0.44; 2)î. of perforation 0.2 Complete except for damage to one edge. Disk, pierced centrally, polished.

SF490 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four 7%. 0.25; Di. 0.46; 2)i. of perforation 0.2 Complete but possibly unfinished. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF491 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four 7%. 0.21; Di. 0.5; Z)î. of perforation 0.25 Complete except for slight damage to one edge and

perforation. Disk, pierced centrally. 'Grooved' edges, possibly through manufacture.

SF492 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four Th. 0.27; Di. 0.45; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF494 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four 7%. 0.17; Di. 0.42; 2)í. of perforation 0.14 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF495 Zembil: 1336; /%&œ: Four Th. 0.15; 2)i. 0.45; Z>*. of perforation 0.15 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF496 Zembil: 1336; /%&œ: Four Th. 0.27; 2)i. 0.49; 2)i. of perforation 0.23 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF497 Zembil: 1336; /%&œ: Four 7%. 0.17; 2)i. 0.47; 2)i. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF498 Zembil: 1336; PA&œ: Four 7%. 0.2; 2X 0.48; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF499 FIG. 4.21 Zembil: 1 3 2 7 ; /%¿w¿: Four 7%. 1.1; Di. 0.31; Di. of perforation 1.1 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF5OO FIG. 4.21 Zembil: 1615; PA&œ: Four/ Five/ Seven 7%. 1.1; Di. 4; 2)f. of perforation 1.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally, polished.

SF512 FIG. 4.21 Zembil: 228; Phase: Eight 7%. 0.22; Di. 0.73; 2)¿. of perforation 0.15 Complete. Unfinished disk (?), imperfectly circular with crude edges. Pierced centrally.

SF513 Zembil: 229; Phase: Eight Th. 0.2; 2)i. 0.46; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.


SF499 /^fíli /5 ri

SF5OO SF75I /•';•"' '|

SF718 SF5155 '/////y

@ © Ü (D ^ © SP488

SF318 SF527

s- -v II on (#) SF515 ^1^ SF259 SF298

Fig. 4.21. Stone beads. SF259, Phase Four; SF298, Phase Ten; SF318, Phase Eight; SF488 (unfinished), Phase Ten; SF499, Phase Four; SF500, Phase Four/Five/Seven; SF512, Phase Eight;

SF515, Phase Nine; SF527, Phase Eight; SF751, Phase Four; SF718, Phase u/s. 2:1


SF514 Zembil: 213; Phase: Nine/Ten Th. 0.12; Di. 0.5; Di. of perforation 0.26 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF515 FIG. 4.21, F74 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine L. 1.75; Di. 1.03; Di. of perforation 0.3 Complete. Tubular, pierced axially. Serpentine (?).

SF517 Zembil: 225; Phase: Eight Th. 0.15; Di. 0.53; Di. of perforation 0.15 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally. Imperfectly shaped.

Zembil: 2 20/2 2 1 ; Phase: Eight Th. 0.18; Z)i. 0.5; Z)*'. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF527 fig. 4.21 Zembil: 236; Phase: Eight

7%. 0.18; Z)i. 0.5; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Cylindrical, with tapered ends. Pierced axially.

SF718 fig. 4.21 Zembil: 3703; Phase: u/s Th. 0.4; Di. 0.55; Z>2. of perforation 0.2; Complete. Cylindrical, pierced axially. Bright turquoise with white core, malachite (?).

SF751 FIG. 4.21 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four L. 0.9; Z>z". 0.8; Z)i. of perforation 0.4 Complete. Tubular, pierced almost vertically. Metacarbonate/marble .

SF856 Zembil: 3644; Phase: en l 7%. 0.3; Di. 0.8 Incomplete, c. 33%. Disk, pierced centrally.

Bracelets (fig. 4.22, plate 4.1 1, F75) Three fragments of annular stone bracelets of similar size were recorded. They were all worked from marble with a circular cross-section. They were found in mn contexts: SF755, from a Phase Three habitation deposit over the floor of Structure 3, SF689 and SF758 from the Phase Four debris of Structure 7. The form is well known from neolithic sites, and can be made, as at Servia, from stone, shell or clay (4.5). Heurtley records a rather unusual bracelet fragment of white marble, with parallel channels on its outer surface (1939, 65, fig. 60).

Catalogue of the bracelets

Th. = thickness from face to face; Di. = diameter.

SF689 FIG. 4.22, PLATE 4.11a, F75 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four Th. 0.81; Di. 9 Incomplete, c. 40%. Metacarbonate/marble.

SF755 fig. 4.22 Zembil: 3117; Phase: Three

Th. 0.9; Di. 9 Incomplete, c. 14%. Marble/meta-carbonate.

SF758 FIG. 4.22, PLATE4.IIÄ, F75 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Th, 0.9; Di. 9 Incomplete, c. 25%. Marble/metacarbonate


Pendants (fig. 4.22, plate 4.1 1, F51, 74-75) Of the six stone pendants, three were worked from marble and one was from malachite (SF709). This triangular pendant, which was almost complete, had been pierced three times at the corners. Two of the perforations, and the surface of the pendant, were worn. It was an unstratified find from Area E.

One of the marble pendants (SF365), found in a Phase Two yard to the s of Structure 1, had been shaped like a tusk and was tapered towards the perforation, which was broken. The perforation had been bored from both sides and the whole pendant had been polished. A circular marble pendant (SF748) was found in the Phase Four debris of Structure 7. Three perforations had been bored through the upper half and the upper edges had been chipped to create two indents at the top of the pendant. The third marble pendant (SF385) was found on the trampled surface of Phase Seven Structure 1 . It had been pierced three times and the central perforation was broken.

One pendant (SF300), which was found on the floor of Phase Nine Structure 3, was shaped like an axe and had a hole bored through its middle. The edges were smoothed and polished. A small, oval, river pebble (SF969) which had the beginning of a perforation on one face, is likely to have been intended as a pendant. It was found in Phase Ten Structure 1.

Pendants are reasonably well represented in neolithic sites throughout Greece and the southern Balkans but there do not seem to be any obvious standard types until the ring pendants of the ln period (4.5).

Catalogue of the pendants

L. - maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th = thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF3OO FIG. 4.22, F74 Zembil: 1025; Phase: Nine L. 2.1; W. 1.4; Th. 0.5; Di of perforation 0.3 Almost complete, slightly chipped. Axe-head shaped pendant, hole through middle, chipped. Serpentine.

SF365 fig. 4.22 Zembil: 1356; Phase .Two L. 5.4; Di. 1.1; Di of perforation 0.2 Almost complete, broken at perforation. Tusk'-shaped object, polished. Marble/metacarbonate.

SF385 fig. 4.22 Zembil: 1152; Phase: Seven Z,8; W4.2; Th. 0.9; Wt. 28 Incomplete, c. 25% (?). Possibly originally circular; elliptical in cross-section. Pierced three times from

upper face; one perforation broken. Metacarbonate/ marble.

SF709 FIG. 4.22, F5I Zembil: 3703; Phase: u/s L. 2.6; W. 2.1; Th. 0.3 Almost complete, c. 90%. Triangular, pierced three times, two of which are worn. Malachite (?), green with worn surface.

SF748 FIG. 4.22, PLATE 4.1 1Ä, F75 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Th. 0.4; Di. 3.9 Almost complete, with slightly chipped edges. Circular. Pierced three times with two additional holes worn through at the top. Marble (?).

SF969 Zembil: 1709; Phase: Ten L. 2.4; W. 1.7; Th. 0.4 Pendant (?). Complete. Worked, unfinished. Slim, oval pebble. Metacarbonate.


Fig. 4.22. Stone bracelets (SF689, Phase Four; SF755, Phase Three; SF758, Phase Four), pendants (SF300, Phase Nine; SF365, Phase Two; SF385, Phase Seven; SF709, Phase u/s; SF748, Phase Four).

1:2

Miscellaneous Possible Ornaments and Selected 'Blanks' (fig. 4.23, plate 4.11) One possible ornament (sF2oo), which was found in the fill of a Phase Eight ditch, appears to have been broken during manufacture. Drilling at the centre of this river pebble had resulted in a fracture. Another river pebble (sFgia), found in the fill of a Phase Eight ditch


which had been cut by a Phase Eleven pit, had the beginning of a perforation on one of its faces, but drilling appears to have been abandoned at an early stage. A third river pebble (SF149) which had been smoothed and its edges worked, had been broken in half during manufacture. It was found on the floor of Phase Seven Structure 5.

Seven fragments of worked marble were recorded, one of which (SF768, a grooved pebble) was found at Servia-Varytimides. Two fragments from Phase One Structure 1 may have been blanks intended for working into ornaments. The heart-shaped object SF775 had traces of working and had been polished. A worked marble pebble (SF773) was found on the floor of Phase Two Structure 3 and two fragments from Phase Four also showed traces of working, SF534 found in a yard and SF409 within Structure 6. A piece of marble (SF770) which had two unfinished perforations in its upper surface was an unstratified find.

In addition, a fragment of a stone ring or bead (SF1058) was found in the debris of Phase Four Structure 7.

Catalogue of the miscellaneous possible ornaments and selected 'blanks'

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SFI49 FIG. 4.23, PLATE 4. 8b, F48 Zembil: 321; Phase: Seven L. 3.2; W.2-, Th. 0.54 Pebble Broken, c. 50%. Originally flattened circular, elliptical cross-section. Worked edge. Altered ultrabasic igneous rock (?).

SF2OO FIG. 4.23 Zembil: 413; Phase: Eight L.3.1; WÍ1.7; Th. 0.8; Wt. 14 Ornament Incomplete, c. 50%. Worked, perforated. Broken at perforation. Upper side smooth and rounded. Metacarbonate.

SF332 FIG. 4.23, F74 Zembil: 1324; Phase: Four L. 2.7; Di. 1.4 'Toggle' Natural waisted pebble. Groove around waist possibly artificially deepened. Conglomerate with carbonate clasts.

SF409 FIG. 4.23 Zembil: 2117; Phase: Four L. 6.6; W.r, Th. 1.35; Wt. 114 Discoid fragment; worked Fragment, drilling on one face. Metacarbonate/ marble.

SF534 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four L. 2.3; W 2.3; Th. 0.3; Wt. 14 Worked Blank (?) for ornament. Thin piece, semi-circular in shape with rectangular cross-section. Metacarbonate/ marble.

SF768 fig. 4.23 Zembil: 3639; Phase: en I.8.1; W.b.2-Th. 1.3; Wt. 114 Grooved pebble Flat river pebble with groove around waist. Meta- carbonate/marble.

SF770 fig. 4.23 Zembil: 3715; Phase: u/s L. 9; W5.8; Th. 16; Wt. 170 Worked marble Flat oval shaped stone with two partial drillings in one surface. Unfinished (?). Metacarbonate/marble.

SF773 FIG. 4.23 Zembil: 3046; Phase: Two Di. 7.6; Th. 2.95; Wt. 142 Worked pebble Complete. Discoid with ground patches on edge. Incipient ornament (?). Metacarbonate/marble.

SF775 fig. 4.23 Zembil: 3058; Phase: One L. 5.3; W4.5; Th. 0.7; M 28 Worked stone Complete. Flat, 'heart'-shaped pebble with worked and polished edges. Metacarbonate/marble.


Fig. 4.23. Selected miscellaneous stone ornaments or blanks': SF149, Phase Seven; SF200, Phase Eight; SF768, Phase en; SF770, Phase u/s; SF773, Phase Two; SF332, Phase Four; SF409, Phase

Four; SF775, Phase One; SF1058, Phase Four. 1:2


Plate 4.1 1. Stone ornaments: (a) bracelets: (lefij SF689, Phase Four; {right) SF758, Phase Four; pendant SF748, Phase Four;

(b) beads: Phase Four.


SF912 FIG. 4.23 Zembil: 193; Phase: Eight/ Eleven L. 2.4; W. 1.8; Hi. 1.6; Di. of perforation 0.1 Pebble Complete. Worked. Oval with one side slightly flattened. Drilling started on one end, incipient pendant (?).

SF1058 fig. 4.23 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four Ht. 1.5; Th. 0.5; Di. 2.4 Ring Fragment of ring or tube.

4.2.12 Pivots/Sockets (fig. 4.24) Five stone blocks with a circular ground depression in the upper surface were found which may have served as simple pivots or sockets. One (SF879) was found in a Phase Seven destruction level explored in the Bridge Works. A pair of pivots/sockets (SF338 and SF351) was discovered in the line of the eastern wall of Phase Nine Structure 1, and it is possible that they would have provided support for the wooden posts of a raised doorway.

The other two examples (SF781 and SF1016) were both unstratified finds.

Catalogue of the pivots/sockets

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Di. = diameter.

SF338 FIG. 4.24 Zembil: 1468; Phase: Nine Ht. 6; W. 12.4; Th. 1.6; Di. of socket 5.5 Complete (?). Irregular shape with deep hollow on upper surface. Fine allochemical carbonate.

SF35I FIG. 4.24 Zembil: 1476; Phase: Nine Ht. 4.5; L. 8.4; W. 7.2; Depth of depression 1.5 Complete (?). Approximately circular stone with central depression. Chalk, orthochemical carbonate.

SF781 fig. 4.24 Zembil: 3704; Phase: u/s W. 16.6; Th. 5.8; Di. of depression^ Depth of depression 23

Complete (?). Irregular shape. Block with conical depression in one face. Allochemical limestone.

SF879 plate 4. *¡b Zembil: 3201 ; Phase: Seven L. 29; W. 23; Th. 8; Di. of depression 10 Incomplete. Fragment broken at both ends. Approximately polygonal in shape with flat sides; shaped. Shallow, circular depression in centre of upper surface. Possibly mortar (?). Porphyroblastic quartzo-feldspathic chlorite schist.

SFIO16 FIG. 4.24 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s L. 12.5; W. 20.5; Th. 6 Incomplete. Approximately half; plano-convex stone with central depression in flat, upper surface. Non- porphyroblastic quartzo-feldspathic chlorite schist.

4.2.13 Miscellaneous (figs. 4.25-4.26, plate 4.12, F52, 74) This category includes stone which has been worked or roughed out for use: several items are river pebbles selected as suitable for conversion to tools, but none have a specific shape and none can be assigned a specific function. Others are curiosities. They are familiar in all excavation workrooms as the items that no one wants or knows how to classify, but clearly represent an element of selection or modification by their prehistoric users. We have not omitted them in the (probably) vain hope that eventually one or two will prove to

THE SMALL FINDS: STONE 18s

Fig. 4.24. Stone pivots/sockets. SF338, Phase Nine; SF351, Phase Nine; SF781, Phase u/s; SF1016, Phase u/s. 1:2


be significant or classifiable! 32 registered items (nearly 8% of the total number of stone finds) have been included here while others have been rejected as too 'natural'. The borderline is a fine one and has occasioned far more discussion than the objects probably deserve.

Balls Two stone balls were recorded. One (SF853) which was found in the structural debris of Phase Four Structure 7 was unworked. The second (SF877), which had traces of drilling or boring, was an unstratified find in Area D.

Disks A stone disk (SF796), which had been centrally pierced, was found in a Phase Two yard to the s of Structure 3. An unstratified, perforated disk (SF907) with an elliptical cross-section may have been a weight. It resembles the clay ring weights described in section 4.3.5.

Worked - Possible Tools A number of unfinished, or broken, stone tools of uncertain type were recorded. A pointed tool came from the debris of Phase Three Structure 1 (SF972), and the blunt end of a cylindrical tool rather like those included in 4.2.3 but of a white marble which would not have withstood heavy pounding (SF89). At first sight SF222, from the fill of a Phase Eight ditch, appears to be a small, rather flat, axe which has been grooved on one side as a preliminary to splitting into two smaller chisels, using the same techniques already described in 4.2.1. The material however, a rather soft marble, precludes it from this kind of use and its purpose remains enigmatic. A rod-shaped object with slightly faceted sides (SF627) was within the fill of a Phase Nine pit in Area G.

A further four fragments of worked stone (sf6io, SF628, SF1128 and SF1130) could not be attributed to any object type.

Utilized - River Pebbles An irregularly-shaped river pebble (SF649) from Servia-Varytimides which had a natural groove around its middle, may have been utilized as a toggle. Also from Servia-Varytimides, a river pebble with a flattened section (SF1024) had been chipped around its edge on the lower face. Its intended function is not clear. An almost circular river pebble (SF212) had a circular depression in its upper surface which had probably been formed by pecking. A further example (SF342) was a flat oval river pebble which had a circular depression worked into one face, and was found on the surface of a Phase Ten yard in Area G. Although the depression had been carefully centred, as if for a macehead or similar tool, the rather flat cross-section of this object is unlike that of the example from Phase Four (4.2.2) or those from other sites.

Utilized - Slabs A worked limestone slab (SF955) was found in the fill of a Phase Nine pit. A utilized boulder (SF867) had a shallow, round, depression in its upper surface which had probably been made by pecking. It had been reused as packing for a Phase Two post-hole in the E


wall of Structure 3. The fragment of a second stone slab (SF1104) which had one ground edge was also found in the E wall of the same structure. A water-worn 'boulder' (SF1025) with naturally flattened surfaces appears to have some additional working. It was found within the make-up of a Phase Two hearth, located to the N of Structure 2. A fragment of sandstone (SF330) was found in the fill of a Phase Eight ditch. Two stone slabs, which had smooth upper surfaces, may also have been utilized: SF235 was found in the fill of a Phase Eight ditch and SF629 in the debris of Phase Four Structure 7. Fragments from a schist slab (sfi 125) which may have formed part of a circular lid were found in a ditch or pit in F20/ A, in a Phase Eight or Eleven context.

Curiosities and Other Unidentified Objects A number of curious objects were recorded, which were presumably collected by the inhabitants of prehistoric Servia. SF530, a small 'kidney'-shaped river pebble with a natural notch on one side, was found at Servia-Varytimides. Also from Servia-Varytimides was SF760, a marble pebble, with a naturally hollowed-out surface resembling a miniature 'trough'. SF281, a flat, round, river pebble whose white veining appears in the shape of a cross, was found on the floor of Phase Seven Structure 5. SF109, a pyramidal chalk object, was found in eba structural debris in F20/C. SF316, from the floor of Phase One Structure 3, was a truncated conical piece of marble with natural ridges and grooves around its circumference. Another truncated conical fragment (sfi 23) - possibly a core from stone vase manufacture - was found in the Phase Seven habitation deposit over the floor of Structure 7.

Sfi o 19, which had an irregular cross-section, with grooved or furrowed upper and lower surfaces, at least partly natural, resembled a pulley. It was found in a Phase Four yard.

C. A. M. H. C. R. K. A. W.

Catalogue of the miscellaneous objects

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF89 Zembil: 352; Phase: Seven Z.8.3; W 5.3; Th. 3.2; Wt. 312 Tool (?) Fragment of butt end (?). Approximately rectangular in shape, slightly tapering towards break. Sub- rectangular in cross-section. Marble/metacarbonate.

SFIO9 PLATE 4.1 %b9 F52 Zembil: 66; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven Ht. 5.6; W3.9; PR 85 Curiosity Complete. Worked, pyramidal object with square base

and slightly rounded edges. Allochemical/ orthochemical carbonate.

SFI23 FIG. 4.26, F74 Zembil: 40; Phase: Seven L. 1.1; Di. o. g Core (?) Broken at both ends. Truncated cylindrical. Possibly from stone vessel manufacture. Possibly stone bead blank (?). Metacarbonate.

SF212 FIG. 4.25 Zembil: 344; Phase: u/s Th. 3.1; Di. 9.8 x 8.2; Di. of depression 3.5 Pebble Almost circular with pecked circular depression in one surface. Marble, microcry stalline carbonate.


Fig. 4.25. Miscellaneous stone objects: disks (SF907, Phase u/s; SF796, Phase Two); possible tools (SF222, Phase Eight; SF627, Phase Nine); utilized river pebbles (SF1024, Phase u/s; SF212, Phase

u/s; SF342, Phase Ten). 1:2


Fig. 4.26. Miscellaneous stone objects: utilized slabs (SF955, Phase Nine); pulley-shaped object (SF1019, Phase Four); curiously-shaped river pebbles (SF760 and SF530, Phase en); truncated

conical fragments (SF316, Phase One; SF123, Phase Seven). 1:2.


Plate 4.12. Miscellaneous stone objects: (a) from left, top: grooved pebble SF649, Phase en; pebble SF281, Phase Seven; bottom 'trough'-like object SF760, Phase en; u/s stopper-like object; (b) from left: tool (?) SF627, Phase Nine; worked 'pyramid' SF109, Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven.


SF222 FIG. 4.25 Zembil: 229; Phase: Eight L. 3.8; W3.5; Th. 1; Wt. 12 Tool (?) Worked. Broken. Rectangular with elliptical cross- section. Longitudinal groove with V-section along one surface. No polish surviving except possible trace on blade (?) facet. (Microcrystalline) marble.

SF235 Zembil: 225; Phase: Eight Z.8.5; Wr.Th.^ Slab Worked (?). Rectangular with one smoothed surface, possibly from grinding. Metaquartzite with chlorite banding.

SF281 PLATE 4.12a Zembil: 1301; Phase: Seven Th. 1.3; Di. 3.7 Curiosity Pebble. Decorative with white veining forming a cross. Probably collected as a curio. Conglomerate with carbon.

SF316 FIG. 4.26 Zembil: 1118; Phase: One L. 2.8; Di. 1.1 Curiosity Natural. Cylindrical fragment with natural ridges around circumference. Metacarbonate/marble.

SF330 Zembil: 1 232; Phase: Eight L. 2.8 Unworked fragment. Probably natural, possibly utilized. Sandstone with carbonate component.

SF342 FIG. 4.25 Zembil: 1436; Phase: Ten Ht. 4.5; Di. 7.2 x 5.4; Di. of depression 1.9 River pebble Worked, with depression in one surface. Microcrystalline marble.

SF530 FIG. 4.26 Zembil: 3540; Phase: en L. 6.6; W4.6; Th. 1.5; Wt. 54 Curiosity Complete. River pebble with natural 'notch' on one side.

sf6io Zembil: 3206; Phase: Four L. 14.1; Di. 4.7; Wt. 387 Tool (?)

Broken, one end missing. Approximately oval in section with one slightly flattened surface. Tapers to blunt butt. Microgranite.

SF627 FIG. 4.25, PLATE 4. 12^ Zembil: 3408; Phase: Nine L. 10.6; Di. 2.2; Wt. 114 Tool (?) Incomplete, broken at one end. Rod-shaped object. One side slightly facetted and with faint parallel scratches. Metacarbonate/marble.

SF628 F52 Zembil: 3408; Phase: Nine L. 15.5; W6.4; Th. 4; Wt. 717 Worked Large rectangular stone with one surface concave, through use (?). Orthochemical limestone.

SF629 Zembil: 3344; Phase: Four L. 18.5; W6.5; Th. 2; Wt. 246 Slab Flat, pointed and narrow, broken at one end. Polished (?). Biotite schist.

SF649 PLATE 4.12a Zembil: 3514; Phase: en L. 4.1; PK3.9 Pebble Irregularly shaped with groove around waist. Groove probably natural but utilized and possibly enlarged. Possibly utilized as a toggle.

SF760 FIG. 4.26, PLATE 4.12a Zembil: 3641 ; Phase: en l Ht. 2.1; L. 6.9; W4.1 Curiosity Complete. Oval 'trough' with plano-convex cross- section. Hollow formed in upper surface, probably natural. Metacarbonate/marble.

SF796 fig. 4.25 Zembil: 3068; Phase: Two Th. 1.5; Di. 5.9; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 42 Disk Pierced centrally. Slightly plano-convex in cross- section. Allochemical limestone-calcarenite bio- micrite (?).

SF853 Zembil: 3340; Phase: Four Di. 7.5; Wt. 511 Ball Smooth, probably natural. Gypsum/alabaster (?).

îgo CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

SF867 Zembil: 3 1 42 ; Phase: Two L. 24; W 21; Th. 10 Utilized 'boulder' Broken. Natural river boulder with series of depressions on upper surface, which may have been caused by pecking. Blackened and encrusted on upper surface. Calcareous sandstone.

SF877 PLATE4.12Ä Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s Di. 10; Wt. 1088 Ball Almost oval with smooth surface. Three scars on surface, possibly worked (?).

SF907 FIG. 4.25 Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s Th. 3.3; Di. 11.4 x 10; Di. of perforation 1 Disk weight (?) Almost complete, some damage on surface. Circular with oval cross-section. Perforated though centre. Chalk, ortho chemical carbonate.

SF955 FIG. 4.26 Zembil: 1471; Phase: Nine L. 19; W. 12.4; Th. 2.5 Slab Trapezoidal with three worked edges and one broken edge. Lower surface smoothed. Upper surface incised with two deep cuts intersecting to form a 'V - possibly unintentional damage.

SF972 Zembil: 1360; Phase: Three L. 12; W6.4; 771.4.1; Wt. 562 Tool (?) Half of heavy tool with pointed end. Elliptical cross- section. Worked down both sides with smooth surface. Surface pecked in places, with some polish present. Microgranodiorite (?).

SFIOI9 FIG. 4.26 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Your Ht. 7.5; L. 14.5; W. 12 Curiosity Broken with irregular cross-section; originally sub- rectangular. Grooved or furrowed on upper and lower surfaces and over one end, probably naturally. Resembles pulley. Probably mostly natural.

SFIO24 FIG. 4.25 Zembil: Ploughsoil; Phase: u/s

Th. 1.5; Z)i. 5.2; Wt. 56 Pebble Complete. Almost circular with flattened elliptical cross-section. Chipped and flaked all around edge. Possibly unfinished tool or other object. Stopper or hd (?).

SF1025 Zembil: 1 1 1 1 ; Phase: Two Th. 4; Di. 23 'Boulder' Worked (?). Upper and lower surfaces flattened. Most of edges water-worn, possibly partly worked.

SF1104 Zembil: 3135; Phase: Two L. 5.8; WT5.6; Th. 1.1 Utilized slab Fragment with one ground edge. Surfaces fairly smooth but with no obvious wear traces. Schist.

SF1112 Zembil: 48; Phase: Eight/Eleven L. 6; W.4' Th. 1.5; Wt. 85 Tool (?) Fragment. Sub-rectangular, both ends broken and one edge damaged. Other edge pockmarked and battered.

SFII25 FIG. 4.26 Zembil: 417; Phase: Eight/Eleven a: L. 8.55; Th. 1.05; Di. 15; Wt. 128 b: L. 7.95; Th. 0.5; Wt. 57 Utilized Two non-joining fragments (a & b). Worked edges forming circular rim (?) or edge. Possibly part of lid or cover. Schist.

SF1128 Zembil: 438; Phase: u/s Z.6.5; ^3-05; Th. 1.4; Wt. 57 Worked Fragment of narrow slab with sub-rectangular cross- section. Possibly work traces along shorter sides.

SF1130 Zembil: 3135; Phase: Two L. 5.6; W4.2; Th. 1.7 Worked Slab fragment of irregular shape. One ground edge.

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4.3 THE CLAY SMALL FINDS The registered clay finds from Servia form nearly a quarter of the total (240 objects). Of these, 26 are figurines or fragments of figurines (4.3.1), often from secondary contexts. Half of the total have, or are often claimed to have, a connection with weaving processes (4.3.2-10). These include 24 sherd disks typical of en and eba levels (4.3.2) and two specially manufactured disks (4.3.4), 24 spindle whorls most frequent in the eba (4.3.3), 24 ring weights which are characteristic of mn levels (4.3.5), 38 spools of which 35 came from Servia-Varytimides and may have been used as loomweights (4.3.6) and a number of other forms of loomweight, chiefly eba in date (4.3.7). There is no direct evidence of the type of weave in use for textiles at Servia but Jill Carington Smith has included a discussion of the mat impressions preserved on pottery bases (4.3.8). In addition there is a short section on objects of other materials which may have had a connection with textiles (4.3.9). Another large class (27) of the clay objects is formed by the 'anchors', or fragments of them, whose function remains enigmatic but which are a distinctive feature of Greek Mainland sites of the second half of the eba period (4.3.10). 39 other objects of clay fall into a number of categories. These include beads and other ornaments (4.3.1 1), slingbolts (4.3.12) and spoons (4.3.13), a stamp or burnisher (4.3.14), disks (4315) curious plaques (4.3.16) and 'pillars' (4.3.17) as well as miscellaneous (4.3.18) and other manufactured objects whose original form and function is irretrievable (4.3.19). No examples of pintaderas were found in the 1971-73 excavation, although Heurtley published two (1939, fig. 351*, s) and they are well known from Nea Nikomedeia (Pini et al 1975; Pyke 1994, 128) and later sites (Onassoglou 1996, 163-4, 331-4). Also absent were any of the roundels and 'pinched forms' found in numbers at Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994, 133, 138).

As already noted in the Introduction to this chapter (4. 1) the term clay has been used to refer throughout to fired clay while objects which were unfired have been described as unbaked clay.

K. A. W.

4.3.1 The Figurines (figs. 4.27-4.30, plates 4.13-4.16)

Introduction The fragments of twenty-five figurines from the Servia excavation are all of clay and represent a wide range of types. Their small number in relation to the large body of sherd material recovered contrasts with the situation in Thessaly, where, for example, 227 figurines were reported from the site of Achilleion alone (Gimbutas 1974 a, 299). This is all the more striking in view of the fact that six of the fragments are not properly speaking parts of figurines at all, SF736 and SF852 being protomes, SF750 probably an 'altar' ornament, and SF980, SF630 and SF895 legs from 'altars' or vessels. In addition Heurtley recorded three clay figurines from his 'en' (= mn) levels (1939, fig. 7I-J) including one very schematic cylindrical example with stumpy arms found intact on the floor of the 'Burnt House' (= Phase Four). The four clay ln figurines found by Heurtley (1939, 78) include an animal head (1939, fig. 350), perhaps a dog. He also reports two highly schematized stone figurines from the same levels (1939, 78, fig. 34f, g).

THE SMALL FINDS: CLAY FIGURINES 1 93

The diversity of the relatively few figurines is interesting, but their fragmentary and often worn condition makes typological comments and comparisons difficult. There are one or two recognisable types, like SF1067, a classic Rod Head, or SF750, an 'altar' ornament. The first occurs over a wide area from the Péloponnèse to the Danube, and the second is a distinctive Balkan type.

What is perhaps equally significant, in view of Servia' s geocultural location between Thessaly, Albania, se Yugoslavia and Thrace, is the absence as much as the presence of types and traits characteristic of those regions, like the Thessalian en piriform figures and the MN 'coffee-bean' eyes, and the incised and painted figurines found in Thrace.

Ten fragments are assigned on stratigraphie or typological grounds to the en, eleven to the MN and five to the ln period. The en figurines are from Servia-Varytimides, which came to an end before the mn period began, since there are no indications of en habitation at the main mn site. Twelve of the figurines not securely stratified in neolithic contexts have been dated as much by their typology as by their context.

[The valuable study and catalogue of figurines from Thessaly (Gallis and Orphanidis 1996) reached us too late for the inclusion of parallels in this section. K. A.W.]

Early Neolithic Eight figurine fragments were found stratified at Servia-Varytimides with another found on the surface. One from an eba context in the main area is similar stylistically and in fabric.

SF716 belongs to a broad category of relatively naturalistic obese female figurines with a wide distribution in time and place from which, however, it is differentiated by its very short conical legs. The general type seems to be chiefly mn and ln in date, but may also occur in later periods, for example at Corinth (Phelps 1987, 244-5, nos- ̂ 17).

SF736 probably originally formed part of a pot, like SF3 and may be compared with the figure on a triangular vessel from Pródromos (Theocharis 1973, 46, fig. 12). The technique, however, is different from the human faces and figures in low relief sometimes found elsewhere (Rodden 1964 0, 565, fig. 3, from Nea Nikomedeia (= Müller-Karpe 1968, pl. 135 B 16), en (?); Theocharis 1962 cy 81, fig. 6, from Nessonis II, mn; Theocharis 1973, fig. 204, from Paradimi, ln).

SF367 is a curious piece and the only complete figurine unit from the excavation. Unlike SF1124, SF1067 and SF145, it is not a broken fragment; it was intended to be mounted on either a separate torso or some other object, possibly made of wood. I know of no parallels but it has a general stylistic similarity, especially in the treatment of the eyes and mouth, with a class of en figurine heads from sites in Thessaly (e.g. Zervos 1962, figs. 191-3; Theocharis 1973, figs 19-21; Gimbutas 1974 0, 300, fig. 29).

Identifiable male figurines such as SF708 are uncommon: it has been estimated that they form between 2-10% of the known body of Greek neolithic and ba figurines (Marangou 1991, 15-23). The crudity of the modelling can be paralleled at eba Tiryns (Grossmann and Schäffer 1971, pl. 12: 1-2); the very schematic treatment suggests that its maker was primarily interested in representing the concept of maleness.

Hollow figurines such as SF645, all apparently anthropomorphic, are rare in Thessaly and confined to the en. Hourmouziadis (1973, 33 et seq., e.g. pl. 74a) suggests that they may have been used as rhyta. This piece is a puzzle. C^the hollow leg in Grbic et al. i960, XXXI: 5, from Porodin.

194 W. W. PHELPS

Fig. 4.27. en figurines: animal (SF360); human (SF367, u/s); human (SF414); human (?) (SF645); human leg (SF705); male (SF708); female (SF736); human (SF1124). 1:2


Animal figurines like SF360 are not a common feature of the en, although they are commoner in later periods. I can think of none in the Péloponnèse, but there are a few elsewhere (Zervos 1962, figs. 197, 198, 304-7). At Sitagroi (A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 282, 9, 150-3 - 'bulls': nos. 96, 176, 177, 179) they are ln in date.

Fig. 4.28. en female figurine SF716. 1:2

Catalogue of the en figurines

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Ht. - maximum height. NB. 'left' and 'right' refer to figurines' own left and right throughout.

SF360 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13, F53 Zembil: 2000; Phase: en L. 4.3, Ht. 4.7, W. 2.6 Animal Fine grey gritless fabric; smooth buff surface. Worn.

Animal forequarters, broken at the neck, forelegs and trunk. The chipped left foreleg, and probably the right one as well, was short and stubby. The almost vertical neck is circular in section, and the body sub-triangular, with the apex uppermost. Species not identifiable.

SF367 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s Ht. 3.9, W. 2.5 Human Fine pale grey micaceous fabric, like SF367; smooth worn surface. No visible slip.

Complete: human head and neck. The eyes and mouth are indicated by jabbed holes, and the cheeks and chin by applied clay. The underside of the neck has a deliberately formed smooth saddle-shaped concavity. A vertical perforation runs from the top of the head to the centre of the concavity, presumably to take a thin stick for attachment (<^ln examples from Kefala and Pefkakia: Marangou 1992, ^^fìgs. 5C, 13d)-

i96 W.W.PHELPS

SF414 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13 Zembil: 2055; Phase: en Ht. 2.8, W. shoulders 2.7, Th. bottom 1.4. Human Dusky buff micaceous fabric; well fired; smooth surface. Good condition.

Torso, broken at neck, arms, upper buttocks. Right arm stub extended horizontally; left one possibly raised. An applied fillet at the waist in front and on each side, with a row of fine incisions, may represent a roll of fat or a garment. Well defined groove on top of right thigh. There is a deep concavity underneath, perhaps due to a weak join between the two constituent lumps of clay used to form the body. There is a horizontal row of short vertical incisions on the chest and three similar rows on the back.

For the hollow midriff break, cf. Tsountas 1908, pl. 33:1a, iß, and 292, where he describes the technique of manufacture.

SF645 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13, F53 Zembil: 3615; Phase: en L. 1.01, W5.95, Th. 3.65 Human (?) Coarse dark grey fabric; large white grits; red buff, slightly smoothed surface, left rough on one side. Good condition.

Hollow thigh (?) or leg, groove at junction with belly (?).

Alternatively, hollow animal body, possibly rear part.

SF705 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13 Zembil: 3546; Phase: en Ht. 3-7(^1.5) Human leg Fine, dusky buff, micaceous fabric; well fired. Very worn.

Right leg, groove for lower belly and pubic triangle groove. Buttock possibly abraded. The leg tapers downwards to a wedge-shaped foot, three grooves for toes.

This piece is too worn for comment other than to suggest that it may have been similar to sfi 123 and SF145, which are mn; q.v. for further discussion.

Cf. Grbic et al i960, XXXI:8, from Porodin; Korosec 1952, pl. 15.

SF708 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13 Zembil: 3537; Phase: en Ht.b.$, W3.3, Th.1.6 Male Dense pale grey micaceous fabric; smooth surface. Fair condition.

Lumpy, roughly fashioned head, neck and torso as far as the buttocks; possible right ear preserved,

left one broken; no arms; legs broken. The penis is roughly indicated.

SF716 FIG. 4.28, PLATE 4.13, F53, F54 Zembil: 3633; Phase: en Ht. 10.0; W hips 6.7 Female Dense dark grey fabric, fine micaceous grits; buff skin; red burnished slip; darkened firing patch on back. Surface fair; slight chipping.

Torso, sitting; the stubby conical right leg with its abraded pointed tip has been rejoined; head, arms broken, left breast and left leg missing; right breast partly preserved. Arms cupping breasts. Straight vertical back; rolls of fat on waist and hips; incised vulva. Made from several cores pressed together and invested with a thick layer of clay.

Ridley and Wardle 1979, 195, pi- 26 (e). For the technique, cf. Bass 1959, 344-9; Hourmouziadis 1973, 32 et seq., figs. 4, 5, pls. 44 and 45; Marangou 1992, 139, fig. 5a, b. For the general type, cf. Tsountas 1908, pl. 33: 6 (mn).

SF736 FIG. 4.27, PLATE 4.13 Zembil: 3542; Phase: en Ht. 4.3; W. 5.7; Th. mid chest 1.0 Female Pale grey, fine, micaceous fabric; orange skin; thick red burnished slip.

Front part of a hollow torso or anthropomorphic vase. Left breast preserved with shoulder, arm and part of the hand resting on the abdomen.

SF954 Zembil: 3406; Phase: Nine L 4.4, W. 3.4, D. 2.5. Female Fine dense buff fabric, orange-buff surface; thick red slip.

Small fragment of torso and perhaps breast. Although this fragment comes from an apparently pure EBA context, the ware is the same as that of SF736 and very different from the normal eba fabric, and we have for this reason assigned it to the en.

SFII24 FIG. 4.27 Zembil: 2005; Phase: en L. 5.1, W. 3.1, Th. 2.2 Human (?) Buff and grey micaceous fabric; traces of red slip. Very worn.

Small unidentifiable fragment, possibly of a human figurine. If so, the flattened lower surface would suggest the thigh of a seated figure, somewhat like a fragment from Corinth (Phelps 1987, no. 23).


Plate 4.13. {a) en figurines: human SF414; female SF736; male SF708; human leg SF705; human SF367, (u/s); (b) human (?) SF645, animal SF360, female SF716.

i98 W.W.PHELPS

Middle Neolithic Only two fragments came from stratified levels but eight more are stylistically mn in date. Rod Heads with incised features, as first defined by Nandris (1970), when found stratified, are mn in Greece and contemporary with the Starcevo culture in the Balkans (see Garasanin 1979, pl. XLII; Letica 1964, fig. 1). Phelps (1987, 235-5, pi- 33:l) suggests that so-called Rod Heads do not form a category that is archaeologically significant over an area as vast as Greece and the Balkans. For example, are the much commoner non-incised long-necked heads, usually with prominent noses, to be considered as belonging to the same category? Or are long-necked heads, like obese female torsos, just the common expression of an aesthetic or cultic predilection, the cultural causes of which we can only guess at?

The two fragments SF216 and SF219 appear to have been modelled separately and pinned together when leather-hard before firing. The medial surface around the hole is darkened, which might be due to the carbonisation of the wooden peg during firing, and so is the clay in the chest region. This figurine resembles the complete example from the en 'Shrine' at Nea Nikomedeia (Rodden 1964 ¿, 604, fig. 1; Theocharis 1973, pl. 18), but there are differences: in the latter, the hands support the breasts and the waist is tiny and circular [cf. SF145 above). According to Rodden, it was made of unbaked clay, and the head, torso and legs were modelled separately and subsequently joined together, only the legs being pegged. His fig. 6, which he does not describe, and which lacks its head, may be similar. The problem of joining separately modelled parts of figurines seems to have caused neolithic coroplasts some trouble [cf. Korosec's comments on the early Vinca figurines: 1952, 15- 39, pl. 15). The bonding of the partially dried or leather-hard components was evidently not sufficient to withstand the firing process [cf. the Corinthian half-legs, although in their case the purpose was perhaps different: Phelps 1987, 235-7; an<^ Ç^Talalay 1983, 156- 66, 174-5), and wooden pegs were sometimes used to keep them together. It is noticeable that while SF216 fits snugly against SF219, the only direct contact between them is at the foot and upper thigh. SF219 and SF216 came from a mixed fill apparently containing no en material and so should be later than the Nea Nikomedeia figurine. (^Letica 1988, fig. 7. id, e for peg-hole legs at Divostin, Starcevo period; Grbic et al. i960, XXXI:8,g, from Porodin.

Such objects as SF980, which have been termed altars, cult tables and incense burners, are quite common on neolithic sites in northern Greece and the Balkans. Legs similar to SF980 can be seen on an en altar from Tsangli shown in Zervos 1962, fig. 150 (Theocharis 1973, fig. 13), and Tsountas commented on them in 1908 (181-2). Cf. Maliq (Prendi 1966, pl. Xh.) See also SF630 and SF895 for more examples of ln date. It does not appear to be from the kind of ln Danilo ritual vessel that was common in parts of Yugoslavia and at Corinth, which more frequently carries incised decoration. These ritual vessels, or 'rhyta', do not seem to have been found at Servia, although their presence would not be surprising, since they occur at Çakran in Albania alongside the same ln burnished, white-filled, straw impressed ware that is conspicuous at Servia.


Fig. 4.29. Figurines of mn and stylistically mn type: female (SF145, Phase Eleven); female (SF216, Phase Eleven); female (sFssig, Phase Eleven); animal (SF333, Phase Two); animal (SF334, Phase Ten); animal (SF711, Phase Nine); human (SF1067, Phase Ten); animal (SF750, Phase Three);

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Catalogue of the mn figurines L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Ht. = maximum height; Di. = maximum diameter.

SF145 FIG. 4.29, F55 Zembil: 330; Phase: Eleven Ht. 3.9, W. buttock 2.3, Th. buttock 1.4 Female leg Dense dark grey fabric; dark brown burnished slip. Good condition.

Left buttock, leg and foot; traces of an incised pubic triangle. The medial break surface is smooth but not quite flat, with a vertical row of three small pricked holes, probably for attachment to the right leg. The break at the waist is small and circular in section. It appears to have been separated from its fellow when leather-hard.

The mixed context gives no clue to its date, but the conception and the tiny waist relate it to the well- known complete figure of this type from the en 'shrine' at Nea Nikomedeia: for comment, see SF219.

C^Grbic et al. i960, XXXI:8, 9, from Porodin.

SF2l6 (joins SF219) FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.I4, F55, F56 Zembil: -; Phase: u/s Ht. 0.52, W. 0.30, Th, 0.43. Female figurine Dark buff core, pale buff outer surface, micaceous with coarse inclusions; smoothing marks visible; good condition. Traces of a burnished cream slip.

Right leg and foot, broken at the thigh; it has the same smooth medial surface and square peg-hole as SF219.

Ridley and Wardle 1979, 212, pl. 26d.

SF219 (joins SF216) FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.14, F55, F56 Zembil: 371; Phase: u/s Ht. 1.04, W. buttock 3.0, Th. buttock 4.8. Female figurine Dark buff core, pale buff outer surface, micaceous with coarse inclusions; smoothing marks visible; good condition.

Left half of a female body and leg with a stubby foot, breast, and arm with the hand resting on the belly; fingers faintly indicated. Head missing; buttock chipped. The medial break is smooth with a square peg-hole 0.4 across to fix it to the other half. There is no medial groove.

Ridley and Wardle 1979, 212, pl. 26d.

SF333 FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.15, F55 Zembil: 1 205; Phase: Two L. 4.4, Di. 1.6 Animal

Fine dark grey fabric; highly burnished cream slip with dark red painted oblique stripes. Good condition.

It might be the rear part of an animal with a long tubular body and broken stubby hindlegs, or a long neck and a head with broken ears or horns. It could also be an altar decoration, like SF750.

SF334 FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.15, F55 Zembil: 1 7 1 1 ; Phase: Ten Ht. 4.75, Di. of neck 2.1 x 1.8 Animal head Fine grey micaceous clay with coarse grits; smooth red surface. Fair condition.

Neck and stylised head of an animal, bird or human with a large muzzle, beak or nose. The top of the head is concave and the back chipped, making identification difficult. The neck is oval in section. The generalised type is widespread and unspecific.

C^Gimbutas 1974 ¿,217 no. 161, 219 no. 162, Anza; A. C. Renfrew et al. 1986, 285, 9. 163 no. 209, Sitagroi (ln).

It should probably be dated to the mn period on the grounds of ware.

SF711 FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.15, F57 Zembil: 301; Phase: Nine/Ten/ Eleven L.4.5 Animal Fine dense beige {cf. S¥%§>])' smooth surface. Worn.

Roughly modelled animal snout, with two jabbed holes at the tip to indicate the nostrils, and two at the broken neck (for attachment?). Subcircular section. An added piece of clay might indicate the beginning of a poll or crest, and two small inconspicuous depressions may represent eyes. The round flattened snout could suggest a pig; on the other hand a similar ln head, also from Servia, is described by Heurtley as that of a dog (1939, 165, %• 35:°)-

Cf. the similar nostrils on a baby pig from Anza (Gimbutas 1974 b, 234, no. 196a, b).

From the context, it could be mn, ln or eba, but typological considerations suggest an mn date.

SF75O FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.15, F55 Zembil: 3059; Phase: Three Ht. 5.9, Di. (middle) 1.6 Animal head Fine dense pale red fabric; burnished red slip.

Long tubular neck and head with horn or ear projections, slightly angular back of the head and down-curving snout or muzzle.

The neck bends to the left in plan.


The length and the curve of the neck suggest that this was not from an animal figurine but formed part of the decoration of an 'altar' like those at Porodin.

Cf. Grbic et al i960, XXVIII:4, XXVIIL3, 'ln'; Simoska and Sanev 1976, 87, 'mn'.

SF980 fig. 4.29 Zembil: 107; ; Phase: Ten Ht 6.1, Di. at break 2.95 x 3.0. Leg, Altar (?) Dense, hard, pale red gritty fabric; smoothed, back left rough; thin cream slurry surface. Fair condition.

Leg with vestigial foot; sub-circular section. It probably comes from an 'altar'. The fabric looks mn; faint oblique stripes may be ghost paint marks or simply due to wear.

SFIO67 FIG. 4.29, PLATE 4.15 Zembil: 97; Phase: Ten Ht. 4.0, Di. (mid) 1.2 Human head Fine dense pink fabric; low-burnished buff surface. Good condition.

Rod head with neck, beginning to expand at the break. Deep incised decoration on the top and back; incised eyes. There are traces of probable filling in the incisions, but the substance, being buff, not white, in colour, could be earth or clay.

Cf. Tsountas 1908, 299, fig. 224 from Karabaúrami; Zervos 1962, fig. 206 from Chaironea; Phelps 1987, 234-5 pl- 33: 1 ; Hourmouziadis 1973

91, 20; and Nandris 1970, 208-9, pl. 1, to mention just a few.

SFIOI2 FIG. 4.30 Zembil: 31 29; Phase: Two L. 3; W.8; Th. 1.1 Human shoulder and arm to elbow Incomplete fragment. Fired. Irregular shape, red clay with darker core and smoothed, burnished (?) surface.

SF1123 (originally registered as P487) fig. 4.30 Zembil: 3; Phase: u/s Ht 5.7, Di. 3.2 x 3.0 Female Fine dense orange-buff fabric; side and back well burnished; the front is finger-smoothed and shows traces of burnish.

Left half of a female torso, broken at the chest, medial line, upper part of the back and below the waist. Part of a flattish left breast is preserved, underlined by a slight groove made with the burnishing tool. On the lower left flank there is one complete incised stroke and part of a second below it, no doubt to indicate folds of flesh. It was made from separate clay cores that have broken apart.

The fragmentary nature of the piece gives no clue as to its posture and its date is equally doubtful, but on the grounds of fabric and technique is probably MN.

For the technique, cf. Bass 1959, 344-9; Marangou 1992, 139.

Late Neolithic Three fragments came from ln levels and two more are morphologically ln. Sf6i6 is a very distinctive piece, with a pronounced triangular face and vestigial breasts and arms, which taken individually are all ln or fn features. I know of no close parallels. It appears out of place in Macedonia and may be an import from further N or E.

Three- or four-legged pots as represented by SF630 and SF895, have a wide distribution chronologically and geographically (Theocharis 1973, figs. 13, 184, Thessaly, and A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, fig. 10.8: 22, Sitagroi, ln). So-called altars with four legs are a common feature of the Balkan Neolithic cultures: ¿j/T Garasanin 1979, LX.5 from Butmir; and closer to home, Grbic et al i960, XXVIIL3, from Porodin, Prendi 1966, pl. Xh, and Simoska and Sanev 1976, no. 192, from Mala Tumba, also in Pelagonia.

W. W. P.

2OA W. W. PHELPS

Fig. 4.30. LN and other figurines: protome (SF3, Phase u/s); human leg ? (SF1123, Phase u/s; (sf6i6, Phase Six); altar (?) or pot leg (SF630, Phase Six); female (SF852, Phase Seven); pot leg (?)

(SF895, Phase Seven), human arm (SF1012, Phase en). 1:2

Catalogue of the ln figurines L = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = thickness from face to face; Ht = maximum height.

SF3 FIG. 4.30, PLATE 4. 16 Zembil: -; Phase: u/s Ht. 2.3, W. 1.9, Th. 0.9

Protome, en-ln Fine buff micaceous fabric; smooth surface except on the front. Good condition.

Tiny human figurine with broken legs and neck. The leg and arm stubs are spread-eagled; this and the rough front surface suggest that it was attached to the side of a pot. Buttock cleavage is shown by


incision. Protomes and anthropomorphic vases are not uncommon in the en. Applied plastic anthropomorphic motifs are also a feature of the ln in Thessaly (Theocharis 1973, fig. 176: Pefkakia), Thrace (Theocharis 1973, fig. 204: Paradimi) and Bulgaria (Georgiev 1963, fig. 15: Azmak, en).

(^ Rodden 1964 a, fig. 3 from Nea Nikomedeia, shown frontally, however; Grundmann 1953, figs. 20, 21.

There is no direct evidence to date it; by analogy with the Pefkakia example just cited, a ln date may be suggested, on the other hand the Azmak pot is en.

sf6i6 fig. 4.30, plate 4.16, F57 Zembil: 3306; Phase: Six/Seven/Eight HL 6.1, FK3.0 Human head Dark grey-buff medium fine fabric; smooth red-buff and blackish surface. Good condition.

Head, neck and right vestigial arm preserved. Flat triangular face with a flat top and two pairs of horizontal incisions for eyes, slight indication of nose; small breasts.

Anteroposterior perforations through each shoulder: that for left arm higher than right. Modelled plume (?) on left hand side of head.

Ridley and Wardle 1979, 217, pl. 26f.

SF63O FIG. 4.30, PLATE 4.16, F57 Zembil: 33 1 2 ; Phase: Six/Seven ¿.5.6, W. 1.9,2)1. 2.5 Leg. Altar or Pot (?) Fine gritty dark grey-buff fabric; thick black and beige mottled, burnished, flaking surface; faint traces of three painted stripes. Fair condition.

Short leg and foot, small dowel-like projection at the break (as on some 'thrust' handles) for attachment. The foot is flat but the sole is angled. The surface is beginning to flare at the break. It most probably comes from a three- or four-legged pot or an altar.

SF852 FIG. 4.30, PLATE 4.16, F57 Zembil: 3731; Phase: Seven L 6.9, W. 5.7, Th. 3.5 Female Fine pale grey micaceous fabric; low burnished buff surface.

Fragment of torso with prominent breasts; flat straight back. Stub of broken neck and left arm preserved. Broken below breasts, at the right side and back. It was made from a central core invested with a thick outer layer for the modelling; this figurine is distinguished by a degree of plasticity far removed from the more usual stylised ln examples. In feeling and technique it is slightly reminiscent of a figurine from Corinth (Phelps 1987, 244, pl. 35, 15).

SF895 FIG. 4.30, PLATE 4.16, F57 Zembil: 40; Phase: Seven Ht. 9.9 Leg. Pot (?) Very coarse, dark grey fabric with large white grits; orange buff surface with dark grey patches and a rough slurry finish. Good condition.

Right leg and foot, broken at the thigh. It is a free standing leg, most probably from a pot, like SF630.

Cf. A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, fig. 10.8:6, 13 (329).

2o6 W. W. PHELPS

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I

THE SMALL FINDS: CLAY SPINNING AND WEAVING IMPLEMENTS 207

The Spinning and Weaving Implements A number of the finds at Servia were, or might have been, connected with textiles. They include pierced sherd disks, probably used as spindle whorls; spindle whorls proper; small clay ring weights and clay spools, often unfired, which could have been used as loomweights; loomweights of recognised types; impressions of matting preserved on pottery or daub; three bone tools which could have been used in weaving; a copper needle; a possible button; and, finally, a number of the eba clay 'anchors', which were almost certainly quite unconnected with spinning or weaving, but which are included in this section of the report because of the many suggestions that they might have been.

4.3.2 Sherd Disks (fig. 4.31, plates 4.17, 4.260) Sherd disks must have been invented as early as pottery itself, for the first examples occur in en levels. They continued to be used throughout Greek prehistory, and indeed later (Brann 1961, 117, 123, 140, pl. 22, L43, K7; Lalonde 1968, pl. 37b), though they are commoner in the earlier periods. They are made from potsherds of which the edges have been chipped or ground to form an approximately circular shape. Some have a more or less centrally-placed hole. They probably served various purposes, such as counters, gaming pieces, lids or stoppers and the pierced ones may well have been used as spindle whorls.

It is always difficult to record the exact numbers of these objects from a site. Complete, pierced examples are likely to be noticed in the field, but unpierced or broken ones are often not easy to distinguish from ordinary potsherds, especially if very fragmentary. Thus, as well as over 50 catalogued disks, many more were noted during the pottery study, making a total of 87 pieces. Heurtley reports another seven which were observed during the 1930 excavation (1939, fig. 7k). Even this may not be the whole total, but it is a fair sample. Of these, 22 came from Servia-Varytimides, and 65 from the main site. Their distribution amongst the site's phases is shown in table 4.4.

Table 4.4. Numbers of sherd disks (pierced and unpierced) found in each phase.

Phase en One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten Eleven u/s

No. of sherd 221 9 - 6 244 8 4 14 3 10 disks

Except for the preponderance of the en disks, and the slight apparent upsurge in Phase Ten, this is a fairly even distribution - but the above table presumes that the disks were in use in the phase in which they were found. The decorative mn wares were apparently in demand for making disks long after the period itself had ceased, the latest examples occurring in Phase Ten (see below). Tatar ware (Phase Eight) was also often used for the disks of later phases. Disks from Phase Eleven, plus the unstratified and uncertain examples, are all likely to be prehistoric at Servia.

2o8 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

The Servia disks may be divided into three groups: those which have holes bored in them, those which do not, and those for which the information is not available. The first group included pieces in which the drilling was not completed. The holes are occasionally straight-sided, but usually the drill bit seems to have been a low, wide cone, so that the exterior of the hole is considerably wider than the interior. If drilling was done from one side only, this gave the perforation a V-shaped profile, while if, as was often the case, the hole was drilled from both sides, it was hour-glass-shaped in section. There are several instances of drilling being started from both sides, but abandoned when it became obvious that the holes would not meet [e.g. uncatalogued disks from zembilia 1704 and 1337), and there are also rare occurrences of disks with two holes (SF677 and SF822). It is clear from examples with uncompleted holes that disks were chipped or ground into shape before the hole was commenced, so it is just possible that the disks without holes are simply unfinished. As there can be no certainty, however, it seems better to treat them as a separate class. Thirteen disks without holes, which were sufficiently intact to measure, had diameters which ranged from a maximum of 9.8 cm to a minimum of 2.5 cm, with an average of 5.5 cm.

Although it cannot be proved that the disks with holes were used as spindle whorls, there is much in favour of this interpretation. The function of a spindle whorl is to increase momentum to the spindle and keep it turning, and it is the combination of the weight and the diameter of a whorl that makes it useful for this purpose. Thus, a whorl of a very light weight can be efficient if it has a wide diameter and conversely a small, but comparatively heavy, whorl can be used, although the wider, lighter whorls are easier to handle. Experiment suggests a diameter range of 2-8 cm and a weight range of 5-90 g, as an approximate rule of thumb, with 3-7 cm and 10-50 g preferable. The diameter of the central hole can also be indicative. As this has to grip the tapered spindle below the latter's thickest part, hole diameters over 1 cm are suspect. Conversely, as the whorl does have to fit on to at least the tip of the spindle, diameters of less than 0.4 cm are likely to be too small.

Twenty of the 2 2 sherd disks from Servia-Varytimides were pierced, one was not, and for one, no information was available. A summary of the weights and dimensions of the twenty pierced disks is given in table 4.5.

Table 4.5. Pierced sherd disks from Servia-Varytimides. (As many disks were fragmentary, it was not always possible to measure or weigh them. In

particular, only whole disks were used in the weight sample.)

No. in Sample Maximum Average Minimum

Diameter (cm) 20 6.3 4.4 3.1 Min. Hole Diameter (cm) 18 0.7 0.6 0.4 Weight (g) 10 40.0 19.0 12.0

It can be seen that all fell within the optimum dimensions and weight, and their use as whorls is all the more likely because clay whorls, specifically made for the purpose, are very rare indeed in en Greece, if indeed they existed at all (see below). Other sites which had pierced sherd disks in en contexts include Nea Nikomedeia (Rodden 1962, 285),


Otzaki (Milojcic-v. Zumbusch and Milojcic 1971, 26, pl. 10:23), Sesklo (Wijnen 1982, 47, fig. 14:7, 8), Pyrasos (Theocharis 1959, 66), Elateia (Weinberg 1962, 171: the whorls, though cut from en pottery, were found in topsoil and could therefore be later), Nea Makri (Theocharis 1956, 26) and Corinth (Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, 41, 42 fig. 16).

A summary of the weights and dimensions of the 36 pierced disks from the main site at Servia is given in table 4.6, and their distribution by phase is shown in table 4.7.

Table 4.6. The pierced sherd disks from the main site. (As many disks were fragmentary, it was not always possible to measure or weigh them. In

particular, only whole disks were used in the weight sample.)

No. in Sample Maximum Average Minimum

Diameter (cm) 30 8.5 4.9 2.4 Min. Hole Diameter (cm) 31 1.0 0.6 0.3 Weight (g) 14 68.0 25.4 3.0

Table 4.7. Numbers of fully pierced sherd disks from the main site found in each phase.

Phase One Two Three Four Five Six/Seven Eight Nine/Ten Eleven/u/s

No. of sherd 16-3- 5 412 5 disks

It should, however, be pointed out that two of the five disks of the ln Phases Six and Seven (SF441 and uncatalogued from E10/A), one of the four disks in the eba Phase Eight ditch (uncatalogued from zembil 1225), and one of the twelve sherd disks in the eba Phases Nine and Ten (SF443) were made out of mn potsherds. If these had been made and used in the mn phases, and thrown up when the ditch was dug, the distribution pattern would be quite different, with the disks being more in demand in the site's earlier phases. Enough disks were cut out of Tatar and other eba wares, however, to prove that the disks were made throughout the site's prehistoric period.

Twenty sherd disks, which were intact, and had completed holes were used as experimental spindle whorls. All the en ones worked very well. They were SF449, SF453, SF457, SF647, SF675, SF744, SF795 and SF944. SF1099 and SF822 were two of the many disks in which the hole drilling was not finished. Neither elliptical outlines like that of SF944 nor curved surfaces like that of SF457 impeded the work - in fact a slightly curved sherd seemed to work marginally better than a flat one. The very carefully made SF271 performed excellently. Second best was SF64 and the roughly formed SF441 was also surprisingly effective. Others that served the purpose well were SF35, SF311 and SF780. SF63 would have been better for a larger hole, and this was a real handicap with SF183, which was difficult to use because of it. SF244 was rather heavy and large, and its hole was

210 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

small for its size; it would probably have been suitable for use in a spindle-supported method of spinning (e.g. Warren 1972, 228) rather than the normal method in which the spindle is suspended from the forming thread. The small SF842 was fairly efficient, but the very small, lightweight disks SF1100 and SF1101 did not really assist the spindle much, and may have had some other use.

Pierced sherd disks of appropriate size and weight make very efficient spindle whorls. Deliberately formed flat disk whorls which were popular in the ln period (see 4.3.4), may well have been imitating them. Interestingly, at Sitagroi sherd disks of this type are rare at any period, and only thirteen are recorded.

Fig. 4.31. Sherd disks: SF271, Phase Ten; SF441, Phase Six; SF795, Phase en; SF647, Phase en; SF744, Phase en; SF780, Phase Two; SF677, Phase en l; SF644, Phase en. 1:2


Plate 4.17. (a) Pierced sherd disks, en. From left, top: fully pierced SF457, SF944, SF675, bottom: partly pierced, SF1099, SF822; (b) Unpierced sherd disks.

2 1 2 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Catalogue of the sherd disks

Th. = thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter; Wt. = weight in g.

SFl Zembil: 3; Phase: u/s Th. 1.1; Di. 4.7; Wt. 21 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Tatar ware with burnish/slip both sides.

SF35 Zembil: 83; Phase: Ten Th. 0.8; Di. 5.2; Zh. of perforation 0.62; PR 28 Complete. Pierced from both sides, slipped one side, scored ware.

SF36 plate 4. 17« Zembil: 8 2 ; Phase: Ten Th. 0.95; Z)z. 4.9; PR. 31 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Partly ground edge. Dark coarse gritty ware with mica.

SF63 Zembil: 1 ; Phase: u/s Th. 1; Di. 6.2; Di. of perforation 0.46; PR 48 Complete. Partly ground, pierced from both sides. Coarse red gritty ware with mica.

SF64 Zembil: 154; Phase: Ten Th. 1.17; Di. 5.88; Di. of perforation 0.75; Wt. 42 Complete, pierced from both sides. Ground edges. Tatar ware (?).

SF75 Zembil: 1 ; Phase: u/s Th. 0.87; Di. 4.55; M. 14 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Tatar ware.

SF76 Zembil: 103; Phase: Ten 7%. 1.2; Z)i. 5.7; Wt. 64 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Scored ware with grass/straw impressions.

SF79 F59 Zembil: 162; Phase: Eight Th. 0.83; Z)i. 2.6; PR. 7 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges partially ground. Burnished both sides, Tatar fine ware.

SF99 F59 Zembil: 156; Phase: Nine Th. 1.1; Di. 3.7; M. 14

Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Red slipped and burnished, coarse gritty ware with mica.

SFl 12 Zembil: 16; Phase: Nine Th. 1.08; Di. 5.15; M. 28 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Red slipped, coarse gritty clay with mica.

SF153 Zembil: 29; Phase: Eleven Th. 0.7; Di. 4.5; Di. of perforation 0.7; Wt. 14 Broken, c 50% present. Pierced from both sides. Edges partly ground. Burnished, coarse gritty clay.

SF154 Zembil: 332; Phase: Four Th. 0.6; Di. 5.57; Wt. 21 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Slipped dark clay with mica.

SF183 Zembil: 202; Phase: Nine/Ten Th. 1.94; Di. 5.35; M. 28 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edges not ground. Dark gritty clay.

SF213 F59 Zembil: 342; Phase: Eleven Th. 1; Di. 5.45; Wt. 28 Complete. Unpierced; unfinished (?). Edges not ground. Slipped and burnished, Tatar.

SF214 Zembil: 341 ; Phase: Two 7%. 0.7; Di. 5.5; Z>z. of perforation 0.68; PR. 14 Broken, 50% present. Pierced, broken at perforation. Coarse brown clay.

SF244 Zembil: 1001; Phase: Ten Th. 0.9; Di. 7.3; Di. of perforation 0.5; PR 57 Complete. Pierced. Edges not ground. Brown clay with mica.

SF271 FIG. 4.31, F59 Zembil: 1407; Phase: Ten JÄ. 0.5; Di. 4.2; Z)i. of perforation 0.6; PR. 14 Complete. Pierced inside to outside. Ground edges. Slipped and burnished, dark gritty ware.

SF311 F58 Zembil: 1 1 1 1 ; Phase: Two

THE SMALL FINDS: CLAY SPINNING AND WEAVING IMPLEMENTS 2 1 3

Th. 0.95; Di. 4.4; Di. of perforation 0.72; Wt. 14 Complete. Pierced from outside. Edges not ground. Dark gritty clay.

SF441 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 1353; Phase: Six Th. 0.5; Di. 4.8; Di. of perforation 0.69; Wt. 14 Complete. Pierced from outside. Not ground. Slipped, burnished and painted.

SF442 Zembil: 1042; Phase: u/ s Th. 1; Di. 8; Di. of part-piercing 0.84; Wt. 85 Broken, c. 55% present. Part-pierced. Scored ware.

SF443 Zembil: 1 o 1 2 ; Phase: Ten TA. 0.65; Z)i. 4.4; Di. of perforation 0.48; íf¿. 14 Broken, ¿. 50% present. Pierced from both sides. Edges not ground. Burnished, gritty clay with mica.

SF449 Zembil: 2005; Phase: en Th. 0.9; Di. 4; Di. of perforation 0.48; Wt. 14 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edges not ground. Dark gritty clay with mica.

SF451 Zembil: 1043; Phase: Ten Th. 1; Di. 4.5; Di. of perforation 0.69; Wt. 28 Complete. Part-piercing begun from both sides. Edges not ground. Dark gritty clay with mica.

SF453 Zembil: 2006; Phase: en Th. 0.63; Di. 4; Di. of perforation 0.73; M. 14 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edges partially ground. Slipped and burnished.

SF455 Zembil: 1116; Phase: Two Th. 0.6; Di. 3.3; Di. of perforation 0.78; M. 7 Broken, c. 25% present. Pierced. Edges not ground. Slipped, highly burnished, dark gritty clay with mica.

SF457 plate 4.17a Zembil: 2054; Phase: en Th. 0.6; Di. 4.1; Di. of perforation 0.67; W?. 7 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edges not ground. Dark gritty clay with mica.

SF459 F59 Zembil: 1485; Phase: Ten Th. 0.8; Di. 2.9; Wt. 7 Complete. Unpierced. Ground edges. Tatar fine, slipped and burnished.

SF461 PLATE 4. 17^ Zembil: 2105; Phase: Eight Th. 1.08; Z)i. 9.8; Wt. 114 Complete. Unpierced. Edges not ground. Unfinished (?). Red paint traces, gritty clay with mica.

SF507 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four Th. 0.7; Di. 4.65; Z)î. of perforation 0.65; M. 7 Broken, c. 45% present. Pierced from one side. Edges partially ground. Slipped, burnished, dark clay with mica.

SF636 Zembil: 3605; Phase: en Th. 0.7; Di. 4.2; Di. of perforation 0.57; Wt. 7 Broken, c. 50% present. Pierced. Edge not ground. Red slipped and burnished, fine red ware with mica.

SF637 Zembil: 3606; Phase: en Th. 0.6; Di. 4.2; Di. of perforation 0.18; M. 7 Broken, c. 45% present. Pierced from both sides. Edge partially ground. Black slipped and burnished.

SF644 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 361 1 ; Phase: en Th. 1; Di. 6.9; M. 28 Complete. Unpierced. Edge not ground. Decorated, criss-cross incisions on outside, slipped and burnished, fine red ware.

SF647 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 3614; Phase: en Th. 1.1; Di. 6.3; Di. of perforation o. 92; M. 28 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edge not ground. Red slipped and burnished, fine red ware with mica.

sf66o Zembil: 3539; Phase: en Th. 0.6; Di. 4.4; Di. of perforation 0.8 Complete. Pierced.

SF675 PLATE 4.17a Zembil: P 2 0/1 7; Phase: en Ja. 0.9; Z)i. 3.6; Z)i. of perforation 0.35; W?. 7 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Edge not ground. Slipped and burnished.

SF677 FIG. 4.31, PLATE 4.26« Zembil: 3537; Phase: en l Th. 0.7; Di. 3.7; Z)î. of part- perforation 1; Zh. 0/ perforation 0.9; M. 13 Complete (?). Part-pierced from both sides in the centre, with additional drilled hole at side, broken. Burnished both sides, red linear decoration on cream.


SF686 Zembil: 3634; Phase: en Th. 0.6; Di. 3.3; Di. of perforation 0.52; Wt. 7 Broken, c. 50% present. Pierced from both sides. Edge not ground. Slipped and burnished. Buntpoliert.

SF690 Zembil: 3635; Phase: en Th. 0.66; Di. 3.1; Di. of perforation 0.6; Wt. 7 Broken, c. 60% present. Pierced. Ground edge. Red slipped and burnished.

SF725 Zembil: 3636; Phase: en Th. 0.83; Di. 48; Di. of perforation 0.83; M. 7 Broken, ¿' 40% present. Pierced. Ground edge. Slipped and burnished.

SF744 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 3632; Phase: en Th. 0.8; Di. 4.7; Z)í. of perforation 1; Hft 14 Complete. Pierced from both sides. Partially ground edge. Red slip and burnish both sides.

SF754 Zembil: 3124; Phase: Two Th. 1.4; Di. 8.5; Di. of perforation 0.8 Broken, c. 50% present. Pierced from both sides. Coarse gritty ware.

SF764 Zembil: 3632; Phase: en Th. 1.05; £1.3.9; Wt. 14 Broken, c. 90% present. Pierced. Cream slip, burnish.

SF780 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 31 24; Phase: Two 7%. 0.74; Di. 3.3; Z)i. of perforation 0.7; W?. 7 Complete. Pierced. Edge not ground. Red-brown slip, burnish.

SF795 FIG. 4.31 Zembil: 3653; Phase: en Th. 0.7; Z)i. 4.8; Di'. of perforation 0.6; W. 22 Complete. Pierced from inside. Slip and burnish both sides.

SF822 plate 4.17a Zembil: 3644; Phase: en Th. 1.2; Di. 5.1; Di. 0/ part-perforation 0.5; M. 32 Complete. Part-pierced from both sides.

SF842 F58 Zembil: 3700; PAöj*: u/s Th. 0.6; Z)i. 3.2; Di. of perforation 0.53; Wf. 7.5 Complete. Pierced from one side. Red slip and burnish both sides.

SF944 PLATE 4.17a Zembil: 3539; Phase: en Th. 0.6; Di. 38; Di. of perforation 0.7; W?. 10 Complete. Pierced from inside. Burnish.

SF984 Zembil: 1313; Phase: Five 7%. 1.05; Di. 9.8; W?. 69 Broken, c. 40% present. No visible signs of piercing. Edge partially ground. Smooth, burnished, characteristic mn ware, dark gritty clay.

SFIOIO Zembil: 3 1 30; Phase: Two Th. 1.2; Di. 4 Complete. Part-pierced from inside. Burnished, dark clay.

SFIO99 PLATE 4.17a Zembil: 3633; Phase: en u 7%. 1.1; Di. 5.5; Di. 0/ perforation 0.4; M. 23 Complete. Part-pierced from both sides. Brown slip and burnish.

SFllOO F59 Zembil: 344; Phase: u/s 7%. 0.53; Di. 2.75; Di. of perforation o. 4' Wt. 2.5 Complete. Pierced from one side. Black slip and burnish both sides, Tatar fine ware.

SFllOl F58 Zembil: 1001 ; Phase: Ten Th. 0.57; Di. 2.2; Di. of perforation 0.72; Wfc. 2.5 Broken, c. 90% present. Pierced from one side. Slip and burnish, decoration on outside, red on light.

4.3.3 Spindle Whorls (fig. 4.32, plates 4.18, 4.26) Unlike some neolithic and eba sites, such as Sesklo and Dimini with more than 500 whorls between them, Sitagroi, with over 300 (excluding the flat disk form discussed in 4.3.4), Pyrgos near Sesklo with 55 (Tsountas 1908, col. 343), or Rachmani with 70 (Wace and Thompson 1912, 42), Servia did not produce a large number of whorls. Of the 24


catalogued, only 1 7 came from reasonably secure contexts, and of these, three are rather small to be whorls. Heurtley reported three from the 'Burnt House' (= Phase Four) and another two from the 'ln' Stratum (1939, 65, 78). Although it is not possible to be certain when only a small part of the site could be excavated, the likely implication is that the inhabitants of Servia, in all periods, were probably only spinning enough thread to serve their own needs.

An en spindle whorl If the en SF667 is a spindle whorl, it is the earliest one from Servia. I did not have an opportunity to see this small find, but it is recorded as having an elongated piriform shape, centrally pierced through the longer axis. As a bead it would have been large, heavy and clumsy, and its asymmetrical form does not favour such an interpretation. As a spindle whorl, its size, weight and hole diameter all fall within the acceptable range (see sherd disks above), but its shape is not so suitable. Generally speaking, whorls which have a diameter in excess of, or at least no smaller than, their height are easier to use, and keep the spindle rotating longer than do whorls like SF667 in which the height considerably exceeds the diameter. Whorls of approximately this shape were occasionally used in later periods however (Tsountas 1908, pl. 44 no. 23; Valmin 1938, 355 fig. 71 row B, left), and there is no doubt that SF667 could have been used as a whorl. Whether it actually was, when the more effective pierced sherd disks were available, remains an open question.

Another reason for caution in accepting SF667 as a spindle whorl is that very few made whorls, as opposed to sherd disks, are reported from en Greece, and all those that are, are subject to some doubt. At Nea Nikomedeia, for example, no made spindle whorls are reported, and 31 examples of pierced sherd disks were catalogued (Pyke 1994, 133). The only one illustrated, a low ring whorl from Corinth (Walker- Kosmopoulos 1948, 41, 42 fig. 15), may possibly be a small clay weight (see below). 'Several whorls or buttons made of terracotta' were found in an en deposit in the Tsoungiza Hill cave, near Nemea (Biegen 1927, 439), which may imply made whorls rather than sherd disks, but without illustration or description, it is difficult to know. Spindle whorls were mentioned from 'en' contexts from excavations at Sesklo in the ig6os, but the term was being used to cover what are usually called both the en and mn periods (Theocharis 1962 0, 45; 1962 Ã, 33, 34); a more recent publication on en Sesklo mentions six spindle whorls, but the only one which is catalogued and illustrated is, in fact, a sherd disk (Wijnen 1982, 47, fig. 14 no. 7). Thus, if SF667 actually is a spindle whorl, it is one of the oldest found in Greece.

mn spindle whorls The same remark applies to SF405, but without the same need for reservation, as it is an undoubted spindle whorl. When found on the floor of Structure 1 of Phase One, it was whole, but because it was unbaked, it was rapidly dissolving into the surrounding mud and only half of it could finally be preserved. It was a rounded asymmetrical bicone, a good shape for a whorl, and its size and original weight - which must have been approximately 40 g - are both suitable. That biconical whorls became an established form at Servia in the mn period, is proved by SF733 from Phase Three. This was a large, symmetrical bicone, again only partly preserved, with a hole that had been pierced from both ends before firing.

2i6 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Biconical clay whorls are also found in mn strata at other sites. One occurred in Phase II at Pyrasos, which has A3B pottery (Theocharis 1959, 66). Five of the eleven 'double conoid' whorls at Tsangli (Wace and Thompson 1912, 125, 130) came from late mn houses and there were two from the mn Phase IV at Achilleion (Gimbutas et al 1989, 252-3, fig. 8.7:1,2).

ln spindle whorls The biconical whorl form continued into the ln period at Servia. Heurtley reported 'roughly biconical' whorls from his ln strata (Heurtley 1939, 78), and the 1971-73 excavations produced the rounded biconical SF528 from Phase Seven, and the small, neatly-formed SF111 from Phase Seven. The latter could, perhaps, be identified as a very large bead, but it seems rather too big for such a use, and it is not particularly decorative. There can be no clear dividing line between whorls and beads, because it is perfectly possible to spin using a bead as a whorl, so long as it is sufficiently large and heavy, and its central hole is large enough to take a spindle. All SFin's dimensions fall within the 'possible' category for a spindle whorl, and I think it probably was one.

Other ln sites where biconical whorls have been found include Olynthus (two with restrained incised patterns, both from uncertain contexts) (Mylonas 1929, 80, pl. 91a, b), Paradimi (Bakalakis and Sakellariou 1981, Taf. 45 no. 15) and Porodin, near Bitola (Grbic et al i960, pl. 12:1, 2). There was one in the FN/chalcolithic House Qat Rachmani (Wace and Thompson 1912, 53, fig. 2 8f). Large numbers of ln whorls are recorded from Sitagroi, with the majority (152) from Phase III. Biconical types are present but most are flat or shallow conical forms not represented at Servia. The prevalence of conical forms in Phase III foreshadows their widespread use in southern Greece in the eba. There are probably others, from sites which have both ln and eba levels, but the older reports very seldom separate whorls into different periods, so that it is difficult to be sure.

eba spindle whorls Biconical whorls are also represented in the eba at Servia, with SF295 from the fill of a Phase Eight ditch, and SF350 from the fill of the Phase Nine pit i in Area G.

SF295 is a unique whorl, very attractively decorated on its upper surface with a single incised tree-like motif. Trees are commonly incised on eba Trojan whorls. Most have downward sloping branches, but there are a few with raised ones, similar to the tree on SF295 (Schliemann 1880, whorl nos. 1898-1900. 1899 is also very similar to SF295 in form). On the Trojan whorls, the motif is combined with others so that at least the whole upper surface is decorated, whereas the Servia whorl has only a single tree - but the similarity is sufficient to suggest some northwestern Anatolian influence.

Biconical whorls were used in the eba in a number of areas of Greece, though not in all, and from the ln period onward they were not the only type of whorl. At Dimini and Sesklo, Tsountas found them to be typical of the ba rather than the neolithic period (Tsountas 1908, col. 344), and Wace and Thompson were surprised to find them in the mn houses at Tsangli (Wace and Thompson 1912, 130), when at Tsani they were common in Phases V- VIII, the eba and mba [ibid., 149). Six further biconical whorls from Tsangli presumably came from the post-MN strata, that is, ln to mba. Wace and Thompson also found four biconical whorls at Rini [ibid., 134), where only chalcolithic and ba levels were excavated. More recent excavations at Argissa confirm their use in the eba, though it is interesting to see


that they are in a minority there (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, Taf. 51:1, 25, 26). In Macedonia, they are known from eba levels at Kritsana (Heurtley 1939, 203 fig. 671-q), Agios Mamas, Saratse (Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1932, 150; 1932, 140) and Kastanas (Aslanis 1985, 195-7, Taf. 11:12,52:11, 81:1-9). At Sitagroi over 270 whorls are recorded from Phases IV and V, of which most were biconical, although deep and shallow conical types were frequent as in southern Greece (see below).

Further afield, they were used in the Ionian islands, at Aphiona on Corfu (Bulle 1934, 167, fig. 4:14, 15), on Leukas (Dörpfeld 1927, 284, 331, pls. 56, 81a, 83a), and at Pelikata on Ithaka (Heurtley 1934-35, 35, fig. 30:141, 145). With these western biconical whorls, should probably be grouped one mentioned as coming from prehistoric sites near Olympia (Weege 1911, 180). In the northern Aegean, biconical whorls, first used in the Azzuro phase at Poliochni on Lemnos (Bernabò Brea 1964, 588, pls. 82f-k, 84n, o, q), continued into the eba Verde and Rosso periods (ibid., 655, pl. 169); they were also very common at Thermi on Lesbos, although there the majority had incised decoration (Lamb 1936, 161, figs. 46, 47).

Although periods later than the eba do not concern us here, it may be said that in northern Greece, and particularly in Macedonia, biconical whorls were used throughout the BA, and continued into the eia and even later. This means that if found out of context, they are practically impossible to date. In central Greece and the Péloponnèse, biconical whorls were common in the mh and lh periods, but in the eba they were virtually non- existent - the above-mentioned whorl from near Olympus, and one from Agios Kosmas in Attica, which is on display in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Case 42, bottom shelf (possibly Mylonas 1959, 41, fig. 170:12), seem to be the only exceptions. The typical eh whorls of central and southern Greece in the eba were all variations on a conical shape. They were usually relatively tall, their height seldom being less than their diameter, and usually three-quarters of it or more. Slightly concave-sided cones exist, but most are straight-sided or convex-sided. The straight-sided cones often have a truncated base, and this, developed to extreme, can produce whorls that are almost cylindrical. The convex-sided cones, called 'plump-cones' by some archaeologists, are often hemispherical; sometimes they have a hollow top. These hemispherical, or domed whorls are one of the few types that can be dated when found out of context. They existed only in the eba, with perhaps a slight overlap into the mba. Most of these new eba types of whorls are larger and heavier than any neolithic ones, and this could possibly be an indication of a change from wool to flax-spinning, as the latter requires a heavier whorl. Small versions of the new shapes also existed, but they were usually in the minority. Sites with well-illustrated collections of these eba whorls include Eutresis (Caskey and Caskey i960, 142, 145, 157, pl. 53; Goldman 1931, 192, fig. 265), Lithares (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 173, figs. 23, 24Ct-y, e-r|, 1, 2501-9, |li-v, pls. 90, gia-8, r|) and Perachora (Fossey 1969, 65, fig. 8) in central Greece, and Korakou (Biegen 1921, 104, fig. 129), Corinth (Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, 57, 72, figs. 39, 40) and Zygouries (Biegen 1928, 190, fig. 179) in the Péloponnèse. Lerna also has a fine collection (Banks 1967, Chapter 5, 485 et seq., pls. 16, 17). With the one exception noted above, the whorls from Agios Kosmas are also typical of the period, but the published illustration is not helpful (Mylonas 1959, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 41, 146, fig. 170:2-5, 7-11); and many other sites have the whorls, but are without published illustrations of them.

It is very interesting to observe that Servia was affected by the new fashion. As well as the biconical SF350, Phase Nine produced a third of a small truncated conical whorl, with

2 1 8 JILL CARINGTON SMITH

a slightly hollow top, SF538. The usual whorl versus bead arguments apply to it, but it is both large for, and an odd shape for a bead, and quite suitable as a small whorl. It has a parallel from Pelikata on Ithaka (Heurtley 1935, fig. 30h).

In Phase Ten there are seven whorls, plus the small, globular SF239, a probable bead, though not a very striking one. Its central hole would be too small for most spindles. SF27 is a low, lens-shaped whorl, unlike the site's earlier biconical ones. Tsountas describes a flat lens-shaped whorl as being one of the types of flat whorl typical of the ln period, with some overlap into the eba (Tsountas 1908, cols. 343-4), but SF27 is not as flat as these. It compares with a ln whorl from Porodin (Grbic et al. i960, 100, pl. 12:2) and also with Whorl Type B at Pefkakia, which was not found in that site's Dimini period, but was in use in all three of the following Rachmani phases (Weisshaar 1989, 47, Taf. 137). SF27 may, therefore, be of a LN/chalcolithic type continuing into the eba.

The remaining Phase Ten whorls are all of the new types prevailing in southern Greece. SF70 is a rounded cone whilst sfioo, SF280, SF319 and SF336 are truncated cones. Sfioo is on the whorl/bead boundary, just acceptable as a whorl, and an unlikely shape for a bead. SF319 is of medium size, while SF280 and especially SF336 are the large cones typical of the period. SF303 is a fine example of a hemispherical or domed whorl, large and well-made. Its hollow top may have been intended to reduce its weight without detracting from its size, or may have been to provide extra space for finished thread to be wound on the spindle.

Other northern sites, besides Servia, adopted the eba whorl shapes. At Sitagroi deep conical types are more common than the shallow conical form favoured in Phase III. Argissa had conical, domed and near-cylindrical whorls, as well as biconical and other forms (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, Taf. 51). Kritsana had a cylinder and a tall, concave- sided cone (Heurtley 1939, 203, fig. 67bb, ff), Agios Mamas had cylindrical whorls as well as biconical and rounded ones (Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1928, 150), and Vardaroftsa produced eba cylindrical, conical and hemispherical or domed whorls; even Armenochori near Fiorina had conical and domed whorls (Heurtley 1939, 203 fig. 67r, u, v, cc), the latter often with a slightly hollow top (ibid., 87, 203 fig. 67W-Z, aa).

Spindle whorls from uncertain contexts Because of the decided change in whorl types at Servia in Phases Nine and Ten, it is possible to date some of the whorls from insecure contexts. The domed whorl sfiio, from Phases Nine/Ten/ Eleven, should be eba, as should the truncated cones SF193 from Phase Eleven and the unstratified SF71. The rounded, rather formless, biconical unstratified whorls SF45, SF374 and SF375 should probably be mn or ln.

SF376, a low bicone with slightly concave upper sides is something like Phase Ten's SF27, but the latter is much more sharply modelled. SF376 is also somewhat like a 'wheel- shaped' whorl from eba Argissa (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, Taf. 51:32), so on the whole seems likely to be eba.

The thick, flat, or perhaps low, cylindrical sf6oi, which came, not from the main site, but from a road section which showed Phase Eight ditches in its section, may perhaps be a bead, as its hole is on the small side to receive a spindle. Its shape does resemble a ba whorl of Tsountas (1908, col. 344, pl. 44:17), though the latter was larger; given the proximity of the ditch, an eba date is not unreasonable.


SF405 -

SF733 SF528 SF45 SF111

( 1 ¡ ) SF350 SF538 SF239 SF27

SF295

C - nr-^ r- n - ) C j~¡ 7 C^T^7?

SF1OO SF29O SF319 SF336 SF303

r - m - 1

SF71 ^J--1^

SF374 X^J L^SF375 SF376 SF6OI

'^^ / 's^ J SF4221 ^<C^^^-<_ L^^y sf888

Fig. 4.32. Spindle whorls and ring weights. 1:2

2 2O JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Plate 4.18. Clay spindle whorls, Phase Ten. From left, top: SF280, SF303, SF336, bottom: sfioo, SF319, SF27; (a) top view (b) three quarter view


Catalogue of the spindle whorls

Ht. = maximum height in cm; Di. = maximum diameter; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF27 FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6 1 Zembil: 106; Phase: Ten Ht. 1.7; Di. 4.2; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 16 Incomplete, low biconical, black slipped and burnished, coarse gritty clay, mica.

SF45 fig. 4.32 Zembil: 303; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven Ht. 2.9; Di. 4.6; Di. of perforation 0.7; Wt. 46 Complete, biconical, slightly flattened on top, coarse gritty clay, mica.

SF70 fig. 4.32 Zembil: 154; Phase: Ten Ht. 2.3; Di. 3.8; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 36 Complete, truncated conical, slight channel around hole on upper surface, red coarse gritty clay, mica.

SF71 Zembil: 1 ; Phase: u/s Ht. 2.7; Di. 4.2; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 55 Complete, hemispherical, light slip coarse gritty clay.

SFIOO FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6i Zembil: 103; Phase: Ten Ht. 1.6; Di. 2.3; Di. of perforation 0.5; Wt. 8 Complete, truncated conical, fine well-fired buff clay, mica, surface dark greyish brown.

SFl IO FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 72; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven Ht. 2.1; Di. 4.1; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 26 Chipped, almost complete, hemispherical, burnish, coarse gritty clay.

SFl 11 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 310; Phase: Seven Ht. 2.0; Di. 3.4; Z>î. of perforation 0.6; M. 19 Complete, biconical fine. Well-fired clay, mica, slipped and burnished surface mottled buff to black.

SFI93 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 508; Phase: Eleven Ht. 3.0; Di. 4.2; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 53 Complete, truncated conical, smooth.

SF239 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 1401; Phase: Ten Ht. 2.1; Di. 2.4; Di. of perforation 0.4; M. 12 Complete, spherical, fine well-fired buff clay, mica, lightly burnished.

SF280 FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6 1 Zembil: 1006; Phase: Ten Ht. 2.2; Di. 4.7; Di. of perforation 0.9; Wt. 44 Complete, low conical, smooth, burnt (?) red-brown fine clay, mica.

SF295 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 1228; Phase: Eight Ht. 2.5; Di. 4.4; Di. of perforation 0.9; M. 35 Chipped, almost complete, biconical, smooth, incised decoration, coarse gritty clay.

SF303 FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6 1 Zembil: 1222; Phase: Ten Ht. 3.0; Di. 4.8; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 62 Complete, hemispherical, hollow in top, fine, red- brown gritty clay, mica.

SF319 FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6 1 Zembil: 1047; Phase: Ten Ht. 2.3; Di. 3.4; Di. of perforation 0.7; Wt. 27 Complete, truncated conical, black, coarse gritty clay.

SF336 FIG. 4.32, PLATE 4.18, f6o, f6 1 Zembil: 1453; Phase: Ten Ht. 3.0; Di. 5.5; Di. of perforation 0.9; Wt. 77 Complete, truncated conical, smooth, dark coarse gritty clay, mica.

SF35O FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 3.7; Di. 5.2; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 70 Complete, biconical, burnish, dark clay, mica.

SF374 fig. 4.32 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s Ht. 3.0; Di. 3.7; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 37 Complete, flattened spherical, grey gritty clay, mica.

SF375 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s Ht. 3.5; Di. 4.5; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 44 Complete, biconical, asymmetrically-placed hole, gritty clay, mica.

SF376 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: - ; Phase: u/s Ht. 2.1; Di. 5.3; Di. of perforation 0.9; Wt. 48 Complete, low biconical, smooth, dark, gritty clay.

SF405 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 1210; Phase: One Ht. 3.1; Z)¿. 4.5; Z>i. of perforation 0.9; M. 19 Incomplete, unfired, fine clay.


SF528 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 1729; Phase: Seven Ht. 2.9; Di. 3.9; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 33 Complete, rounded biconical, smooth, dark gritty clay, mica.

SF538 fig. 4.32 Zembil: 1443/45/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 2.3; Di. 2.6; Di. of perforation 0.6 Incomplete, subconical, smooth, dark gritty clay. Burnished surface.

sf6oi fig. 4.32, plate 4. 26Ô Zembil: 3206; Phase: u/s

Ht. 1.4; Di. 2.6; Di. of perforation 0.5; Wt. 13 Chipped, almost complete, cylindrical, hollow in top.

SF667 PLATE 4.26a Zembil: 3507; Phase: en Ht. 4.2; Di. 2.9; Di. of perforation 0.9; Wt. 26 Chipped, almost complete, pear-shaped.

SF733 FIG. 4.32 Zembil: 3040; Phase: Three Ht. 3.7; Di. 4.6; Z)í. of perforation 0.8 Incomplete, biconical, splayed perforation.

4.3.4 Pierced Disks (fig. 4.33) Two fragmentary disks, SF186 and SF215, came from Phase Eleven, both being from the fill of the Byzantine burial pit Though they look like pierced sherds, both had been directly formed from clay, and fired. Though large, thick and heavy (the original weight of SF186 would probably have been c. 70 g, and that of SF215 c. 90 g), they could have been used as whorls. A pierced clay plaque (SF985, 4.3.16) could have been used in the same way.

I do not know whether such disks with central holes could belong to a Byzantine assemblage. If they are prehistoric, they may be very large versions of a group of flat or flattish spindle whorls, not otherwise represented at Servia. Tsountas' observation that at Dimini and Sesklo they usually belonged to the ln with an overlap into the eba (Tsountas 1908, col. 343, pl. 44:1-1 1), is well-confirmed by Pefkakia Whorl Type A, which was used both in that site's Dimini period and right through its three Rachmani phases (Weisshaar 1989, 47, Taf. 137). Wace and Thompson record flat whorls from Tsangli, Tsani and Zerelia (Wace and Thompson 1912, 125, 149, 166). They were found in the earlier Phases I-V at Tsani; there is no indication of their date at Zerelia and Tsangli, but at the latter site, one of the whorls was very thick, another very wide. At Sitagroi flat whorls were particularly popular in Phases IV (ln) and V (eba) though present throughout. Usually, however, these flat LN/chalcolithic whorls (see esp. Hourmouziadis et al. 1982, 49, fig. 20) are much smaller than SF186 and SF215, and whether these really belong to this class of whorl must remain uncertain.

Fig. 4.33. Clay pierced disk (sfi86, Phase Eleven); pierced plaque (SF985, Phase Two: see 4.3.16). 1:2.


Catalogue of the pierced disks

Di. = maximum diameter; Wt. = weight in g SF215 Zembil: 510; Phase: Eleven

SF186 fig. 4.33 T>i. 8.0; Th. 1.0; Di. of perforation 0.7 ; Wt. 90 Zembil: - ; Phase: Eleven Half preserved. Grey fabric, one surface orange, the Di. est. 6.0; Th. 1.5; Di. of perforation est. 1.1; Wt. 70 other buff slip (?). One-third preserved. Fine, well-fired buff clay, mica, burnt dark.

4.3.5 Ring Weights (fig. 4.34, plate 4.200) In his excavation at Servia, Heurtley found 'four spheroid but rather formless whorls or buttons' in mn levels (Heurtley 1939, 65). The one he illustrates seems to be a sherd disk, but one wonders whether the others were not in fact clay ring weights of the type published here. The first few found in the 1971-73 excavation were presumed to be spindle whorls, but when they turned up in numbers, they were re-examined, and it became clear that they were small weights of some kind.

Of the total of 24 in the catalogue, no fewer than 13 came from a discrete area of floor surface within Structure 7 of Phase Four (baulk in D10/A-B). Eleven of them were associated not only with the same level, but also the same zembil, 3325 (SF727-729, SF73 7-740, SF759, SF809-811). The other two were from the same level, but from structural debris which covered the floor of Structure 7, zembil 3338 (SF779 and sf8o6). A further six weights came from the structural debris of Structure 7 in Do/C, immediately adjacent to the Dio/ A-B baulk (fig. 5.7). Three (SF805, SF807, sf8o8), were from zembil 3342, and the other three (SF802-804) were from a neighbouring disturbed deposit. They show sufficient resemblances to each other to suggest that they all came from no more than two groups, and it seems highly probable that all 19 are, in fact, from the one set, with the Do/C examples being displaced during and after the structural collapse. The five remaining weights (SF159, SF422, SF479, sf668 and sf888) are classified as such, by analogy with the main group, and were not from the same vicinity. It is interesting that the type occurred as early as Phase Three (sf888). SF479, assigned to Phase Five/ Seven in Area H, probably belonged to Phase Five. SF159 and sf668 were from Phase Four, but from Structures 2 and 3 respectively. SF422 was recovered from machine excavation in Area H. SF422 and the fragmentary SF479 are larger than the rest, but are clearly the same type of object. For another probable weight in stone, see section 4.2.13 (SF907).

There are a number of reasons for classifying these objects as weights rather than spindle whorls. Spindle whorls do not occur in groups. They are objects of single use, made individually, and no two are entirely alike. No spinner is likely to own more than two or three whorls, and most would work with the same one all the time. Thus, in a family home, no more than five or six whorls can be expected. From the archaeological point of view, one would not expect to find more than a few whorls in one level, and one would expect them all to be different from one another. The weights consist of small balls of clay which are sometimes spherical (SF740), sometimes rounded biconical (SF779), sometimes flattened (sf8o8) and sometimes narrower at one end, so that they are piriform in section (SF159, SF803, SF806). Their very large holes (minimum vertical diameters are given in the catalogue) are mostly too large for a spindle, and are often eccentrically placed (SF159,


SF628, SF727, SF729, SF737, SF739, sf8o6, SF807), and some have actual grooves worn by thread or string (SF727, SF729, SF738, SF779, SF809). It may be possible to distinguish these in SF729 and SF779.

Given that these objects were suspended in some way, the question is what their purpose was. They were not beads - they are too large, too heavy, their holes are far larger than necessary for a single thread or thong and, above all, when it is remembered that mn pottery is some of the most decorative ever produced in Greece, they are not nearly attractive enough. They could, perhaps, be fishing-net weights. The fact that nearly all survived intact, indicates that they were reasonably well-fired, possibly well enough to withstand immersion, and the River Haliakmon was close by. They could also be loomweights - they are much lighter than loomweights would usually be, but some small pyramidal loomweights of the Classical-Hellenistic periods are light. The looser tension produced on warp threads by lighter loomweights could be an advantage in producing tapestry weave, and the likelihood that such patterned weaves existed in the mn period is suggested by textile-type patterns on mn pottery (e.g. Ridley and Wardle 1979, figs. 8-10, esp. nos. 23, 34). The weight variation of the set, 19-52 g, is acceptable, because loomweights in a set need not all be the same weight, so long as each loomweight in the front row weighs approximately the same as its opposite number in the back row (Hoffman 1964, 42, fig. 9). Smaller bunches of warp threads can be attached to the lighter weights so that tension is kept more or less even on all warps; in any case, the warp-weighted loom is not a temperamental machine, and copes well with variations. The very large holes of many of these little weights would be very well-suited to bunches of warp threads. To sum up, it is not possible to prove that these small clay ring weights were used on a warp- weighted loom, but there is no reason why they should not have been.

The warp-weighted loom may have been in use in Greece as early as the en period. Nea Nikomedeia had two fragments which seem to be weights of this type (Pyke 1994, 128) but many more clay spools (see below). Corinth produced a tall, truncated conical weight, decorated with horizontal bands of brown paint, which is dated to the en by its context (Davidson 1952, 147-8, n. 8, pl. 146c). It looks much later, but similar weights from ln Phthiotic Thebes have been displayed in Volos museum. Tall oblong weights, five, bored horizontally at the top, from I-VIIF - that is, from mn to Mycenaean - were found at Tsani (Wace and Thompson 1912, 149), but small numbers from small tests can be deceptive, and I suspect these of being no earlier than ln, or even ba. As indicated above, the ring whorl published from en Corinth may in fact be a ring weight like the Servia ones. Its illustration shows clearly the large, off-centre hole and the rounded piriform outline (Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, 41, 42 fig. 15). One of the whorls from the Achilleion excavation also looks rather suspect (Gimbutas et al 1989, 254, fig. 8.7:2). Finally, five pierced globular clay objects, larger than the Servia ones, some with string wear in their holes, were found in the Franchthi cave; two of them were from mn contexts (Jacobsen 1973, 277).

The evidence for the existence of the warp-weighted loom in the en-mn periods is not overwhelming, but it is sufficient for the possibility to be admitted. The case would be greatly strengthened if it could be proved that the clay spools (see below) were an early type of loomweight.


^^ ^s _S^_^-^ SFl59 - s - ' sf668 ^ ^ V_^^ SF727

^ ^- ->- ^ SF728 /- -N~^SF72g ^-^ > - SF?37

^ ~ ~^^ SF738 '- -<_ >- SF739 X ^y X^^/SF74O

SF759 -S-/sf779 SF802

©B @© O SF803 SF804 SF805

(ÜB (°J^ ^ 0~§ SF806 ^ - <~ -^-^sf8o7 sf8o8

(SS SF809 . ($~§ ^-^ - sf8 1 o ©"© x^ ^ V^4f« SF809 . ^-^ - sf8 1 o x^ ^ V^4f« 1 1

Fig. 4.34. Ring weights. 1:2


Catalogue of the ring weights Ht. = maximum height in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Di. of perforation = minimum vertical diameter of perforation; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF159 Zembil: 335; Phase: Four Ht. 4.3; W. 3.8; Th. 2.8; Di. of perforation 1.5; Wt. 39 Broken and mended, almost complete, flattened spherical, piriform profile, off-centre hole, rather coarse medium-fired buff clay, white grits.

SF422 Zembil: Area H; Phase: u/s Ht. 5.1; W - ; Th. 3.5; Di. of perforation 1.6; Wt. 70 Chip missing, flattened spherical, upper hole worn, quite well-fired orange clay, white grits, mica.

SF479 Zembil: 2124; Phase: Five/Seven Ht. 6.0; W. - ; Th. 3.5; Di. of perforation 1.5; Wt. 58 Fragmentary, flattened spherical, very lightly-fired, dark buff clay.

SF668 Zembil: 3104; Phase: Four Ht. 3.7; W. 3.4; Th. 2.1; Di. of perforation 1.1; Wt. 25 Complete, flattened spherical, hole off-centre, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF727 fig. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.8; W. 3.6; Th. 2.7; Di. of perforation o. q' Wt. 35 Complete, flattened spherical, hole off-centre, upper edge worn and grooved by thread, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF728 fig. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 4.1; W. 4.1; Th. 2.8; Di. of perforation 1.2; Wt. 44 Complete, flattened spherical, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF729 fig. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3 3 2 5 ; Phase: Four Ht. 4.2; W 3.4; Th. 3.2; Dì. 0/ perforation o. 9; W?. 50 Complete, angular spherical, hole off-centre, grooved by thread, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF737 fig. 4.34 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.8; W. 3.3; 7%. 2.3; Di. of perforation o. 9; W. 23 Complete, flattened spherical, hole off-centre, upper edges worn, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF738 fig. 4.34 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.9; W. 3.8; Th. 2.5; Z)i. of perforation 0.8; PR 31 Complete, flattened spherical, hole worn, two thread grooves, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF739 FIG. 4.34 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.6; PK3.8; 7%. 2.4; Di. of perforation 1.0; PW. 30 Complete, flattened spherical, hole off-centre, upper edges worn, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF740 FIG. 4.34 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.6; W. 3.5; Th. 3.0; Di. of perforation o. &' Wt. 32 Complete, spherical, hole central, upper edge worn, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF759 FIG. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.2; W. 3.2; 7%. 1.8; Di. of perforation 1.0; PR. 19 Complete, flattened spherical, hole central, upper edges worn, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF779 FIG. 4.34 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Ht. 4.6; W. 4.1; 7%. 3.2; 2)z. of perforation 1.0; W#. 52 Complete, rounded biconical, hole central, grooved by thread, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF802 fig. 4.34, plate 4.20a Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s Ht. 4.0; W. 3.9; Th. 2.7; Zh. of perforation 1.5; H/j. 36 Complete, flattened spherical, hole central, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF803 FIG. 4.34, PLATE 4. 2Oa Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s Ht. 4.3; W 4.5; 7%. 2.8; Di. of perforation 1.1; M. 43 Complete, flattened spherical, piriform profile, hole off-centre, upper edges worn, quite well-fired dark buff clay.

SF804 FIG. 4.34, PLATE 4.20a Zembil: Area D; Phase: u/s Ht. 4.0; W 4.1; Th. 2.9; Z)i. 0/ perforation 1 .4; W7. 42 Complete, flattened spherical, hole central, quite well-fired orange-buff clay.

SF805 FIG. 4.34, PLATE 4.20a Zembil: 3342; Phase: Five Ht. 3.6; W 3.9; 7%. 2.3; Z)i. of perforation 0.9; PR 23 Complete, rounded biconical, hole central, thread wear in upper edge, quite well-fired orange-buff clay.


SF806 FIG. 4.34 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Ht. 3.4; W. 3.6; Th. 2.6; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 32 Complete, flattened spherical, piriform profile, hole off-centre, upper edges worn, quite well-fired mid- brownish-buff clay.

SF807 FIG. 4.34, PLATE 4.20a Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four Ht. 4.2; W. 4.3; Th. 2.5; Di. of perforation 1.2; W. 33 Complete, rounded biconical, hole off-centre, quite well-fired dark buff clay, burnt black on one side.

sf8o8 fig. 4.34, plate 4.20a Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four Ht. 3.7; W. 4.0; Th. 1.7; Z)f. of perforation 1.3; Wf. 23 Complete, heavily flattened spherical, quite well-fired orange-buff clay.

SF809 FIG. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.4; W. 3.5; Th. 2.0; Di. of perforation 1.0; M. 25

Complete, flattened spherical, hole off-centre with thread wear, quite well-fired orange-buff clay.

sf8io fig. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 3.4; W. 3.1; Th. 3.0; Di. of perforation o. 7 ' Wt. 26 Complete, spherical, hole off-centre, upper edges worn, quite well-fired orange-buff clay.

sf8h fig. 4.34, F62 Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four Ht. 4.3; W. 4.5; Th. 2.8; Di. of perforation 1.0; Wt. 45 Complete, flattened spherical, piriform profile, hole off-centre, upper edges worn plus two thread wear grooves, quite well-fired dark buff clay, partly blackened from fire.

SF888 Zembil: 3033; Phase: Three Ht. 5.0; W. 4.4; Th. 3.3; Di. of perforation 1.1; Wt. 43 Broken, mended, incomplete, rounded biconical, hole off-centre, unfired mid to dark brown clay.

4.3.6 Spools (fig. 4.35, plate 4.19) Thirty-eight of the clay objects usually referred to as spools or bobbins were catalogued from the 1971-73 excavations, and a further twenty uncatalogued fragments were found. The majority - 32 from the catalogue and 14 fragments - were from en Servia- Vary timides, but there was also a group from the mn Phase One Structure 3, consisting of SF849 and six fragments, all from zembil 306g. SF196 from Phase Eleven and SF337 from Phase Ten may be strays from neolithic levels at the main site.

The spools consist of cylindrical lumps of clay, slightly contracted round the middle, and flattened and somewhat splayed at each end. Sometimes the ends can be lightly hollowed (SF196, SF928), in other cases rather convex. SF337 has a hole through its waist (ç^Caskey and Caskey i960, 158, pl. 53:IX.3); all the others are unpierced. The majority are unbaked, though many are blackened or show signs of having lain near a fire. They range in size from mn SF849 and en SF936 to Phase Eleven SF196. The average weight is 57 g, based on a sample of 25 of the most complete spools; even these often have chips missing, so the average is not perfectly accurate. The spools were often found in groups, in the sense that a number were often associated with the same zembil (see catalogue below).

Although objects like these are not confined to the neolithic period or to Greece (e.g. see Wislanski 1970, 323, fig. 108:4; Schmidt 1945, 103, 205, pl. 48:11-13; Keller 1886, pl. 37:6, 7), within Greece, one of the periods when they were especially common was the neolithic. They were present at Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke 1994, 124-6). Otzaki had them throughout the en period (Milojcic-v. Zumbusch and Milojcic 1971, Teil i, 26, 31, Teil ii, 9, 15, 27, 50, pls. D:i3~i5, 10:25-27, 19:23, 24:8-9, Beil. 9 varia no. 8 Spulen). At Tsani they were found in 'early strata' (Wace and Thompson 1912, 149), at Achilleion in Phases II and III-IV, the Proto-Sesklo and Sesklo periods (Gimbutas et al. 1989, 252-3, fig. 8.6). At Elateia, Weinberg had them in en levels, including a group of eleven on a floor, and their use continued into the mn period (Weinberg 1962, 165, 203-4, pl. 69a, b). Tsountas found numbers in ln levels at Dimini and Sesklo (Tsountas 1908, col. 346, figs. 278-9).


One of those he illustrates is very like Servia's Phase Eleven SF196. Clay spools were also found further n, at ln Porodin (Grbic et al. i960, 100).

In the BA the spools generally become rare in comparison with the neolithic, although at Sitagroi 3 1 are recorded for Phase V, but more in Phases I- III. In the eba they are found in a somewhat larger size at a few sites - Thermi (Lamb 1936, 164 pl. 23:30.54), Tiryns and Mycenae (Schliemann 1886, 146, fig. 70), perhaps Lithares (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 174), and the smaller ones also occasionally occur, though not in any number [e.g. Banks 1967, 551 et seq. (types a and b only), pl. 19; Säflund 1965, 127 no. 22; Biegen 1928, 191, fig. 179:4, 5; Caskey and Caskey i960, 142 pl. 52:111.21; Holmberg 1944, 120, fig. 1 14:14, 17; Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, Taf. 51:3, 4, 10). After that, they virtually disappear until the very end of the ba, when they suddenly reappear in groups on sites from Crete to Macedonia; they continue into the Dark Ages (for references see Carington Smith 1983, 290). More recent examples include 7 from eia Phases 2 and 3 at Assiros (Assiros: Volume I, Early Iron Age, in preparation), 66 from eia levels at Kastanas (Hochstetter 1987, 89-9 1, Abb. 16, taf. 22 and 36) and from various contexts at Mycenae, including 44 recorded from the 1939-69 excavations (Mycenae Archive), and a group of 35 from the East Basement of the Granary (Wace 1925, 54).

There are many theories as to the purpose of these objects: spools or bobbins, fishing net weights, kiln supports, cooking-pot stands, loomweights and gaming pieces used in a form of 'board' game. Although the term is convenient, it is not very likely that they were spools or bobbins. A few, like Servia's SF196, would perhaps be suitable for such a use, but in the majority the waist is not sufficiently indented to allow any reasonable length of thread to be wound on; they are also too thick and clumsy, and not smooth enough. Sections of cane or reed, often still used for winding thread today in Greece, would have been much more suitable, and the site's daub impressions confirm that such materials were available in neolithic Servia (see section 3.5). The fishing-net weight theory (Grbic et al. i960, 100) is certainly untenable, as these objects are so often found unfired. The kiln support theory (Karageorghis 1969, 467-9 and n. 1, fig. 55) according to which the spools would have been used to keep pots separate while being fired in the kiln is impossible in Servia's case for the same reason, though the Cypriot ones being referred to may perhaps have been fired. The cooking-pot stand theory, first advanced by Winifred Lamb for the Thermi spools (Lamb 1936, 164 pl. 23:30.54), and recently followed by Coulson (Coulson in McDonald et al. 1983, 89), deserves consideration because spools have been found near hearths and are often blackened on one side as though they had lain near a fire. One cannot rule out this interpretation. The theory that the spools were used as gaming pieces also seems unlikely; the pieces do not fall into evenly-sized groups, and the convex ends of some would make standing the pieces up rather difficult. The loomweight theory seems to have originated with Schliemann, who thus interpreted a group of 1 6 spools he found at Tiryns (Schliemann 1886, 146, fig. 70). The hypothesis is that a bunch of warp threads could be tied round the centre of each spool, which is certainly sufficiently indented for such a purpose. Similar waisted clay weights were so used in ancient Bulgaria (Detev 1968, 24, fig. 16), and unpierced stones were tied by their centres onto bunches of warps on looms in Lapland within living memory (Hoffman 1964, figs. 20, 32).

Although it cannot be definitely proved that the clay spools were used as a simple form of loomweight, the theory has much to recommend it. They are suitable for the purpose in size, shape and weight. Loomweights are used in sets, and the spools occur in groups. The fact that so many are unbaked does not preclude such a use, because those that broke


Fig. 4.35. Spools: SF849A and b, Phase One; SF196, Phase Eleven; SF924, Phase en; SF936, Phase en; SF932, Phase en; SF937, Phase en; SF927, Phase en; SF404, Phase en; SF934, Phase en; SF923,

Phase en; SF337 (pierced), Phase Ten. 1:2

23O JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Plate 4.19. {a) Clay spools, en. From left, top: SF404, SF923, bottom: SF362, SF922; (b) Clay spools, en. From left, top: SF932, SF924, bottom: SF936, SF935; (c) Clay spool, SF196.


could be easily replaced. They may have been set by the hearth to dry out, which would account for the blackening on one side. Above all, during their lm/lh iiic to Dark Ages resurgence, there are three instances of spools being found with loomweights of recognised types; they may perhaps have been home-made substitutes for breakages in the original set (Carington Smith 1983, 291).

Catalogue of the spools Ht. = maximum height in cm; Di. = max. diameter; Wt. = weight in g where recorded. All fired unless otherwise specified.

SFI96 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4. 19Í* Zembil: 507; Phase: Eleven Ht. 4.1; Di. 2.3; Di. of waist 1.3; Wt. 17 Complete.

SF337 FIG. 4.35 Zembil: 1436; Phase: Ten Ht. 3.9; Di. 2.8; Di. of waist 1.3 Incomplete and fragmentary. Unbaked. Pierced horizontally through waist, dark gritty clay.

SF355 Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 4.2; Di. 3.1; Di. of waist 2.2; Wt. 43 Complete, dark grey clay. Unbaked.

SF357 Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 4.5; Di. 3.3; Di. of waist 2.4; Wt. 28 Almost complete. Dark gritty clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF358 Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 4.6; Di. 3.5; Di. of waist 2.1; Wt. 43 Incomplete. Dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF359 Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 4.2; Di. 3.3; Di. of waist 2.5; Wt. 43 Incomplete. Dark gritty clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF362 PLATE 4.19a Zembil: 2004; Phase: en Ht. 5.3; Di. 4.2; Di. of waist 3; Wt. 4 Complete. Oval section, dark clay. Unbaked.

SF371 Zembil: 2006; Phase: en Ht. 3.7; Di. 3.1; Di. of waist 2.4; Wt. 43 Almost complete. Dark clay, grass impression. Unbaked.

SF399 Zembil: Si ; Phase: en Ht 3.2; Di. 2.8; Wt. 28 Half. Unbaked.

SF404 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4.19/I Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 5.7; Di. 3.6; Di. of waist 2.7; Wt. 85 Complete, dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF406 Zembil: 2003; Phase: en Ht. 4.3; Di. 3.6; Z)i. of waist 2.3; M. 57 Complete, dark gritty clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF415 Zembil: 2053; Phase: en Ht. 2.3; 2)i. 3.1; M 28 Fragment. Unbaked.

SF484 Zembil: Ploughsoil; Phase: u/s Ht. 1.3; Di. 3.5; M 7 One end, dark gritty clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF485 Zembil: Ploughsoil; Phase: u/s Ht. 2.3; Z>í. 3.5; M. 14 Broken, dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF486 Zembil: Ploughsoil; Phase: u/s Ht. 4; Di. 2.8; Wt. 35 Half, dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF698 Zembil: 3 6 3 5 ; Phase: e n /& 6; Z)i. 3.2; Di. of waist 2.55; M 28 Two joining pieces. Unbaked.

SF699 Zembil: 3634; Phase: en Ht. 2.68; D/. 3.7; Z)í. of waist 2.42; M. 28 Two joining pieces. Unbaked.


SF849A and B fig. 4.35 Zembil: 3069; Phase: One Ht 8; 2)í. 3.5; Wt 114 Complete, also with six fragments. Unbaked.

SF903 Zembil: 3539; Phase: en /ft. 4.7; Di. 3; Di. o/wöitf 2.5; Wt. 28 Dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF922 plate 4.19a Zembil: 3502; Phase: en //if. 4.5; Di. 3.6; 2)í. of waist 3.1; Wft 71 Almost complete.

SF923 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4.19Ä Zembil: 3537; /%¿w¿: en /ft. 4.6; Di. 4; Di. of waist 3; PR 45 Complete. Flattened.

SF924 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4.19* Zembil: 3539; Phase: en /ft. 5.5; Di. 3.8; Di. o/wöitf 2.5; Wt. 70 Complete.

SF925 Zembil: 3539; /%¿w¿: en M 5.5; Di. 2.8; 2)í. o/waitf 2.5; Wt. 39 Complete. Dark gritty clay.

SF926 Zembil: 3546; PA&œ: en Ht. 5; Di. 3; Di. of waist 2.1; Wfc 32 Complete.

SF927 FIG. 4.35, F63 Zembil: 3546; Phase: en M 5.8; Di. 3.5; Di. of waist 2.8; Wfc 62 Almost complete. Dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF928 Zembil: 3546; Phase: en /ft. 4.7; Di. 3.6; Di. of waist 3; Wt 61 Almost complete. Dark gritty clay. Unbaked.

SF929 F63 Zembil: 3546; Phase: en Ht. 5.55; Di. 2.46; Di. of waist 2.46; M 57 Almost complete. Three joining fragments. Un- baked.

SF930 F63 Zembil: 3555; Phase: en

Ht. 4.9; Dì. 3; Di. of waist 2.64; M 47 Almost complete. Hardly waisted.

SF931 F63 Zembil: 361 2; /%¿w¿: en /ft. 5; Di. 3.5; Di. of waist 2.1; W. 30 Smooth, dark clay. Unbaked.

SF932 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4.19* Zembil: 3616; Phase: en Ht. 6.5; Di. 5.5; Dì. 0/ waist 3.8; M. 136 Complete.

SF933 F63 Zembil: 3616; Phase: en M 4; Di. 3.6; Di. of waist 2; M 32 Almost complete. Dark clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF934 FIG. 4.35 Zembil: 3629; Phase: en M 4.7; Z)z. 3.3; Di. of waist 2.3; M. 48 Complete, smooth. Unbaked.

SF935 PLATE 4.19*, F63 Zembil: 3630; Phase: en Ht 6; Di. 5.3; Di. of waist 3.8 Almost complete. Squat. Unbaked.

SF936 FIG. 4.35, PLATE 4.19^ Zembil: 3633; Phase: en Ht 7.2; Di. 5.1; Di. of waist 4.4; Wt 101 Complete. Smooth. Unbaked.

SF937 FIG. 4.35 Zembil: 3636; Phase: en /ft. 4.4; Di. 3; Di. of waist 2; Wt 49 Complete, roughly made, dark gritty clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF938 Zembil: 3644; Phase: en Ht 5.8; Di. 4; Dz. of waist 3.7; Wt 60 Fragment.

SF939 F63 Zembil: 3654; Phase: en /ft. 4.3; Di. 2.3; Di. of waist 1.5; Wt 12 Almost complete. Small, dark clay, mica. Unbaked.

SF982 Zembil: 2000; Phase: en Ht 3; Di. 4.5; Wt 31 Incomplete, ¿' 33-50%. Dark fine clay. Unbaked.


4.3.7 LOOMWEIGHTS (FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4.20Ã) Clay objects, approximately conical, pyramidal, flattened, pear-shaped or oblong, pierced horizontally near the top, have been generally accepted as loomweights since the early 1950s, when details of their discovery in situ at two Anatolian sites were published. Biegen found them in Troy Ilg's Room 206, lying in rows as they had fallen from a loom, two post-holes from the uprights of which were also preserved (Biegen et al. 1950, 350, figs. 324> 333> 334? 369)- Like the majority of clay spools, these Trojan loomweights were unbaked. In prehistoric Mersin's chalcolithic Phase Xllb, Garstang discovered a 'weaver's workshop' with large, conical loomweights and pointed bone tools (Garstang 1953, 173, figs. 110, 112, pl. 26a, b). Previous to these discoveries, the objects had been variously interpreted, the two most common theories being that they were net-sinkers (though they were unfired), or spit supports.

ln loomweights On present evidence, loomweights of the types mentioned above seem not to have appeared in Greece till the ln period, and Servia may have an early example in SF714. This object, from Phase Six, was unfortunately not available for study, but the catalogue card records it as being large, conical, broken at the top where presumably there would have been a hole. A sketch shows it as conical and pyramidal. In this period it is difficult to differentiate between loomweight types, both because many are crudely formed and may be intermediate between two shapes, and because so often publications have either no illustration or only a very inadequate one.

A Greek ln site with well illustrated loomweights is ancient Olynthus (Mylonas 1929, 80). Mylonas, writing in the 1920s, was undecided whether they were loomweights or spit supports; the reason for the latter was that, like so many spools, they were blackened on one side as though they had been near a hearth - but again this might have been simply to dry them out after they were made. Three of the weights, two of moderate size (ibid., fig. 89b, c) and one large one (ibid., fig. 88a), could be described as oblong with rounded tops. The fourth had a squared-off lower body and a roughly conical top (ibid., fig. 88b). Though large, it is not too large for a loomweight (Hoffman 1964, 42), and similar hefty conical weights were used right through to the Macedonian ba (Heurtley 1939, 87, 203, fig. 67I; 1928-29, 143 ('spit supports'); Wardle 1980, 253) and on into the eia (Wardle 1980, 261; 1987, 318, pl. 50c (a set of fifteen)). The excavator of a sub-neolithic site at Tigani on Samos found weights which he describes as being very similar to the last mentioned Olynthus weight (Heidenreich 1935-36, 171) but in Samos Anatolian influence is perhaps more likely. Tsani's problematical tall oblong weights (Wace and Thompson 1912, 149) may have been like the first three Olynthian ones; Rachmani also had an oblong weight for which no phase is given, while what seems to be a loomweight like the smaller Olynthian ones was found in the same site's chalcolithic House Q and published as a spit support (Wace and Thompson 1912, 43, fig. 19, right). Two large, roughly-made, pyramidal weights were found at Tsangli, again with no indication of phase (ibid., 130); they could either have been like the ln squared-off Olynthus weight, or of the pyramidal type that was common in northern Greece in the ba (see below). All the weights mentioned above, or at least all those that are illustrated, have a certain amount in common; they are moderately to very large, quite roughly and indefinitely formed and not well-fired.


This description could not be applied to four very small, neat, well-made weights, from Phthiotic Thebes (see above). Two are tall, narrow cones, two are pyramids, and all are decorated with painted horizontal bands. It is claimed that they are ln (Zervos 1962, 98, pls. 476, 477). While the striped weight from the en context at Corinth gives support to this claim, one is uneasily aware both of the geometric and later levels at Phthiotic Thebes (Arvanitopoulos 1907, 166 et seq.' 1908, 163 et seq.), and of a presumably much later weight from the Argive Heraeum (Waldstein 1905, 44 no. 284, fig. 90) which closely resembles them.

Asea in Arcadia produced a single conical or pear-shaped weight which is said to be neolithic, and in view of the Servia weight, it may be so, although Holmberg (1944, 117, fig. 1 13:3) had to give, as the nearest parallels, eba weights from Dimini and Sesklo (Tsountas 1908 col. 436, fig. 277) and Saratse (Heurtley 1939, 203, fig. 67 nn. Holmberg also compares the weight with one from Eutresis, published as mh/lh, but the latter looks classical - cf. Davidson 1952, 146 et seq., Type IX).

The ln weights of Greece have an interesting distribution. With the exception of a single weight at Asea and those from distant Samos, they are all confined to northern Greece, to Macedonia and Thessaly; Phthiotic Thebes and Tsani are the most southerly sites. There is no such restriction further to the N, however, where the types of weights under discussion are found all over the Balkans and even beyond the Danube. The sites where they occur fall into an eastern and a western group. The eastern group includes, within Greece, Dikili Tas in eastern Macedonia; in a house destroyed at the end of the ln period were found oblong loomweights with rounded tops (Daux 1968, 1063, fig. 5) fairly similar to the oblong Olynthus weights. Weights of this kind were found at Karanovo III (Georgiev 1961, Beil. B) and other Bulgarian sites (Petkov i960, 47, fig. 3:1; 1965, 45 et seq., 48, fig. 4:55, fig. 11). Dikili Taç is said to have connections with the Romanian Gumelnita culture (Daux 1968, 1072), and at Gumelnita there were both oblong weights with rounded tops and also pyramidal weights (Dumitrescu 1925, 93, 89, fig. 67:13-15). It may have inherited the former type from the Boian A culture (Comsa 1974, 88-90, fig. 23:3, 5) from which it was at least partly derived. In the western group, the one more nearly concerning Servia, Porodin had loomweights that were either conical or flattened conical (Grbic et al i960, 100, pl. 1 1 ¡4, 6); Anza Phase IV produced the site's only weight which seems to be intermediate between the oblong and conical types (Gimbutas 1976; 144, fiche col. frame 21); Vinca had weights that were either conical or oblong with rounded tops (Vassits 1936, pl. 35 no. 8ob-g); similar examples are known from the Turdas culture (Comça 1987, 100-1, fig. 17:14-18); and finally at Salcuta, conical weights (Berciu's Type a) were present from Phase 1 onwards. From Phase lie onwards, a tall oblong weight with an almost pointed top and pyramidal weights like Gumelnita' s were also present (Berciu 1961, 238 et seq., 566, figs. 73, 74, 75:2-5). Berciu compares his conical Type a weights with others from the Starcevo-Cris and Vinca cultures.

It is impossible for a non-expert to sort out the precise chronological relationship of the above sites, but many seem to be described as ln or aeneolithic, and they often have black-burnished pottery of various kinds. It is reassuring that Gimbutas equates Anza IV with early Vinca and with Karanovo III (Gimbutas 1976, 76-7). Childe's links between Servia black polished fluted pottery and Vinca wares, and pottery from Olynthus with Starcevo (Childe 1947, 80-1) and the many similarities Heurtley describes between Macedonia and the Danube in the ln period, suggesting communication between the two areas (Heurtley 1939, 114-17), can now be seen to be too unspecific but a general relationship is supported by the use of similar loomweights in the ln.


eba loomweights In the EBA, loomweight types became more clearly defined, and the areas in which they might occur became more limited and predictable. In northern Greece the two main types were those illustrated long ago by Rey: very large, heavy conical weights, and smaller, although not small, pyramidal weights with truncated tops (Rey 1917-19, 238, pl. 38). In central and southern Greece, the typical eba loomweight was a large clay cylinder, longitudinally pierced with one or two holes. There were a few other minor types also, but they do not concern us here. Servia had three types of eba weight: 1 . elongated, flattened pyramidal weights, pierced through the longer horizontal axis; 2. truncated pyramidal weights; 3. a globular weight related to the cylindrical type.

Type 1 Three examples of this type were found: the incomplete SF340 (plate 4.20^); SF92 (plate 4.20Ä); and the very fragmentary SF900. The apparently complete SF92 was broken and repaired in antiquity. Part of the base and one side apparently came from the original weight which was fired; the rest of it has been restored with unbaked clay. These weights are oblong, not square, in horizontal section, and this, plus the unusual feature of being pierced through the longer horizontal axis, makes them similar to the main type of loomweight used on the Troy Ilg loom. It was found by Biegen in the earliest levels at Troy, and continued as late as Troy III, but was rare by Troy IV (Biegen et al. 1950, 37, 50, 104, 338; 1951, fig. 53). The Trojan parallel for a loomweight type at Servia complements the incised Trojan motif on whorl SF295 (above). A type of weight similar to the Servia ones was found at Pefkakia, where it lasted till the transitional eba-mba phase (Maran 1992, 388, Taf. 155:9). It is perhaps more pyramidal than those from Servia; both the Servia and Pefkakia weights differ from the Trojan ones in having the holes placed higher. Weights found at Emporio IV on Chios had the rather low-set hole through the longer axis like the Trojan weights, but differed in being much more flattened and oval in outline (Hood et al 1982, 632-3, Type B, pl. 132:27, fig. 284). Some weights at a site near Plovdiv in Bulgaria may be a type related to the Trojan ones also (Detev 1959, 38, 79, fig. 55b), but the illustration is not very clear. Generally speaking, the Trojan type seems to be rare except at Troy, and the Servia weights are perhaps their closest counterparts.

Type 2 Four pyramidal weights were found in Servia eba contexts: the fragmentary SF106, of which the upper half only is preserved; SF238 (plate 4.20^); the squat, heavy SF339 (plate 4.20e); and the surprising miniature, SF301 (plate 4.20e).

As loomweights have to be used in sets, the question arises as to whether any of the loomweights from eba Servia could have come from the same group. It would be reasonable to expect that the three Trojan-type weights might do so; SF340 and SF900 came from Pit i in Area G, but SF92 was recovered from structural debris in F20/C (Phase Nine) - it may of course have been displaced. None of the four pyramidal weights much resembles each other in fabric, size or weight. The large SF339, however, came from the same pit in Area G as the Trojan-type SF340 and SF900, and the miniature SF301 was recovered from a Phase Ten yard surface in Area G. There is no technical reason why the Trojan' and pyramidal weights should not have been used at the same time on the same loom, but the weight variation amongst them is considerable. The massive SF339 weighs 392 g; the


broken, incomplete SF340 weighs 204 g, while the complete SF92 at 285 g may give an idea of its original weight. The tiny SF301 weighs 52 g and is well-made and carefully formed. Such small weights are very unusual in this period. It may have been a toy, or else perhaps have been made to meet some technical requirement, though it is difficult to suggest what the latter could have been. The remaining two pyramidal weights, SF106 and SF238, are of average size, but come from different phases and different areas of the site. The question as to whether any of the weights could have been used together, or whether they were strays from various sets thus remains open, but the latter is perhaps more likely.

Though more or less pyramidal weights were present in Greece in the neolithic period (see above), those of the ba are probably to be distinguished from them by their truncated tops. This feature was present in some Gumelnita and Salcuta weights (Dumitrescu 1925, 93, 89, fig. 67:13-15; Berciu 1961, 238 et seq., 566, figs. 73, 74, 75:2-5) and in an aeneolithic weight from the Devetaki Cave in Bulgaria (Mikov and Djambazov i960, 87, 192, pl. 52m), which should precede the Greek eba, but it is uncertain whether there is any connection with the Greek ones. At Sitagroi, a preliminary report records that pyramidal weights did not appear there until the full Macedonian eba Phase V (A. C. Renfrew 1972, 353). Truncated pyramidal weights were found in eba levels at Agios Mamas (Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1928, 151 'spit supports'), Saratse (Heurtley 1939, 203, fig. 67II, mm; Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1928, 143), Kastanas (Aslanis 1985, 197, Taf. 1 1:5, 7- 10, Taf. 52:8, Taf. 83:1-3) and Vardaroftsa (Heurtley and Hutchinson 1926, 38, fig. 24:1). In northern Thessaly at Argissa, the weights do not seem to have been present in the eba, but they were found in the MB A building phases 2, 4, 5 and 6 (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1981, 102-8 passim, Taf. 120:16, 122:18, 123:27, 34, 125:2, 11). At Pefkakia, perhaps their most southerly appearance, one was in use in the phase intermediate between the eba and the mba, and another was found in mba Phase 3 (Maran 1992, 388, Taf. 155:10, 12). Although it would not be surprising, at the moment there does not seem to be any firm evidence that this type of weight continued into the lba in the N. Two are claimed for the LBA-EIA Settlement 1 8 at Vardaroftsa, but the illustrated example looks conical and has a rounded top (Heurtley and Hutchinson 1926, 38, fig. 24:4). It is interesting to note that there was a truncated pyramidal weight in Tomb V at Marmariani, at the beginning of the eia (Heurtley and Skeat, 1930-31, 41), and that in the lg period they began to appear at such sites as Lefkandi (Popham et al 1980, 82-3, pl. 64p-s, pl. 7ol-n) and Zagora on Andros (Cambitoglou et al 1981, 75, fig. 39). They spread all over Greece and Crete, and continued in use until at least the early Roman period.

Type 3 SF395 is a centrally-pierced, globular loomweight of a type that can vary in size from that of an average orange to that of a large grapefruit. Despite its being quite well-fired, its hole shows marked signs of thread wear at both ends, as do most weights of this and related

types. It is this feature which makes the identification of these objects as loomweights highly probable. They have been found in small groups, and as they are heavy, fewer would be needed - ten or a dozen would be sufficient for narrow widths of cloth. Their use as net sinkers is out of the question, as many are unfired.

Although SF395 was turned up by the bulldozer in Area H, it may virtually be said to have come from an eba context. Area H was free of Phase Eleven pits, and all the material collected from the mechanical excavation was eba.


SF395 has an excellent parallel from Lianokladi (Wace and Thompson 1912, 191, fig. i26f). This was one of a set of eleven weights found in a house belonging to the site's Stratum III of mh date. A globular weight, but with two holes, was found at Lithares near Thebes, with material that was mostly eh i/ii (Spyropoulos 1969, 29, 35, pl. 30a, centre back), and globular weights were in use in the second, em iib phase of the em site at Myrtos (Warren 1972, 221-2, pl. 74b, fig. 96:83, 84, 88). In Crete related types of weight continued in the mm period, and were popular in lm i-iii.

Globular weights per se are thus not numerous; but they are almost certainly a variation of a cylindrical weight with rounded ends. This in turn is often found with a cylindrical weight with flattened ends, and both are centrally pierced through the longer axis. A two- hole version is also found in the Péloponnèse and central Greece.

A cylindrical weight with rounded ends from the Azzuro phase of Poliochni on Lemnos is like a slightly elongated version of Servia' s SF395, and like it has marked string wear (Bernabò Brea 1964, 590, pl. 82a). The type continued into the site's eba phases (ibid. 658, pls. 167:7, 9-13, 170:9). At Troy, Schliemann found both weights like the Poliochni one and flat-ended cylinders. He noted that they were of the same type of unbaked clay as the other Trojan loomweights, and that they were confined to his third (burnt) and fourth cities (Schliemann 1881, 558-9, nos. 1200, 1201). Biegen unfortunately did not find any on his later excavations, but in the now accepted terminology, Schliemann's weights probably came from the latter part of Troy II and Troy III-V.

In view of Servia's other Trojan-type weights, SF395 may also owe something to an impulse from the ne Aegean, because cylindrical weights do not seem to have been common in Macedonia. Cylinders with rounded ends were found at Vardaroftsa, but in a context of the end of the lba or the eia, and although Heurtley's Lausitz invasion is not now unreservedly accepted, these weights are likely to be an intrusion from the n (Heurtley and Hutchinson 1926, 38, fig. 24; Heurtley 1939, 101, 231, fig. io4q). Sitagroi, however, provides a curious exception. Here cylinders were the loomweights of the Macedonian fn Phase IV. These weights are said to be present in Phases I-IV (A. C. Renfrew 1972, 353), but it is preferable to await their final publication to be certain of such an early appearance. They were undoubtedly used in Phase IV (A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 205, pl. 34(1)). As mentioned above, they were succeeded by pyramidal loomweights in the eba Phase V.

Cylindrical loomweights occurred early in se Europe. They are known from the Körös culture of SE Hungary (Childe 1947, 94, fig. 45), at Vinca (Vassits 1936, pl. 35:80a), and from the aeneolithic contexts at Maliq in Albania (Prendi 1966 (i), 255, 260, pl. 3f) and the Devetaki Cave in Bulgaria (Mikov and Djambazov i960, 88, 192, pl. 70c). A surface survey at Galatin in Bulgaria produced globular loomweights and aeneolithic pottery (Nikolov 1962, 71, fig. 12). The Sitagroi, Poliochni and Trojan cylinders may all be ultimately derived from this area.

Although cylindrical weights apparently bypassed Macedonia in the eba, they were used in Thessaly. Wace and Thompson recorded them, undated, at Tsani (Wace and Thompson 1912, 149), Tsountas had them in ba levels at Sesklo (Tsountas 1908, col. 350) and at Pefkakia both round and flat-ended cylinders were in use until the fifth of that site's seven MBA phases (Maran 1992, 388, Taf. 155:1 1, 13, 14, 156:3) - the situation there is almost the antithesis of that at Sitagroi, for at Pefkakia the cylindrical weights outlasted the pyramidal by several phases. Further s, cylinders with both one and two holes were found at Orchomenos (Tsountas 1908, col. 350 n. 2; National Archaeological Museum Athens catalogue nos. 3277-8) and Eutresis (Goldman 1931, 192-3, fig. 266:3, 6). Examples


,(-) pining (

'^y' ■] SF92 V^eMs SF340 SF238

LJLJ R° V ) SF301 XA / ' / ' V ) SF301 / ' / '

SF399 V y ' /

Fig. 4.36. Loomweights: SF92, Phase Nine/Ten/Eleven; SF340, Phase Nine; SF238, Phase Ten; SF399, Phase Nine; SF301, Phase Ten; SF395, Phase u/s. 1:3.5

from Corinthia and the Argolid, from Korakou (Biegen 1921, 104, fig. 129:4, 5), Zygouries (Biegen 1928, 191), Tiryns and Mycenae (Schliemann 1886, 165-6:71), Asine (Frödin and Persson 1938, 251) and Lerna (Caskey 1956, 167-8; Banks 1967, 565, 570-1, Type b, pl. 19) usually had two holes. One with a single hole came from Asea in Arcadia (Holmberg 1944, 120, fig. 114:1). Dörpfeld found cylindrical weights as far w as Leukas, and in publishing them, mentioned others he had discovered at Olympia (Dörpfeld 1927, 284-5 par. 3, pl. 56d).

Almost all these cylindrical weights in Greece belong to the eba. The Asea weight is said to be mh, but the site's stratigraphy was shallow and disturbed. At Eutresis, the cylinders are assigned to both eh and mh, while the Pefkakia cylinders and the globular Lianokladi weights seem to be mba beyond dispute. The general impression, however, is of an eba type of weight which continued in use at a few sites during the mba. By the lba, it had disappeared from mainland Greece. Their history in the islands was different. They were found at Phylakopi, but no indication is given of which city they came from. Marinatos had them at Akrotiri on Thera in what was presumably a lm ia context. They are known from Mycenaean Miletus; and they are sometimes found in lm Crete, which may be the origin of this group (Atkinson et al 1904, 214; Marinatos 1971, 26, pl. 46b; Schiering i960, 25, 30, pl. 18:4; Deshayes and Dessenne 1959, 73, pl. 22:3; Bosanquet 1901-02, 316; 1902-03, 283 n. 1; Platon 1957, 143, pl. 68ß).


Plate 4.20. (a) Clay ring weights. From left, top: sf8o8, Phase Four; SF804, Phase u/s; SF807, Phase Four; bottom: SF803, Phase u/s; SF805, Phase Five; SF802, Phase u/s; (b) Clay loomweights. From left, top: SF92, Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven; SF238, Phase Ten; SF339, Phase Nine; bottom: SF301,

Phase Ten; SF340, Phase Nine.

24o JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Catalogue of the loomweights

Ht. = maximum height in cm; W.= maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g

SF92 FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4.2O¿, F64 Zembil: 66; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven Ht. 7.9; W. 6.3; Th. 4.6; Wt. 285 Elongated, flattened pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top through longer axis. Hole shows thread wear. Bottom part of fired buff clay, upper part fine yellowish unbaked clay.

SF106 Zembil: 238; Phase: Eight Ht. 8.2; W. 5.2; Th. 5.1; Wt. 277 Broken. Upper part of a truncated pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top. Hole shows thread wear.

SF238 FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4.2OÄ, F64 Zembil: 1002; Phase: Ten Ht. 8.0; W. 5.4; Th. 4.9; Wt. 269 Truncated pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top. Hole shows thread wear. Well-fired, fine, smoothed orange-buff clay, some mica.

SF3OI FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4. 2OÔ, F64 Zembil: 1437; Phase: Ten Ht. 3.6; W. 3.4; Th. 3.0; Wt. 52 Miniature pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top. Small hollow in centre of top. Fine, well- fired buff clay with mica, mottled black and red in firing.

SF339 FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4.20*, F64 Zembil: 1443; Phase: Nine Ht. 7.3; W. 6.8; Th. 5.8; Wt. 392 Truncated pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top. One side chipped. Hole shows thread wear. Small hollow in top, as SF301. Coarse, medium- fired reddish clay burnt brown, cracked and flaking.

SF340 FIG. 4.36, PLATE 4.2O¿, F64 Zembil: 1443; Phase: Nine Ht. 8.5; W. 5.9; Th. 3.9; Wt. 204 Elongated, flattened pyramidal weight, horizontally pierced below top through longer axis. Hole shows thread wear. Broken at base. Coarse, hard-fired brick- red fabric, white grits.

SF395 FIG. 4.36 Zembil: Area H; Phase: u/s Ht. 7.4; W 7.2; Th. 6.5; Wt. 370 Spherical, centrally pierced through the longer axis. Hole shows thread wear. Quite well-fired sandy orange-buff clay, grits and mica.

SF714 Zembil: 3110; Phase: Six Ht. 9.5; W9.5 Broken Conical clay weight (?), broken at top.

SF900 Zembil: 1443/45/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 5.6; W6.2; Th. 3.9 Fragment of an upper part of an elongated, flattened pyramidal weight, as SF92 and SF340.

4.3.8 Mat Impressions (plates 4.21-4.24) Conditions in Greece seldom favour the survival of uncarbonised organic materials, but plentiful evidence about the types of mats and baskets in use at certain periods has been preserved in negative impressions in the clay of hand-made pots. The impressions are usually on the base, where the pot has stood on a mat whilst being formed, or been set on one to dry after being made. Ten of Servians twelve mat impressions are on pot bases. Those on SF910 and SF902 are deep and clear enough to suggest that these pots stood on a mat while being made, but the other fainter, partial and more blurred impressions were probably caused by pots being stood to dry out after they were made. The impression on the body-and-rim sherd, P551, is unusual; there is a rare instance of a special type of pot that was seemingly formed within a basket (Sampson 1988, 1 15, 120, 155-6, figs. 68(3: 1, 3, 7, 10, fig. 68y), but this is most unlikely in the case of P551. The impression is extremely faint, and was almost certainly caused when the pot fell on its side, onto the matting, while it was still drying. The impression on three sides of the sole lump of daub, SF894, suggests


that it was being carried or stored in the corner of a skep or basket (Crowfoot 1955, 417 (e), fig. 261) in which it was forgotten and left to harden.

All nine identifiable mat impressions were made by matting using a single technique, that of plaited twill, and the two unidentifiable impressions on P551 and P558 are also suspected of being made by the same type (the twelfth impression has not been seen by the author). Most of the mats were in half twill, and there is no difference between the en examples and the mn, Phase Five, P226. The en SF909 may be either a half twill or a 2/2 twill, while the mn, Phase Four, SF894, a piece of daub, certainly bears the impression of a 2/2 twill.

Although akin to weaving, plaiting differs from it in having only one set of elements, not two. Weaving has an initial set of strands, the warps, and a second set of strands, the wefts, which are woven through the warps at right angles to them. Plaiting has only the one set of strands, which are laid out parallel to each other. The first strand (that on the right for a right-handed worker) is bent near the top at an angle usually greater than 90o and is woven through all the other strands. When it reaches the far side, it is bent downwards, so that it again lies parallel with all the other strands, becoming the last strand on the left. The next strand on the right is then bent and woven through all the other strands - and so on. If each strand being plaited in, passes over one strand and under one, it produces a plait akin to plain or tabby weave, but plain plaiting is seldom found, whereas twills are common. In a half twill the strand being plaited-in passes over one strand, then under two (or vice versa), and in a 2/2 twill, it passes over two and under two. Twill may perhaps have been preferred because it produces a more flexible fabric. In plaited twill, the strands often cross each other at a slant rather than at right-angles, and this is clearly seen in SF910, SF902, SF909 and SF894. The strands in a plaited twill also lie diagonally to the two borders, instead of parallel to and at right angles to them, as in woven twill (plate 4.24).

With the exception of SF894, and perhaps P537, all the Servia matting was most probably made from cereal straw. The small variation of four-seven strands per two centimetres is what might be expected with variations of straw size and different hands plaiting more loosely or tightly. It is probable also that strand counts would average out if larger areas of each mat had been available for measurement. It may be of interest that the cereal straw plaited twill strips from which today's Macedonian farm hats are made, uses exactly the same technique and averages six-seven strands per two centimetres.

The straw would almost certainly have been soaked to make it more flexible to handle before it was plaited. Plaiting is not just confined to narrow widths. The width of a piece of plaited twill matting is determined by how many strands are used and what width they are, and the length has no restrictions. As each straw reaches its end, another is spliced in to replace it. When the desired length is reached, the loose strands at each end are doubled back on themselves and darned into the body of the work, which makes an attractive zigzag edge.

The material used for P537 has not left as smooth an impression as cereal straw does, and wrinkles show in each strand. It may have been made of some kind of grass, using the leaves as opposed to the stalk. In the impression on the daub, SF894, the strands appear to be double. They could be cereal straws used in pairs, but they look more rounded than the others, and some kind of reed, sedge or rush might also be a possibility.

Basketry and matting are older crafts than the production of pottery. The earliest examples may date to even the 10th millennium bc (see below). They have been produced, using


exactly the same techniques, ever since and it should therefore be presumed that they were in use, even when absent from the archaeological record. The chronological and geographical gaps that exist in the latter in Greece are unlikely to be due to archaeological negligence. Mat impressions are a type of find which attracts attention; many were published in the 19th century and since then they have often been illustrated in preliminary, as well as final, reports. In Greece, they have been found in considerable numbers on islands on both sides of the Aegean, in the ne quarter of the Péloponnèse, and the eastern half of central Greece. Almost all in this area come from the fn and eba sites (for a more detailed account with bibliography up to 1972 see Carington Smith 1977, 1 14-25). Recent major finds of many impressions include Sampson 1988, 115, 120, 155-6, figs. 68ß:i, 3, 7, 10, 687; Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 159 and n. 109, pl. 54; Weisshaar 1990, 2-4, Taf. 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 32, 34. The matting and basketry techniques which this group of mat impressions preserves included many different varieties of twined weave, occasional plain weaves, a few in the coiled and wrapped technique, and only one or two in twill (see Crowfoot 1955, 415 et seq. for explanation of terms). There is no doubt that twined weaves were the dominant type. The few examples of twill that do exist, are nothing like the Servia ones. They are true weaves, with separate warps and wefts, which are of two different materials, and the strands of both are multiple (Weisshaar 1990, 3, Taf. 22:4, 5, 32:2).

The earlier date of the Servia impressions is probably not the reason for this difference. Nea Nikomedeia produced 29 mat impressions, of which one was indeed a twill like the Servia ones, but the other 28 exhibited a close twine (Rodden 1964 A, 605-6, figs. 9, 10 (twill)). The impressions from Achilleion in southern Thessaly were preserved amongst building debris, not on pottery. They are almost the only mat impressions to come from Thessaly. Though early mn, they show no resemblance to the en Servia mats. They are all plain weaves and use large elements, probably rushes (Gimbutas et al. 1989, 58, fig. 4.36, 65, fig. 4.44, 66, fig. 4.45, chronology, 23). A big chunky material suggests the use of Sarpus tabernaemontari [schoenoplectus t), a large sedge traditionally used for this purpose. Alternatively, reed (or crushed/split reed) which would be softer.

Clark defined a group of E European sites which had used plaited twill matting, and suggested that the technique had reached that area from the se (Clark 1952, 230-1). This seems highly likely, and it is probably to this group that the Servia matting should be assigned. The earliest occurrence of twill matting is from the 10th millennium bc site referred to above, the Shanidar Cave in Iraqi Kurdistan (Adovasio 1975-7, 227 and n. 5, quoting Solecki 1963). There are other examples from sites in the Deh Luran plain of Iran, dating from the 7th to the 5th millennia bc (Hole et al. 1969, 220, 223, fig. 95a, b, pl. 37d, e). Specimens from Jarmo in Iraq were originally published as being of a 7th millennium bc date (Adovasio 1975-7, 223, 225, Type III: Twill Plaiting, fig. 4, date: 227; Braidwood and Braidwood 1950, 193; see Protsch and Berger 1973 for revised dates), as is probably the twilled mat from Çatal Hüyük VI (Mellaart 1963, 197-7, fig. 6; Helbaek 1963, 44). Twilled matting was also found in Hacilar I (Mellaart 1970, 164-5, %• l89a) and in the eba level XV at Beyçesultan (Lloyd and Mellaart 1962, 43, figs. 13, 16) in Anatolia, and is also known from chalcolithic Palestinian sites (Crowfoot 1938, 3 et seq. esp. 4, 9, pl. 1:5-7, pl. 4:3, 4).

In Europe, Clark cited evidence for twilled matting from the sites in the now ex- Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania and Poland (Clark 1952, 230). To these can now be added the early twill impressions on pot bases from Anza Ia-III (Gimbutas 1976, 111, fig. 64:1, 2), and the ln one from Porodin (Grbic et al. i960, 101, fig. 17:5); in Greek Thrace


Paradimi (Bakalakis and Sakellariou 1981, Taf. 33:9, 59:5) and Paradeisos (Hellström 1987, 61, 62, 139, figs. 40:229, 41:249) both have impressions like Servia's; and Petkov has given a very well-illustrated account of the ln and aeneolithic specimens from various Bulgarian sites (Petkov 1965, 45 et seq.,, figs. 3, 5, 6, 7 (right), 8; i960, 44 et seq., fig. 3:4; Treuil 1983, 199 f, fig. 71 (from Karanovo)).

Many of the mats from the Middle and Near East, though using exactly the same twilled technique as the Servia ones, were made with larger materials, usually rushes (Sarpus tabernaemontari (schoenoplectus /.)), and it is the other sites in n Greece and the Balkans which seem to have had the closely-woven mats of finer materials, usually used singly, which most closely resemble Servia's.

The preference for plaited twill matting shown in neolithic Servia is understandable. It is one of the easiest types of matting to make, and even using fine material, like straw, the work progresses rapidly. It requires very little concentration, and even if lack of attention should cause mistakes, such as the one towards the bottom of P537, it does not materially affect the finished product. Despite its simplicity, objects made in this technique are very attractive, especially in pale gold cereal straw (see samples in plate 4.24).

One other fragment of matting did survive at Servia, in Phase Three, Structure 3, as a faint shadow on a clay floor. Unfortunately the weave was too faint to identify.

Catalogue of the mat impressions

NB. Mat impressions were not consistently catalogued. Some have been registered as pots (p) and some as small finds (sf).

P226 PLATE 4.22Ô, F65 Zembil: 3028; Phase: Five On two large base fragments. Probable half twill, 4- 5 strands per 2 cm2.

P363 PLATE 4.22a, f66 Zembil: 3633; Phase: en On base fragment; half twill, 5-6 strands per 2 cm.

P55O PLATE 4. 2 2 A, f66 Zembil: 3609; Phase: en On base fragment.

P55I PLATE 4.2 1 A Zembil: 3606; Phase: en On rim fragment of rounded bowl. Impression too faint for identification.

P552 plate 4.210 Zembil: 3605; Phase: en On sherd of flat base. Irregular half twill, c. 6 strands per 2 cm.

P537 PLATE 4.22a, f66 Zembil: 3632; Phase: en

On flat base fragment. Irregular half twill, 5-6 strands per 2 cm.

P558 PLATE 4.22Ä, f66 Zembil: 3646; Phase: en On flat base sherd. Too faint for identification.

SF894 PLATE 4.23, F65 Zembil: 3023; Phase: Four In daub, basket (?) 2/2 twill, four double strands per 2 cm, traces of cereal spikelets visible in cast, plate 4.23k

SF902 PLATE4.210 Zembil: 3539; Phase: en On base sherd, half twill, 6-7 strands per 2 cm.

SF909 PLATE 4.21a Zembil: - ; Phase: en On base sherd, half twill (?), 7 strands per 2 cm.

SF9IO PLATE 4. 2 'b Zembil: 3530; Phase: en On oval base fragments; half twill, 5-6.5 strands per 2 cm.

Not registered Zembil: 3408; Phase: Nine Base sherd with small area showing mat imprint.


Plate 4.21. Mat impressions, en: [a) from left, top: P551, SF909, bottom: P552; (b) top: SF910, bottom: SF902.


Plate 4.22. {a) Mat impressions, en. From lefl, top: P550, P558, bottom: P363, P537; (i) Mat impression P226, Phase Five.


Plate 4.23. Impression in daub of matting basket SF894, Phase Four (a) Impression; (b) Cast


Plate 4.24. Examples of twill weave using cereal straw of the kind represented by the mat impressions.


4.3.9 Needles and a Button (?) (figs. 4.23, 4.45, plate 4.30) Five small finds may have had some connection with textiles. These are the bone tool (?) (SF378), the bone needle (?) (SF531), and the piece of worked bone (SF328), the bronze needle (SF345) (section 4.6), and the stone ornament, SF332 (section 4.2.11).

SF328 has a partly preserved head, which was pierced, and separated from the main shaft of the tool by a deep groove. It was made out of a straight, fairly thick, section of bone, perhaps part of a rib, and has the natural head of the bone preserved. This curves and is pierced. The rest of the bone, though rather thick, starts tapering at the other end, towards what may have been a point, which is missing. These two pierced tools could conceivably have been used as needle-shuttles in weaving, although the thickness of both, and the bent-over head of SF378, reduce the likelihood of this. They could also perhaps have been used as netting needles.

SF531 is a flat, tapering bone object, of which the wider end has been preserved, but the probable point is missing. It is pierced and has two possibly ornamental grooves around the hole. It is small, and its length was probably not great. If it did have a point it would have been very suitable as an auxiliary tool in weaving, for inserting extra weft rows, or finishing off a piece of cloth. Such bone needles were used for these purposes on warp- weighted looms in Norway recently (Hoffman 1964, 45, fig. 17). If indeed a needle, SF531 would also probably have been small enough for sewing very loosely woven cloth or pierced leather.

SF345 (see section 4.6, fig. 4.45, plate 4.30), a bronze needle, is almost as slender as a large contemporary darning needle, and its small eye can only have taken thin thread. It is certainly fine enough for sewing cloth, but its 10.5 cm length must have made it rather clumsy to handle. Such a length is only an advantage when two edges, held wide apart by stuffing, as in a filled grain sack or pillow, have to be drawn together.

SF332 (section 4.2.11) is an ornament fashioned from a natural, parti-coloured black and yellow pebble. A natural deep groove was possibly artificially deepened on the edge of the black part in the centre of the stone, dividing it from the yellow. It may have been a bead or a pendant, but could equally have been a button of the toggle type. The advantage of this type of button is that it is very suitable for fastening a loop of cord, which avoids cutting and binding a button-hole through thick material, which can be clumsy. Folk costumes and home-made clothes today still show a preference for this form of fastening. As SF332 must have been a unique object, it would have more suitable for fastening a cloak than a coat

4.3.10 Anchors (fig. 4.37, plate 4.25) Seventeen more-or-less complete examples of the small clay objects nicknamed anchors, and ten fragments - 'flukes' - reasonably presumed to have come from them, were found in eba and later contexts during the rescue excavation in 1971-73. One more was

reported from Heurtley's excavation in 1930 (1939, fig. 67t). This would seem to be the

largest number of such objects found at any one site so far. Like anchors from other sites, the Servia examples resemble, not indeed the stone anchors

of the BA, but the metal ones used in recent centuries, in that they have a 'shank' which is

pierced near the top, and two, not three, 'flukes'.


None of the Servia anchors, except Heurtley's, is complete. The best preserved are SF52, sf6o, SF290, SF348, SF620 and SF623. These are followed by SF18, SF309, SF335 and SF394. Though more fragmentary, sfii, SF85, SF294 and SF310 still retain clear evidence of once having a shank and both flukes.

Anchors have between one and four holes in their shanks which can be pierced either frontally, at right-angles to the line of the flukes, which is more common, or laterally, in line with the flukes. The shanks of the Servia anchors, where preserved, are pierced horizontally near the top, usually with a single hole, but in one case, SF620, with two, set one above the other. The majority of anchors are pierced frontally (sfi8, sf6o, SF290, SF309, SF335, SF348, SF620, SF623) but there are three with lateral piercing (SF52, SF85, SF394). The holes of anchors often show what looks like thread wear in their upper part, and this is the case with SF18, SF309, SF335, SF529 and the remaining hole of SF620. Another indication of wear at this point is that the anchors are often broken off through their holes, as had happened with SF204, SF394 and the upper hole of SF620. There must also have been a strain at the junction of the fluke with the shank. Some of the anchors, like those from other sites, show signs of wear here (SF52, SF85, SF294 and possibly sf6o, SF290 and SF310), while no fewer than fourteen have a fluke or flukes broken off at this point (sfii, SF18, SF52, sf6o, SF85, SF290, SF292, SF294, SF309, SF310, SF335, SF394, SF620 and SF623) and to these of course may be added the eight flukes found singly (SF105, SF170, SF349, SF654, SF898, SF1107, SF1108 and SF1113). In only one case can a broken- off fluke be associated with a shank; these fragments constitute SF85.

Weisshaar has suggested a typology for anchors (1980, 33-4, Abb. 1), and many of the Servia anchors are sufficiently preserved to warrant being classified, but within the basic framework of pierced shank and two flukes, each one is an individual object, and they vary so much as to resist classification. Though Weisshaar provides ten categories, few of the Servia anchors fit comfortably into any one of them. SF348, SF620 and SF623 conform well enough to his Type 4 (named for Servia) except that SF620 has two holes. Sfi8, SF309 and SF335 somewhat resemble his Type 7 (named for Saratse). SF85 and probably SF394 approach his Type 9 (named for Lerna). Sf6o is perhaps his Type 5 (named for Mikhalich in Bulgaria). SF290 and perhaps sfii are intermediate between his Types 5 and 9. Servia's handsomest anchor, SF52, has points in common with his Types 5, 8 and 10 (Mikhalich/ Argissa/Corinth). The types do not have any chronological or geographical significance, and serve mainly to indicate an anchor's appearance when no illustration can be provided.

The Servia anchors all came from Phases Nine and Ten. As none were found in the Phase Eight ditches, and as the site was deserted after Phase Ten, until the Byzantine period, even examples technically from the Byzantine Phase Eleven (SF294 and SF898), and those that were unstratified (sf6o, SF170, SF204, SF394 and sfii 13) must have come originally from Phases Nine or Ten, with a date probably corresponding to the end of eh ii or the beginning of eh hi (Ridley and Wardle 1979, 220). The anchors were well-established by the stratigraphically earlier of the two phases, Phase Nine, as eight of them were found in pits sealed by Phase Ten floors (SF309, SF310, SF348, SF349, SF620, SF623, SF1107 and SFi 108). SF290 was above a Phase Ten pebble yard and SF294, although technically within a Phase Eleven zembil, was found adjacent to an eba hearth. The remainder were, where stratified, in Phase Nine and Ten levels.

Clay anchors have been found in many parts of the Greek mainland and adjacent areas, but rarely in the islands. They also appear in Malta, the Lipari islands, Italy, and perhaps Sicily. Table 4.8 lists those sites where anchors have been reported, and their references.

25O JILL CARINGTON SMITH

Table 4.8. Sites where anchors have been found.

Albania: Maliq Prendi 1966, 265, pl. 31"; Weisshaar 1980, 43-4, n. 82.

Western Macedonia: Armenochori Heurtley 1939, 87, fig. 67h. Servia

Central Macedonia and the Chalkidike: Kritsana Heurtley 1939, 22, 87, fig. 67g, i. Also illustrated in

Aslanis 1985, 228-9, 235-6, 239, Taf. 95:3, 4, 8, 96:10, 106:18; cf. Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, Taf. 74:12- 13-

Saratse Heurtley 1939, 87, fig. 67J; Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1932, 143, fig. 32:1; re-illustrated in Aslanis 1985, 267, Taf. 126:8.

Kastanas Aslanis 1985, 198, Taf. 83:4.

Eastern Macedonia: Sitagroi A. C. Renfrew 1970, 131; 1972, 353; A. C. Renfrew et al

1986, 188. Dikili Ta§ (?) Weisshaar 1980, 36, 48, fig. 4e.

Southern Bulgaria: Mikhalich Mikov 1948, 18, 24, fig. 10. Ezero Georgiev etal. 1979, fig. 203, 406:12 stone; 406:13 clay.

Romania: Tartaria Vlassa 1963, 485-94, fig. 6:5. Ariusd (Erösd) Szekely 1971, 132, fig. 2:2. Govora Roman 1976, 30, 98, pl. 52:7, 8. Better illustrated in Berciu

1961, 387 et seq., fig. 1:1,2. Both are heavily restored. The one decorated with incised rows of dots is a small fragment which could be a number of other things. The plain one's shank is missing, and the two flukes lie perfectly horizontal, whereas all others curve upwards, to stop thread or cord slipping off - see below.

Thessaly: Argissa Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976 (1), 94-5 & (2) 71-3

nos. 6, 7, 37-42, Taf. 51:6, 7, 37-42; 1981, 102-4, Taf- 1 19:24 & 121:9.

Agios Athanasios French 1968, 115, 403. Pagasae Wolters 1889, 266. Pefkakia Weisshaar 1980, 34, 36, 41-43, 47> 49. Abb- 2:5-7; 4:2;

1989, 50-1, 66, 214, 216, Taf. 82:1-2; 84:3; Maran 1992, 390, Taf. i57:7~8-

Sesklo Tsountas 1908, 346-7, figs. 280-2. Tsani Wace and Thompson 1912, 149. Zerelia Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 9 n. 221, Taf. 68:5.


Boeotia: Kastron (Topolia-Magoula) In the collection of the British School at Athens. French

1968, 403. Orchomenos Soteriadhes 1908, 91. Lithares Spyropoulos 1969, 30. pl. 32a left & right; Tzavella-Evjen

1984, 148 no. 838, 170-1, pl. 85a, ß, Ô, e. Thebes Demakopoulou-Papantoniou 1976, 121-5, pl. 96 (e);

Konsola 1981, 135-6. Eutresis Goldman 1931, 196, fig. 269:1, 3.

Attica: Raphina Theocharis 1951, 92, fig. 19.

West Central Greece: Schiste Odos Soteriadhes 1908, 91, text pl. 2:6, 9. Kirrha Dor et al. i960, 105, 106-7, X44> pi- 62:26. Galaxidi Vatin 1964, 566, fig. 6:6.

Northwestern Péloponnèse: Teichos Dymaion Mastrokostas 1965, 227. Olympia Koumouzelis 1980, 176 et seq., fig. 41:4, pl. 1 19:4.

Northeastern Péloponnèse: Corinth Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, 60, fig. 41a, b. Cheliotomylos Shear 1930, 405; Waage 1949, 421, pl. 63. Berbati Säflund 1965, 127 nos. 28-9; illustrated by Weisshaar

1980, 34, Abb. 2:4. Tiryns Müller 1938, 64, Taf. 25:3; Weisshaar 1980, 35, 43, 47,

49, Abb. 2:1-2; 1981, 237, Abb. 82:8. Asine Frödin and Persson 1938, 250-1, fig. 177:1. Lerna Banks 1967, 628 et seq.; Caskey 1956, 162, pl. 471-p;

1957, 152, pl. 42e.

Central and Southern Péloponnèse: Asea Holmberg 1944, 117, fig. 111:5. Nichoria Carington Smith 1992, 692-4, 711, pl. 11-38.

Lemnos: Poliochni Bernabò Brea 1964, 588, tav. 83a-d, e-h.

Ithaka: Pelikata Heurtley 1934-35. 35m 41* %• 31:154> P1- 9:154-

Aegina: Walter and Feiten 1981, 114, 143, 144, 147, 158, 162, 166, 176, Taf. 89:177, 99:245-50, 105:310, 123:453.

Central Mediterranean: Peet 1910, 160, pl. 15:52, 61, 64, 69; Murray 1925, 29, pl. 17:1 1; 1929, 14, 18-19, pls- 16:6, 7, 9, 10 & 28:1-17; 1961, 59-60; Trump i960, 295, pl. 39c; 1961, 262; 1962, 224; Evans 1956, 99-100; 1971, 14, 17, 106, 171, 226, 228, pl. 65:7; Bernabò Brea 1966, 119, fig. 22d.


The chronology of the anchors within Greece is reasonably consistent where it is known - with the possible exception of Poliochni - although not as exact as some would wish it to be. Since anchors were discovered in eh hi levels at Lerna, postdating the destruction of the House of Tiles, there has been a tendency to regard anchors as typically eh hi artefacts. This is not really the case. Certainly they do often occur in eh hi contexts, but there are also eh II examples, and at least a few mh ones.

Proceeding geographically, Heurtley thought that the uppermost of the three eba settlements at Armenochori belonged to a very late phase of the period, but it is not known from which of the settlements the anchor came (Heurtley 1939, 59). At Servia, as we have seen, the date is probably equivalent to the change between the eh ii/iii periods. At Kastanas, the single anchor came from level 22 a, equivalent to the end of eh hi (Aslanis 1985, 198). For Saratse, there is only an eba date (Heurtley and Ralegh Radford 1932, 118, 121 et seq., 143, fig. 32.1). The dating of Kritsana has been re-evaluated by Hanschmann followed by Weisshaar, but even so it does not seem that these anchors can be later than a date equivalent to eh ii (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 196 et seq.' Weisshaar 1980, 49-41, ns. 42-59). At Sitagroi the two anchors published in the first volume were from unit Q 08 of Phase Vb, which has radiocarbon dates in the range of 2100-1800 be, calibrated to 2700-2200 be (A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 173), another 45 are reported from Phase V but none from Phase III. At Argissa, the earliest anchors recorded are those of Argissa II, dated approximately to the middle of the eba, with the main group coming from Argissa III, equivalent to the late eba (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 94, 188 (Graben 5A), 94-5, 191-3 (Wohnschicht - Haus A)). At Pefkakia, the earliest anchors occur in the uppermost Rachmani stratum, and Weisshaar points out that imports of Urfirnis pottery at Pefkakia have shown that the Rachmani culture must last well into the eh ii period; the earliest Pefkakia anchors are therefore equivalent to some stage of eh ii in date (Weisshaar 1980, 38). At Lithares only one of the eight anchors seems to have been in a specific context, on the road of the eh settlement, but as the settlement was apparently deserted before eh hi, an eh ii date is likely for all the Lithares anchors (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 177, 215). At Thebes, the two anchors came from the much-destroyed building plot which contained the eh ii apsidal building destroyed by fire, which was overlaid by a stratum with eh hi material, but the anchors are not (and presumably could not be) specifically dated to either period (Demakopoulou-Papantoniou 1976, 121). At Eutresis, one of the site's five anchors was found on the floor of House I, which Goldman dated to eh 1 (Goldman 1931, 196, House 1 12 et seq.), but which Weisshaar gives reasons for re- dating to eh 11 (Weisshaar 1980, 38-9). (The other four anchors were in the lower levels of Goldman's eh ii (Goldman 1931, 196).) At Raphina (Theocharis (1951, 85) suggests eh iiiii for some pottery, but see Weisshaar 1980, 39, 45), Kirrha (Dor et al (i960, 65 et seq.) refer to it as eh hi, but see Caskey in review of publication (1962, 211)) and Galaxidi (Vatin 1964, 560), by virtue of other material found at the sites, and by a lack of eh hi pottery, the anchors should probably be eh ii. At Pelikata on Ithaka, Heurtley's anchor may have a date somewhat similar to the Servia ones; he had basically eh ii material but with the first eh m sherds starting to appear. The anchor came from Area II, which had only eh sherds (Heurtley 1934-35, 8, 35 no. 154). A painted sherd said to have come from the same test, is elsewhere recorded as being from Area IV (Heurtley 1934-35, 8 n. 1, 24 no. 70). Although found with all eh sherds, the anchor is discussed (theoretically) under 'Middle Helladic remains' (Heurtley 1934-35, 41)- The eh pottery from the site


generally he thought to belong to the end of the middle eh phase, c. 2200 bc (Heurtley

At Cheliotomylos, near Corinth, the anchor was in a well fill which contained eh ii pottery (Waage 1949, pls. 61-2), but Weisshaar notes that some of the sherds are appropriate to the end of the period (Weisshaar 1980, 39), which would make it perhaps similar to the Pelikata anchor in date. The Teichos Dymaion and Olympia anchors may be eh hi as he suggests (Weisshaar 1980, 39 and n. 40), but none of them, except perhaps for a fluke amongst the stones of the tumulus at Olympia, came from a specific context (Koumouzelis 1980, 132-3, 140. For date of tumulus see Yalouris 1964, 175-6). The anchors from Aegina, like the anchors from Lerna (Caskey 1956, 162; 1957, 152; i960, 297; Banks 1967, 631, 633), first appear, and in quantity, in an eh hi context, that of Stadt V. Technically the oldest is no. 177, found in the floor make-up of a Stadt V house (Walter and Feiten 1981, 143), followed by six that were found in Stadt V houses (ibid., 1 14, 143-4 (Fundgruppen XVII, XVIIIa and i), 10 (Chronology)). The Berbati anchors should also be ofthat period (Säflund 1965, 120, 127, 158), but Tiryns disrupts this apparent homogeneity by producing an eh 11 anchor (Weisshaar 1980, 49; 1981, 237), and the anchor from Corinth proper may also be eh ii as no eh hi has been found there (see Caskey 1973, 124 and a contradictory view in Weisshaar 1980, 39 and n. 38). The Asea anchor came from a 'late eh layer' (Holmberg 1944, 117); Caskey says that most of the site's eba material is eh ii, though a little eh hi also occurs (Caskey 1971, 789). At Nichoria, the four anchors are from MH 1 levels, and the site had no previous eba inhabitation (McDonald et al in McDonald and Wilkie 1992, 758).

Anchors found in mba strata are also reported from Argissa, Pefkakia, Lerna and Aegina. While not disputing that they were indeed found in the levels recorded by their excavators, it may perhaps be questioned whether they actually belonged to them. All the Aegina anchors except two were found in Stadt V; a scrap from early mh Stadt VI closely resembles four from the previous settlement, and may be a stray; and the next does not occur until Stadt X, c. 1650-1600 bc (Walter and Feiten 1981, 140-1 (allocation of find-groups to cities); Stadt VI anchor frag: 146, 166 no. 310, Taf. 105; Stadt X anchor: 147, 176, no. 453, Taf. 123). At Lerna, the one anchor that could definitely be assigned to mh Lerna V was of a different shape and fabric to the other anchors and may not have been one; another was in a mh bothros which contained much earlier material; and a third, unphased, may have been a pot lug (Banks 1967, 633-4). At Argissa, a well-preserved anchor came from the mh Bauhorizont 2, and a shaft only from Bauhorizont 3 (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1981, 102-4, Taf. 119:24, 121:19; ç/falso Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 94, n. 223). At Pefkakia, one anchor fragment was from Phase 2, a mba phase which could be the equivalent of eh in, and the tip of a shank came from a context equivalent to the mba in s Greek terms (Maran 1992, 390, Taf. 157:7-8). Of these four sites, the ones most likely to have had anchors genuinely continuing into the mba are Argissa and Pefkakia, but there is always a risk on a 'tell' site that an inhabitant from a later phase will pick up a curiosity from earlier times. One wonders if this is not how an anchor ended up in a house of Stadt X on Aegina after a gap in their use there of approximately four centuries.

If it was both genuinely made and used in the 17th century bc, the late Aegina anchor would go some way towards solving the chronological discrepancy between the Greek anchors and those of the Lipari Islands (local mba, c. 15- 14th centuries bc) (Bernabò Brea 1964, 588 n. 5, 589, n. 1 1. See also Bernabò Brea 1966 for Milazzese culture (= lh 111A2)),


Malta (lba, mid 2nd millennium to as late as possibly the gth century bc) (Trump 1972, 22), and an anchor said to be of eia fabric found near Taranto in Italy (Evans 1956, 99; Trump i960, 295. Trump here mentions Sicily, but no other details of anchors in Sicily are known). These anchors are so similar to some of the Greek ones that there can scarcely be any doubt that they are somehow related (see below); and the sea connection from the Gulf of Corinth or Ithaka is perfectly reasonable, but the chronological gap remains at present unbridgeable.

The anchors from Poliochni, on Lemnos, would seem to be earlier than those on the Greek mainland. Their use may have begun in the site's earliest Nero phase, but the three illustrated shaft ends could equally well have come from the single clay hooks (Bernabò Brea 1964, 588, tav. 3e, f, h) also present at the site, or from other objects. I do not enter into the putative relationship between anchors and single hooks, as the latter very rarely occur in Greece (see Bernabò Brea 1964, 588 ns. 1-5). The first indisputable anchors occurred in the earlier part of the Azzuro phase, and three of them were from a very well stratified context, the destruction level 22 in Megaron II in the deep sounding below Megaron 832. Bernabò Brea dated the Azzuro Phase to c. 2700-2500 bc, contemporary with eh 1 in southern Greece and the ln in Macedonia. He held that it pre-dated Troy I, which he thought equivalent to Poliochni's succeeding Verde and Rosso phases (Bernabò Brea 1964, 588, tav. 83a-c; for the building, 84-5, 97-8, figs. 33, 42, 457; for dates, 706- 7). Weisshaar, however, quotes Podzuweit's opinion that there was clearly a connection between early Poliochni and Troy I/II (Weisshaar 1980, 41 n. 62); and Weisshaar himself says that the Pefkakia pottery shows that the late Azzuro phase has many parallels in the middle and late Rachmani phases at Pefkakia, and thus that Poliochni late Azzuro should be dated to an early phase of eh ii (Weisshaar 1980, 41-2). The Poliochni anchors were, however, introduced in the early Azzuro phase, if not earlier, and therefore, even according to this argument, they should probably be dated no later than eh i. If the earlier phases at Poliochni really do correspond closely to Troy I/II, it is odd that the latter site had no anchors. The continuance of anchors at Poliochni after the Azzuro phase is doubtful: three scraps of shanks were found in the Verde/Rosso phases, but they could equally well have belonged to the site's clay single hooks (Bernabò Brea 1964, 657, tav. 167:3-5). In the extensively excavated Giallo period, which surely is, as Bernabò Brea maintains, the equivalent of Troy II, there is no sign of them (Bernabò Brea 1976 - no entries under 'uncini ' 'uncini doppi

' or 'ancora ' ) . Turning to the sites to the N of Greece, Maliq in Albania had a number of other objects

which have parallels in eh ii Greece in the same context as its anchors (Prendi 1966, 265, pl. 3f; Weisshaar 1980, 43-4, n. 82), and at Mikhalich in southern Bulgaria, the anchor came from strata which also had examples of the Trojan depas amphikypellon, so that, like the Sitagroi ones, it may be equivalent to Troy II (Mikov 1948, 18, 24, fig. 10; Weisshaar 1980, 33-4, 42, Abb. 1:5). At Ezero, in the same district, a stone example was reported, but only one possible fragment of clay. The two finds from Govora in Romania, if they are indeed anchors (see Table 4.8), are from the Cotofeni culture and thus correspond reasonably well with the Greek anchors (Roman 1976, 63, 102). The same cannot be said for the anchors from neolithic Ariusd and from Tartaria (Vlassa 1963, 494), which must be much earlier. The Ariusd anchor may, perhaps, not be an anchor. It apparently has no hole in its wide shaft, which is, unusually, flattened at the end. The illustration looks very like one of Tsountas' ln idols from Dimini, of the type that had a hollow between the shoulders for the insertion of the head, often of stone (Tsountas 1908, 298-9, pls. 36:5,


36:2; cf. also Wace and Thompson 1912, 41, fig. 25b, d). The Tartaria anchor however, cannot be explained away. It was amongst the contents of the 'ritual pit' cut down from the site's earliest (Turdaç) stratum; in the same pit were the Tartaria tablets, a number of undoubtedly neolithic figurine heads and two 'alabaster' Cycladic figurines, which, judging by the parallels given, were still of quite plump, neolithic-looking types (Vlassa 1963, fig. 11 (Turdaç layer), 490, 492 n. 12). The anchor is not specifically mentioned in the text, but it is illustrated amongst the pit's contents in quite a clear photograph (Vlassa 1963, fig 6:5). There is little doubt that this is an anchor of the type under discussion. It somewhat resembles Servia's SF623. Like other finds from the Tartaria pit, it remains enigmatic. While there is nothing against a ln Romanian origin for the anchors, one swallow does not make a summer, and there is too little evidence at present to support such a theory.

This leaves us with a situation which, after an apparently early start in Lemnos, anchors appear in mainland Greece in the eh ii period or a local equivalent thereof. These early occurrences extend as far N as Kritsana and as far s as Tiryns, with Argissa, Pefkakia, Lithares, Eutresis, Raphina, Kirrha and Galaxidi in between. Unless they did indeed originate in Lemnos, it is therefore difficult to point to any one place as their place of origin or first arrival. At the end of the eh n/beginning of eh hi, such sites as Sitagroi, Servia, Pelikata and perhaps Cheliotomylos can be added. Sites where anchors were not introduced until eh hi include Lerna and Aegina, and probably Berbati, Olympia, and the Teichos Dymaion. At Nichoria the anchors, like the settlement itself, did not start until early mh.

Although the anchors may have had their most widespread use in eh hi, therefore, they were by no means confined to that period, and when found unstratified they should be dated no more exactly than eh ii-mh (early ?), unless there is other evidence at a site to allow a more specific chronology.

Closely connected with the date of the anchors is the idea that they might represent invaders, and this theory receives particular support from the evidence of Lerna, where the anchors first occurred in the various sub-phases of eh hi Lerna IV, directly succeeding the destruction of the eh ii Phase III House of Tiles (Caskey i960, 301; 1971, 786). Anchors may well indicate the arrival of a new group of people, but it seems to have been a case of infiltration rather than invasion, and they were just as likely to be victims as destroyers. In a number of cases, not necessarily chronologically related, the anchors were already in use when disaster struck. The Azzuro archaic building at Poliochni, in which three of the anchors were found, suffered an 'incendio violentissimo* (Bernabò Brea 1964, 98). Haus A at Argissa, which had the main group of anchors at that site, was burnt towards the end of the eba, though as noted above, anchors may have continued in use there after this event (Milojcic in Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 15, 17). House I at Eutresis, which had what may have been quite an early eh ii anchor on its floor (although Weisshaar 1980, 38-9 may well be right to assign House I to eh ii, Goldman did say that sauceboat fragments were rare in it - Goldman 1931, 15 and see also 12, 94-7), was burnt, though this could have been a domestic disaster (Goldman 1931, 15); as this site's other anchors are said to be early eh ii [ibid. 1931, 196), they had probably gone out of use well before the whole site was burnt at the end of eh hi [ibid. 1931, 231). Asine was burnt at the end of eh ii (Caskey i960, 301), as was Tiryns (Müller 1930, 84-5, 87-8, 92, 113, 203; Siedentopf 1971, 79, 84-5), though at the latter site it is possible that the use of anchors continued after the conflagration (Weisshaar 1980, 49 implies this by being so surprised to find an anchor fragment in an eh 11 context there - see also 39). Asea


(Holmberg 1944, 117) and Berbati (Säflund 1965, 116, 119, 130), where the anchors were probably eh hi in date, were destroyed at the end of that period. The most striking contrast to Lerna is provided by Aegina, where all the anchors but two were associated with Stadt V, which, like Lerna IV, was eh in; Stadt V suffered perhaps the worst destruction by fire of all the cities which succeeded each other on the site (Walter and Feiten 1981, 42). Although the place was re-inhabited after the disaster, apparently by the same people (Walter and Feiten 1981, 42), the anchors were not seen again (except for a scrap in Stadt VI) until the single one in Stadt X, which may well have been a stray. In other places where anchors were in use, there was no destruction as such, but the sites were deserted. Cases in point are Kritsana, Servia, Lidiares, Raphina and perhaps Corinth proper. Sitagroi's Phase Va Burnt House was destroyed at a time approximately equivalent to the end of eh 11, like Lerna. The site's two anchors however, belonged not to the succeeding Long House, but to the clay bin phase which came after it - and after that the site was possibly deserted (A. C. Renfrew et al 1986, 19, 24, table 2.1, 482-3).

The most southerly settlement to produce anchors, Nichoria, has them in its earliest levels (instead of its latest). The mh i date (Carington Smith 1992, 692) is the latest so far in Greece for the introduction of anchors on a site. It may also be worth noting that though occupation at the site continued, anchors did not. It is also significant that they were not found in the fully excavated mh site of Malthi (Valmin 1938) only 30 km away.

The ethnic implications of anchors therefore, if they have any validity, suggest a minority which started to arrive in Greece in the eh ii period, flourished for a little in eh hi, and was barely surviving in fairly remote areas, or had become merged into the general population in the mh period. The other possibility, which does not exclude the previous one, is that the anchors were objects that were useful or desirable for a while and then became obsolete or no longer necessary, cf. compact discs replacing cassettes; and computers, typewriters.

This brings us to the purpose of the anchors. Despite many attempts to solve this conundrum, it is still a mystery. They cannot be votive anchors (Murray 1929, 18-19; 1961, 59-60) as they are nothing like the anchors used in the ba, and in any case they are often found on sites that are nowhere near the sea. As figurines or idols, besides being headless, they would have had no need of a pierced shaft. The frontally pierced shanks, which are in the majority, would have made them unsuitable for wear as pendants or amulets, as they could not have hung properly, and in any case they are rather rough and large for such a purpose. Figurines/idols and pendants/amulets are common suggestions in the literature. That they were votive axes (Kardara 1971, 251-4: this object is not a clay anchor of the type being discussed, as its shaft would lie horizontally instead of being upright. It may be a kiln support) or garlanded bucrania also seems unlikely (Walker- Kosmopoulos 1948, 60).

The Servia anchors are typical of many others in showing wear in the hole(s) and at the

junction of the flukes with the shafts. Where identifiable, this wear looks as though it has been caused by the rubbing of narrow thread. This is the reason for the many claims that anchors must be something to do with weaving. A certain number of anchors go a stage further, and have narrow, apparently incised lines which could act as a guide for thread. These lines pass horizontally round the base of the shank on each side, and hang down

vertically over the flukes on the opposite side. The two lines cross in the hollows at the

junction of shaft and flukes. Anchors with this very specific marking have been found at Kastanas (Aslanis 1985, Taf. 83:4), Sesklo (Trump 1962, 224), Pefkakia (Maran 1992, Taf.

157:7), Kastron (Topolia-Magoula, BSA collection), Eutresis (Goldman 1931, fig. 269:3),


Raphina (Theocharis 1951, fig. 19), Corinth (Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, fig. 41a, b) and Cheliotomylos (Waage 1949, pl. 63); the Raphina, Corinth and Cheliotomylos anchors also have additional lines from the fluke-shank junctions to the centre bottom of the object. What is very striking, and makes it seem that, despite the chronological gap, there must be some connection, is that some of the Maltese anchors bear exactly the same lines (Trump i960, pl. 39c).

It was these lines and the other evidence for wear, described above, which led Trump to suggest that the anchors might have been heddle-hooks or pulleys for looms (ibid, i960, 295; 1962, 225), an interpretation which has been enthusiastically supported by Koumouzelis (1980, 176-7, 179-80). It was an ingenious and intelligent theory, as it would have accounted for both the places on anchors where wear and breakages occur. Unfortunately, like the votive anchor theory, the hypothesis was based on an anachronism. The loom which needs heddle-pulleys (heddle-horses) is the horizontal loom with heddles operated by foot-pedals, and as far as is known, this was not invented until the early medieval period (Carington Smith 1992, 693 and references). Neither the warp-weighted loom, which in all probability was the one in use in both Greece and Malta when anchors were current, nor either of the two main looms of antiquity, the horizontal ground loom and the upright, two-beam loom, had or needed heddle-pulleys (Carington Smith 1992, 690-1, pls. 11:1-11 for more details). Even if some such loom had then existed, it is doubtful whether the anchors would have been strong enough for such a purpose. Though almost invariably fired, they are not always well-fired, and this part of the (medieval to modern) loom suffers very heavy wear, and really needs to be made of wood. I knew someone in the mid- 1 980s who used plastic cotton-reels as heddle-pulleys on her (largely home-made) loom. They wore out and broke quickly. The wear was a widespread, irregular V-shape, not a neat line. Some old-fashioned wooden cotton-reels I was able to give her lasted much better.

Another use proposed for anchors in connection with textiles was cord-making, as suggested by the illustration of the anchor from Asine (Frödin and Persson 1938, 250-1, fig. 177:1), but as has often been pointed out, this makes no use of the anchor's flukes, and would be impossible with single-hole anchors, which are the majority. Practical experiments attempting to use an anchor to make cord or braid always resulted in the threads being pulled inwards from the vertical guide-lines down the flukes described above (Carington Smith 1992, 693-4). The interpretation which comes nearest to the correct solution is still probably Miiller's 1938 opinion that the anchors were hooks for suspending something which needed to hang freely (Müller 1938, 64), for example cheeses in the process of being strained. It is also possible that food items were hung from hooks to keep them safe from mice and other vermin.

The problem of what the anchors were may not be solved until one (or some) are found in situ as they were used. In the meantime there are various factors which can provide information about the type of background in which they belonged.

They were useful at sites that were on or near the sea (Aegina, Asine, Galaxidi, Kirrha, Kritsana, Lerna, Pagasae and Pefkakia, Pelikata, Poliochni, Raphina, the Teichos Dymaion, Tiryns); sites on or near rivers (Argissa, Kastanas, Olympia, Servia, Sitagroi) or on or near to present or past lakes (Kastron, Lithares, Orchomenos, Saratse, Zerelia), but they also occurred on inland sites without these advantages (Asea, Berbati, Eutresis, Nichoria, the Schiste Odos, Sesklo, Tsani). Fishing, an occupation connected with fine thread in the form of lines and nets, is thus ruled out.


With very few exceptions (Aegina, Poliochni, Pelikata) even the sites on the sea are also on the mainland of Greece. Anchors were apparently not appropriate to life in Crete, the Cyclades and most of the other islands, nor in Troy, nor the rest of Anatolia. They were, however, needed in Malta and the Lipari islands at a later date. Most of the sites that have them are lowland sites, which in many cases had large areas of good grazing available (exceptions: Pelikata, the Schiste Odos, Galaxidi, Asea and Nichoria, though all these have at least some land, even Pelikata. I do not know about Malta and Lipari). Sixteen figurines of bulls in a possible shrine setting were an unusual and fascinating feature of the Lithares settlement (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 169-70). Occasional figurines of cattle or other nondescript animals, which Tzavella-Evjen is right in saying bear no close resemblance to the Lithares models, were also found at some of the other sites with anchors (Eutresis, Raphina, Corinth, Tiryns, Asea) (ibid. loc. cit.). Closer to the Lithares animals is one of the bovine figures at Pelikata (Heurtley 1934-35, 14, 35, pl. 9*149), and strangely, figurines from the Cotofeni culture, including one from the site which had two doubtful anchors, Govora (Roman 1976, pl. 51:13-14 (14 from Govora), 52:1-5), are also somewhat similar. Cattle were certainly present in Malta from early times. Representations of cattle in various media predate the anchors (Trump 1972, 63, 68, 72, 103; Evans 1971, 35, 141, figs. 10:6, 47:1). Faunal remains also attest the presence of oxen (Evans 1971, see index entry under Animal - ox). It must be made clear that bovine figurines and anchors have not been found in association. The line of thought is merely that the people who have used anchors may have been pastoralists, and without more evidence this cannot be proved.

With the one exception of Tartaria, where the 'ritual pit' also contained a human skeleton, anchors were the property of the living. They are to be found on settlement sites, but all too often on the surface or otherwise unstratified, or in general settlement levels, and they do not occur in large numbers. The majority of sites mentioned have produced only one anchor. Those with more are Berbati, Galaxidi, the Schiste Odos, Sitagroi and Thebes, each with two; Tiryns with at least three (Weisshaar (1980) illustrates two, Abb 2:1-2, of which 2:1 seems to be the one illustrated by Müller 1938, Taf. 25:3. The third is Weisshaar's eh 11 fragment (1980, 49; 1981, 237)); Nichoria with four; Eutresis, Olympia and Sesklo with five; Lithares with eight; Aegina with nine; Argissa with at least ten (calculated from those illustrated in Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976 (= eight) and in Hanschmann and Milojcic 1981 (= two)); Lerna with twelve; Pefkakia with that number or more (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 94 n. 221. Three are mentioned by Weisshaar (1980, 34, 36, 41, 42, 43, 47, 49, Abb. 2:5-7, 4:2; 1989, 50-1, 66, 214, 216, Taf. 82:1, 84:3) for chalcolithic, and two by Maran (1992, 390, Taf. 157:7-8) for the mba, but the eba is not yet published. From Wolters' (1889, 266) description of its probable provenance, the Pagasae anchor

may also have come from here); Kritsana's 'particularly frequent ... in the lower settlements'

(Heurtley 1939, 87); Poliochni with three certain and up to ten more possible (Bernabò Brea 1964, certain: tav. 83a, b, d; possible: tav. 3e, f, 83c, e, f, g, h, 167:3-5); and Servia with its twenty-six. All these totals include all anchors from every phase, including all the

scraps. They were comparatively numerous in two of the Maltese sites, Bahrija and Borg en-Nadur - the latter seems to have produced fifteen examples (Evans 1971, 17).

It is seldom that a specific context for anchors is mentioned in reports, in most cases

probably because they are not found in them. The exceptions are Servia, where the contexts have been described above; Lerna where five were also found in bothroi; two in sub-

phase IVB, two in IVC and one in the mh bothros with earlier material (Banks 1967, 634); Aegina, where in Stadt V there were two in Haus 1 and four in Haus 12, plus the one in


Stadt X's Pithos-Haus (Walter and Feiten 1981, 147, 176, no. 453, Taf. 123); Eutresis' one in Haus I (Goldman 1931, 196, House I 12 et seq.); the one on the settlement's road at Lidiares (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 177, 215), the three in the burnt Megaron II below Megaron 832 at Poliochni (Bernabò Brea 1964, 588, tav. 83a-c) and the group in Haus A at Argissa (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 95).

There are several pieces of information which can be derived from this short-list. Firstly, the anchors were appropriate in such various types of housing as the isolated two-room rectangular dwelling at Eutresis (Goldman 1931, figs. 7-8), the freestanding but closely- grouped apsidal buildings at Lerna (Caskey 1966, 144-52, figs. 3, 4), and the city terrace house at Aegina (Walter and Feiten 1981, 29, Abb. 21, 22). Secondly, although usually found singly, anchors can sometimes occur in groups. Those found in pits amongst other domestic rubbish are likely to be grouped fortuitously. Servia's SF620 and SF623, from a Phase Nine pit, are fairly similar except for sf62o's two holes, but the three reasonably well-preserved anchors of the six in Phase Nine pit i (SF309, SF310, SF348 - the other three were flukes only) show not the least resemblance to each other. The situation was a little different at Lerna, where two pits each had two anchors. This made Banks consider whether they could have been used in pairs. Near one of the pits however, (possibly in its upper part) were three more anchors which were 'identical in fabric and form' with the two in the pit, making a possible group of five (Banks 1967, 634-5). Two of the three anchors in Megaron II at Poliochni are similar to each other, but the third, though only a shank fragment, is clearly quite different in form and fabric (Bernabò Brea 1964, alike: tav. 83a, b; different: 83c). On Aegina, one of the anchors in Haus 1 was also only a shank, but it was very similar to that of the other, better preserved example (Walter and Feiten 1981 Taf. 99:248-9). In Haus 12, the four anchors do look like a set. They are of similar size, the tops of their shanks are pinched-in and pierced in the more unusual, lateral, direction, and their bodies below the function of shank and flukes are usually rounded and thick (the scrap from Stadt VI resembles them in this respect). They all look as though they could have been made by the same person at the same time (Walter and Feiten 1981 Taf. 99:245- 7, 250, 105:310). The evidence of the Argissa anchors, which is the most interesting of all, is unfortunately rather confusing. In the preliminary report in 1956 Milojcic wrote that numerous clay anchors were found in the vicinity of the hearths of the burnt house (of E. Thess. Ill = eh in) and he repeated this report of anchors being found near hearths in another preliminary report in i960. In the final report, however, anchors are only mentioned as being near the hearth of Haus A (Milojcic 1956, 141-83, 148-50, Abb. 8; i960, 1 ff, 28) Hanschmann (Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976, 95) publishes only six anchors from the late eba 'Wohnschicht' in which anchors are said to be numerous (Taf. 51:37-42) and it is not known how many of these were near the hearth in Haus A. Of the six anchors illustrated by Milojcic (1956, Abb. 8) four correspond to those in Hanschmann and Milojcic 1976 (Taf. 51:37-40); one is mba (ibid, Taf. 119:24) and one (top left) does not appear to be in the final publications, so the total of anchors from Argissa may be 1 1 . If the anchors were found near only one hearth, it could be by chance - but if they were found in juxtaposition to several hearths it would be very likely that they were associated with hearths. In support of the latter, we have the Servia anchor (SF294), which was found close to an eba hearth (see above). The possible group of five anchors from Lerna may also have a bearing on the hearth theory. Banks says that these anchors 'seem to have been associated with soft, dark earth in the sw corner of Area BP' Two were in the bothros, as we have seen, and the other three 'are from the general lot in the digging of which the bothros, if

26o JILL CARINGTON SMITH

such it actually was, was discovered and its finds isolated' (Banks 1967, 634-5). Obviously this was no formal hearth, but the soft, dark earth could suggest a place where a fire had been lit. In summary, it is possible that anchors were associated with hearths, but more evidence is needed before we can be certain of it.

Anchors, then, were probably sometimes made in sets (the Lerna five; Aegina Haus 1 2 's four) and could be used in groups (Argissa Haus A, Aegina Haus 1 2, perhaps Poliochni Megaron II) or pairs (Aegina Haus 1). That they did not have to be used as sets, but were also of use singly, is suggested by the many single finds, and in particular by House 1 at Eutresis, which seems to have been destroyed with its contents intact. Anchors were suspended from something (the wear in their holes) and in turn had something suspended from them (the wear on the flukes). This burden was probably suspended by loops of thread, which were passed, one on each side, round the base of the shaft, and then hung vertically over the flukes on the opposite side, crossing each other at the junction of shaft and flukes (the evidence of the incised lines) (see Walker-Kosmopoulos 1948, fig. 41a, b). This thread was thin. The anchors cannot, therefore, have been used for pot-hooks or spit- rests over the fire, as suggested by the excavators of Kirrha (Dor et al. i960, 107 n. 2), because the thread would have burnt through immediately. If they were used near hearths, they would have needed to be some distance from the flames or hot coals, but this could be vertical rather than horizontal distance. Perhaps they were used to suspend something well above the hearth, such as strips of meat or fish to be cured by the smoke, or bags of salt to be kept dry, or bunches of herbs. Like all other suggestions, this is just a hypothesis. It will be interesting, however, to note whether other anchors on future excavations are also found near hearths.

J. C. S.

Catalogue of the clay anchors

Ht. = maximum height in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face

SFll FIG. 4.37 Zembil: 110; Phase: Nine Ht. 4.5; W5.5;7Ä. 2.1 End of shank and tips of flukes missing. Well-fired micaceous buff clay.

SF18 fig. 4.37 Zembil: 93; Phase: Ten Ht. 7.1; FK4.8; Th. 2.0 Shank pierced front to back, flukes broken off. Fired red-brown gritty clay, mica.

SF52 fig. 4.37 Zembil: 304; Phase: Nine Ht. y.GfWG.o; Th. 1.5 Shank pierced side to side through pinched-in top; one fluke tip missing. Fired, slipped and burnished, red and yellow-buff mottled surface.

sf6o fig. 4.37, plate 4.25a, f68 Zembil: 5; Phase: u/s

R6.5; W5.8; Th. 1.7 Shank pierced front to back, chipped; one fluke broken off. Fired, coarse red gritty clay, dull blackened surface.

SF85 FIG. 4.37, PLATE 4.25¿, F69 Zembil: 154; Phase: Ten Ht. 8.2; W2.2; Th. 1.7 Shank pierced side to side; one fluke present but non-joining, the other missing. Fired, dark, gritty clay, dull blackened surface.

SFIO5 PLATE 4.25Ä, F69 Zembil: 1004; Phase: Ten Ht. 6.0; W2.0; Th. 1.6 Fluke only. Red slip.

SF170 Zembil: 3708; Phase: u/s Ht. 7.8; PK1.6; Th. 1.4 Fluke only. Fired, dark, gritty clay.

SF204 PLATE 4.25Ä, F69 Zembil: G40; Phase: u/s Ht. 3.0; W1.8; Th. -


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Plate 4.25. [a) Clay anchors. From left, top: SF348, Phase Nine; SF290, Phase Ten; SF394, Phase u/ s; bottom: SF309, Phase Nine; sf6o, Phase u/s; SF623, Phase Nine; (b) Clay anchor fragments. From left, top: SF204, Phase u/s; SF529, Phase Nine; SF85 (part only ?), Phase Ten; centre: SF898, Phase Eleven; SF105, Phase Ten; SF1108, Phase Nine; bottom: SF1107, Phase Nine; SF654, Phase Nine;

SF1113, Phase u/s; sf8i8, Phase u/s.


Pierced shank fragment. Gritty, dark buff clay, reddish surface.

SF29O FIG. 4.37, PLATE 4.25a, f68 Zembil: 1007; Phase: Ten Ht. 5.7; W6.0; Th. 1.9 Shank pierced front to back, one fluke missing. Fired gritty, dark buff clay, mica, dark surface.

SF292 Zembil: 1009; Phase: Ten Ht. 3.4; W. 3.8; Th.- Fragment - junction of shank and one fluke. Fired, gritty, red clay.

SF294 FIG. 4.37 Zembil: 1430; Phase: Eleven /ft. 4.0; W5.0; Th.- Fragment, junction of shank and flukes. Fine brown micaceous clay, mottled black and buff surface.

SF309 FIG. 4.37, PLATE 4.25a, f68 Zembil: 1443; Phase: Nine Ht. 5.9; W.4.7; Th. 1.4 Shank, pierced front to back, stubs of flukes. Fired, dark gritty clay, brown to black surface.

SF310 FIG. 4.37 Zembil: 1446; Phase: Nine Ht. 3.6; W5.4; Th. 1.6 Fragment, junction of shank and flukes. Micaceous buff clay, pale grey-buff surface.

SF335 FIG. 4.37 Zembil: 1043; Phase: Ten Ht. 8.0; W4.2; Th. 2.1 Shank pierced front to back, stubs of flukes. Fired, gritty red clay, surface burnished, mottled red and black.

SF348 fig. 4.37, plate 4.25a, f68 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine //i.6.4; W6.3; Th. 1.3 Shank pierced front to back, fluke tips missing. Fired, blackish-grey surface, slipped and burnished.

SF349 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 2.7; W7.2; Th. 1.7 Fluke, complete. Fired, brown gritty clay, mica, buff to grey surface.

SF394 FIG. 4.37, PLATE 4.25a, f68 Zembil: Area H; Phase: u/s //I5.4; W7.0; Th. 2.6 Shank, pierced side to side, broken through hole; fluke tips missing. Brown, gritty clay, slipped dark surface.

SF529 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: F20/A; Phase: Nine Ht. 2.8; W.i. g: Th. 1.4 Pierced end of shank. Dark gritty clay, buff to black surface.

SF620 FIG. 4.37 Zembil: 3407; Phase: Nine Ht. 4.1: W5.0; Th. 1.7 Shaft pierced twice from front to back, broken through upper hole; fluke tips missing. Fired, orange gritty clay.

SF623 FIG. 4.37, PLATE 4.25a, f68 Zembil: 3408; Phase: Nine Ht. 4.7; W; 5.0; Th. 1.5 Shank pierced crookedly front to back; fluke tips missing. Fired dark grey buff to orange clay.

SF654 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: 3409; Phase: Nine Ht. 3.9; W. 1.0; Th. 0.9 Fluke (?) with pointed end. Dark clay, traces of burnish.

SF818 plate 4.25*, F69 Zembil: 3700; Phase: u/s Ht. 5.5; W. 1.62; Th. 1.35 Fluke. Black clay with numerous white grits; reddish surface, slipped and burnished.

SF898 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: 506; Phase: Eleven M.3.3; w. 1.4; m 0.9 Fluke. Fired, dark gritty clay.

SF1018 Zembil: 1473; Phase: Nine Ht. 4.0; W5.8; Th. 1.8 Unlikely to be an anchor.

SFII07 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 3.7; K1.3; Th. 1.2 Fluke. Fired, dark gritty clay.

SFII08 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine Ä.3.9; W. 1.7; Th. 1.2 Fluke. Dark gritty clay.

SFIII3 PLATE 4.256, F69 Zembil: F20/A; Phase: u/s Ht. 4.1; W.2.'', Th. 1.4 Fluke. Fired, dark gritty clay, mica.


Additional Clay Small Finds A total of thirty-nine clay small finds, other than the figurines (section 4.3.1) and those associated with weaving (section 4.3.2-10), were recorded at Servia. The assemblage can be divided into seven main types: ornaments (10), slingbolts (6), spoons (3), a stamp/ burnisher, disks (2), plaques (2) and 'pillars' (2). An additional nine small finds are classed as miscellaneous and four others as worked. Few of these find ready parallels and their function is largely undetermined. Heurtley reported, in addition, a rectangular clay block with filling on both surfaces (1939, fig. 7g) from the 'en' (= mn) which he thought was possibly a figurine and two clay cylinders with longitudinal perforations he identified as phalli (1939, 78, fig. 35t, u) as well as two stamps ox pintaderas (1939, 78, fig. 35r, s)

4.3.11 Ornaments (figs. 4.38-4.39, plate 4.26, F70, F71, F74) With the exception of SF683 and SF896, which might have been used as pendants (see 4.3.18 and 4.3.19, below), there are ten ornaments. These can be identified as beads (6), bracelets (3), and a pendant.

Beads In comparison with Sitagroi Phase III, where clay beads are very common, only five were recorded at Servia. Of these beads, two were cylindrical (SF65A and b), one was disk- shaped (SF973), one was rounded (SF767) and one, which may have been a reused sherd, was ring-shaped (SF919). The minimum diameter for the beads was 0.3 cm, whilst the maximum was 3 cm. Two of the beads (SF767 and SF919) were found at Servia-Varytimides, while SF973 was from a mixed mn and ln layer and SF65A and b were from a Phase Nine and Ten pit. A sixth item classified here (SF296) is enigmatic: it is incompletely pierced and bears a number of dimple marks. It was an unstratified find from the ploughsoil in Area G. Heurtley listed a tiny bead from the 'ln' levels (1939, 79, fig. 35q).


Ht. = maximum height in cm; Di. = maximum diameter; Th. = thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF65A & b fig. 4.38 Zembil: 213; Phase: Nine/Ten SF65A: Di. 0.5; Th. 0.8 Complete. Waisted cylindrical. Fine yellowish-brown clay with mica. SF65B: Di. 0.5; Th. 0.4 Complete. Cylindrical with slight incised groove around middle. Very fine orange clay.

SF296 FIG. 4.38, PLATE 4.26^, F71 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase: Nine Ht. 2.1; Di. 2.8; Di. of perforation 0.4; Wt. 21

Complete, but not fully pierced. Biconical, burnished, dark clay, mica, dimple marks on one side.

SF767 FIG. 4.38, PLATE 4.26a, F71 Zembil: 3639; Phase: en l Di. 1.6; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Fired, rounded, pierced vertically, burnished. Black clay with mica.

SF919 FIG. 4.38, PLATE 4.26a, f8i Zembil: 3630; Phase: en Di. 3.0; Th. 0.6; Di. of perforation 0.8; Wt. 4 50%. Disk, made from a sherd, pierced centrally.

SF973 fig. 4.38 Zembil: 1618; Phase: Four/Five/Seven £1.0.3; Th.o.is Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

THE SMALL FINDS: ADDITIONAL CLAY OBJECTS 265

Fig. 4.38. Clay beads: SF296, Phase u/s; SF767, Phase en; SF919, Phase en. 1:1 SF65A, Phase Nine/Ten; SF65B, Phase Nine/Ten ;SF97 3, Phase Four/Five/Seven. 2:1

Bracelets Three fragments of clay bracelets were recorded of a type very similar to those made in stone (4.2.1 1). Two of these (SF403 and SF536) may be from the same bracelet, which had been burnished. One fragment was found in the Phase Two yard s of Structure 1, whilst the other (SF536) was associated with Structure 2 of the same phase. A third fragment (sf88i) was slipped and burnished and its flat surface had been lightly smoothed. It was found in the fill of a Phase Seven pit in Area E.

Catalogue of the bracelets

Th. = maximum thickness from face to face in cm; Di. = maximum diameter.

SF403 FIG. 4.39, PLATE 4.26^, F71 Zembil: 1354; Phase: Two Di. 9.8; L. 4.7; W0.9 Incomplete, c. 20% (?). Part of circular bracelet, oval-

rectangular in section. Dark grey fabric with orange- red surface, slightly smoothed. Pierced at one end.

SF536 FIG. 4.39, PLATE 4.26Ô, F71 Zembil: 1203; Phase: Two Di. 7; W0.9; Th. 0.8 Incomplete, c. 10% (?). Part of circular bracelet, oval- rectangular in section. Dark grey fabric with orange-


red surface, slightly smoothed. Possible traces of Di. 8.3;///. 1; Th. 1.1 burnish. Incomplete, c. 33%. Part of circular bracelet, semi-

circular in section. Red clay, outer (curved) surface sf88 1 fig. 4.39, plate 4.266, F7 1 smoothed, slipped and burnished. Flat surface lightly Zembil: 3741 ; Phase: Seven smoothed.

Pendant A complete pendant (SF821), which had been pierced three times, was found at Servia- Varytimides. It was formed by pinching so that it had flat ends and rather sharp edges.

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face.

SF82 1 FIG. 4.39, PLATE 4.26a, F70 Zembil: 3653; Phase: en l L. 2; W. 2.2; Th. 1.5 Complete, pierced three times, smooth.

4.3.12 Slingbolts (fig. 4.39) Six, mostly complete, olive-shaped clay slingbolts (sfio66) were found on the burnt clay floor of Phase Four Structure 2. All of the slingbolts were within 1 cm in length and 0.50 cm in diameter of each other. The number of slingbolts at Servia is small, in comparison with Nea Nikomedeia where over three hundred were found (Pyke 1994, 117) or Sesklo where Tsountas (1908, 344) reported large numbers, and may indicate that alternative weapons were used for hunting - or that suitable river pebbles were preferred. Slingbolts were also found at Vashtëmia in se Albania (Korkuti 1982, fig. 9: 9-15, tab. XVIII 18).

Di. = maximum diameter in cm

SFIO66A-F FIG. 4.39 Zembil: 335; Phase: Four a: Di. 3.2; L. 5.2 b: Di. 3; L. 5.6 e: Di. 2.9; L. 4.7 d: Di. 3.2; L. 4.7 e: Di. 3.7; L. 5.2 f: Di. 2.7; L. 5.1 Six, mostly complete, unbaked. 'Olive'-shaped.

4.3.13 Spoons (fig. 4.41, F74) Three spoons, two of which were fragments of the bowl and stem (SF285 and SF642) and one a fragment of the bowl only were recorded. The en spoon (SF642) had a poorly smoothed surface, as did another from the fill of an eba Phase Eight ditch (SF285). The bowl fragment (SF977) was found on an eba floor in a trial-trench (E20/S).


Catalogue of the spoons

L. = maximum length in cm; W. - maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face.

SF285 FIG. 4.41, F74 Zembil: 1645; Phase: Eight Z. 5.6; W4.5; Th. 1.65 Bowl and stem fragment, c. 40%. Coarse dark grey clay with dark grey-black surface. Smoothed, self- slipped and burnished.

SF642 FIG. 4.41 Zembil: 3550; Phase: en Di. handle 1.7; L. 6.4; L. of bowl 3.7; Ht. bowl 1.8 Bowl and stem fragment, c. 60%. Fine grey-brown clay with mica, poorly smoothed.

SF977 Zembil: 206; Phase: Nine/Ten Di.$.6'Ht. 2.7; Th. 1.1 Bowl fragment. Fairly coarse red and dark red clay, with smoothed surfaces of red to dark red.

4.3.14 Stamp/Burnisher (fig. 4.39, plate 4.27a, F72) An oval-shaped small find which had a convex surface and two raised 'horns' (SF634) was found in the fill of a Phase Nine pit. The find may have been used as a burnisher, while the absence of polish from its surface may also suggest its use as a stamp. Any resemblance to the familiar 'pintadera! stamps found by Heurtley or at other sites is minimal.

Ht.= maximum height in cm; W. = maximum width.

SF634 FIG. 4.39, PLATE 4.27a, F72 Zembil: 3409; Phase: Nine Ht. 2.9; W. 3.88; Oval base: 4.6 x 2.8; Ht. at horns: 3.6,3.87 Burnisher (?) Complete. Oval, convex surface, two raised 'horns'. Grey-black clay with grits and mica. Surface smooth, but with no polish.

4.3.15 Disks - Unpierced (?) (fig. 4.39, plate 4.27^ Two fragments of clay disks were registered as small finds. SF107 was decorated with circular impressions made with a tube, such as a long bone or cereal stem; its surface was smoothed and its diameter would originally have been 16 cm. This was an unstratified find in the ploughsoil of F20/D. An undecorated disk (SF845) was found within a Phase Seven yard in Area E. Neither showed any sign of piercing, unlike those mentioned in the section on spinning and weaving (4.3.4).

Catalogue of the disks

Di. = maximum diameter in cm; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face

SFI07 FIG. 4.39, PLATE 4.27Ô Zembil: 1 ; Phase: u/s L. 8.4; W.6' Th. 1.4 Incomplete, c. 15%. Fired. Decorated with circular impressions made with a tube. Fairly fine red clay with smoothed surface.

SF845 FIG. 4.39 Zembil: 373 1 ; Phase: Seven Di. e. 6; Th. 1.2 Incomplete, c. 25%. Fired.


Fig. 4.39. Clay bracelets (SF403, Phase Two; sf88i, Phase Seven; SF536, Phase Two), slingbolts (sfio66a-c, Phase Four), burnisher (SF634, Phase Nine), pendant (SF821, Phase en), disks (SF107,

Phase u/s; SF845, Phase Seven). 1:2.


Plate 4.26. (a) Clay objects. From left, top: sherd disk SF677, Phase en; pendant SF821, Phase en; sherd ornament SF683, Phase en; bottom: spindle whorl SF667, Phase en; bead SF767, Phase en;

disk bead SF919, Phase en; (b) Clay ornaments. From left, top: bracelet SF536, Phase Two; bracelet SF403, Phase Two; centre: bracelet sf88i, Phase Seven; bottom: spindle whorl/bead sf6oi, Phase

u/s; bead SF296, Phase Nine.

27O CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

Plate 4.27. {a) Clay stamp/burnisher, SF634, Phase Nine; (b) Clay disk SF107, Phase u/s; [c) Clay 'pillars', Phase Seven. Left: SF918; right: SF978.


4.3.16 Plaques (fig. 4.39) Two fragments of clay plaques were found. One (SF985) was rectangular or oval in shape, and had been pierced centrally, (cf. pierced disks, section 4.3.4). The upper surface was smoothed, slipped and burnished, and one edge was bevelled. The lower surface had been left unsmoothed. The second plaque (SF1013) had a slipped and smoothed lower surface, and an unsmoothed upper surface; one edge had been smoothed. The first plaque (SF985) was found within a Phase Two lean-to structure located immediately to the s of Structure 3, whilst SF1013 was recorded within the fill of a post-hole which formed the s wall of Phase Seven Structure 1 .

Catalogue of the plaques

Di. = maximum diameter in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face.

SF985 FIG. 4.33 Zembil: 3066; Phase: Two Di. 4; Th. 0.8 Incomplete, c. 30%. Fired. Possibly rectangular or oval shape with central perforation. Bevelled edge.

Fine reddish clay, smoothed, slipped and burnished on upper surface. Under-surface left unsmoothed.

SF1013 Zembil: 301 1 ; Phase: Seven Di. 14; W8.2; Th. 1.8 Incomplete fragment. Fired, lower side slipped and smooth, upper side rough. One smoothed edge.

4.3.17 'Pillars' (fig. 4.40, plate 4.27c F73) Two fragments of curious, roughly cylindrical, pillar-like clay objects were found on the floor of Phase Seven Structure 6. One was lightly fired (SF918) and the other unfired (SF978). They were built up around a length of stick which has rotted away to leave a partial cavity. The first was poorly smoothed and tapered, whilst the surface of SF978 was smoothed and may have been deliberately shaped into a phallus-like form.

Fig. 4.40. Clay pillar-like objects from Phase Seven: SF918 and SF978. 1:5


Catalogue of the clay pillar -like objects

Di. = maximum diameter in cm; Ht. = maximum height; W. = maximum width

SF918 fig. 4.40, plate 38r, F73 Zembil: 180; Phase: Seven Di. (max.) 14, (min.) 8; Ht. 22

Incomplete fragment, lightly fired, tapered. Reddish- brown surface with darker base, poorly smoothed.

SF978 FIG. 4.40, PLATE 4. 27T, F73 Zembil: 180; Phase: Seven Ht. 30; W. 20 (max.) Incomplete fragment. Unfired. Red clay with much vegetable temper, smoothed yellowish white surface.

4.3.18 Miscellaneous Small Finds (fig. 4.41, plate 4.26) Of the nine clay small finds classed as miscellaneous, two were unfired balls with diameters of 2.85 cm and 11 cm respectively. The first (sf8is) was found within the fill of a Phase Eleven pit and the other (SF889) was recovered from the structural debris of Phase Four Structure 7. A collar (SF1103) for a pillar or post was recorded at Servia-Varytimides. A sherd (SF683), which had been pierced twice and had a smoothed surface and unfinished edges, may have been used as a pendant or ornament. It was also recovered from Servia-Varytimides. Two cylinders (SF890, SF891) 4 cm and 13.5 cm in length, were found. Both appear to be unfired, but are carefully formed and smoothed. The first was found in the structural debris of Phase Four Structure 7, and the other in the habitation deposit covering the floor of Phase Three Structure 3. An unfired conical fragment, possibly a weight (SF892), came from a Phase Six pit in F10/D. A fragmentary plaque or disk (SF945), which had been possibly slipped and fired, was found on a Phase Seven yard in Area E.

Catalogue of the miscellaneous small finds

Di. = maximum diameter in cm; /. = maximum length; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Wt. = weight in g where recorded.

SF683 FIG. 4.41, PLATE 37Û Zembil: 3537; Phase: en l L. 3.8; W. 3.8; Th. 0.8 Sherd Complete. Ornament, pierced twice. Unfinished edges. Smoothed surface. Red paint.

SF812 Zembil: 3707; Phase: Eleven Di. 2.85 Ball Complete. Unfired, spherical, smooth surface. Reddish clay.

SF889 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Di. 1 1

Ball Complete. Unfired, one end flattened. Approxi- mately spherical, crudely shaped. Reddish clay.

SF89O FIG. 4.41 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Di. 7.5; L. 14.2 Cylinder Complete, lightly fired, smoothed and flattened. Oval in section with flattened ends. Reddish clay with well- smoothed surface. Prepared ready to make pot (?).

SF891 fig. 4.41 Zembil: 3117; Phase: Three Di. 2.2; L. 4 Cylinder Incomplete (?), unflred, smooth, flat ends. Oval in section. Smoothed, powdery surface.

SF892 fig. 4.41 Zembil. 3022; Phase: Six Ht. 4.8; Di. 8.6; Wt. of largest fragment: 227


Fig. 4.41. Miscellaneous clay objects: reused sherd (SF683, Phase en), cylinder (SF890, Phase Four), weight (?) (SF892, Phase Six) and spoons (SF285, Phase Eight; SF642, Phase en). 1:2


Weight (?) Broken, c. 50% (?) present. Lump of approximately hemispherical shape, with broken upper surface. Four additional lumps of a similar nature, possibly part of same object.

SF945 Zembil: 3716; Phase: Seven L. 12.5; W7.5; Th. 1.85 Disk/plaque Incomplete, fired, three joining fragments. Possibly

oval-sub-rectangular in shape, upper surface slightly convex. Dark red-brown clay with temper, light reddish surface possibly slipped.

SF1103 Zembil: 2004/8; Phase: en L. 10.4; W7.5; 7^.4.74 Collar (?) Incomplete, c. 45%. Collar for pillar/post, fired, smoothed, clay-straw temper.

4.3.19 Worked Small Finds Four worked fragments were recorded. One of these (SF896) was pierced and may originally have been a pendant. It was found within the fill of a Phase Eleven pit in F20/C. A crudely worked, oval, find (SF901) may have been used as a toggle, its shallow grooves being of sufficient depth to hold a thread. This was an unstratified find in F20/A. Two other fragments (SF508 and SF625), one of which was pierced (SF625), were also recorded. None of these could be assigned any function. Fragment SF508 was found within the Phase Four yard in F30/A and SF625 within the fill of a post-hole in the s wall of Phase Seven Structure 1.

Catalogue of the worked small finds

Di. = maximum diameter in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Ht. = maximum height.

SF508 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four L. 2.8; W0.7; Th. 1.2 Incomplete fragment. Conical. Pale yellow clay.

SF625 Zembil: 3010; Phase: Seven Di. 1.82; L. 3.5; W. 1.65; Th. 1.64; Di. of perforation 0.16 Incomplete fragment. Curved and pointed, pinched shape. Pierced at wider end below break. Fairly fine

buff clay with mica, reddish-brown burnished surface.

SF896 Zembil: 330; Phase: Eleven L. 2.4; W. 2; Th. 0.5; Di. of perforation 0.44 Pendant (?), incomplete fragment. Fired, pierced, burnished. Dark, streaky grey clay.

SF901 Zembil: 20; Phase: u/s L. 4.3; W.2' Th. 1.5 Complete. Grooved, wear mark on lower surface. Approximately oval in shape.


4.3.20 Impressions in Daub The following catalogue of impressions in daub show architectural elements described in section 353, and are illustrated in that chapter (fig. 3.8). It should be noted that impressions, both of architectural elements and of matting (4.3.8) were not consistently registered, and thus this catalogue forms only a representative selection of the types of impressions recorded during excavation.

C. A. M. H. C. R. K. A. W.

Catalogue of the impressions in daub

L. = maximum length in cm; W.= maximum width; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face

SF34 FIG. 3.8 Zembil: 65; Phase: Nine/Ten/Eleven L. 7.8; W4.4; Th. 2.1 Impression of small branches in wall plaster.

SF118 fig. 3.8 Zembil: 402; Phase: Four I.5.7; W 4.6; Th. 1.9 Wood and reed (?) impressions in wall plaster.

SF160 FIG. 3.8 Zembil: 127; Phase: Seven L. 7.2; W.8.6; Th. 3.0 Group of reed impressions.

SF176 fig. 3.8 Zembil: 125; Phase: Seven L. 2.6; W. 2.7; Th. 1.8 (largest fragment) Impression of small branches.

SF177 fig. 3.8 Zembil: 408; Phase: Eight L. 6.0; W. 3.9; Th. 2.0 Split branch impression, small branches.


4.4 THE SHELL SMALL FINDS

Almost all fragments of shell found at Servia were artifacts. Only three unworked shells were recovered during the excavation and it is likely that even these were brought to the site as raw material. The distance from the sea would in any case make it unlikely that marine molluscs were imported for consumption. 46 shell small finds, worked from Cardium, Cardium edule, Cerastoderma glaucum, Glycimeris, Spondylus gaederopus and unidentified freshwater mother-of-pearl (margaritifera), were recorded, just under 5% of the total of small finds. Thanks are due in particular to Judith Shackleton for guidance on the identifications. The assemblage can be divided into three main types: beads (13), bracelets (18) and pendants (12), with only one more shell being utilized, possibly for use as a polisher. The identification of this tool (SF136) emphasises that, at Servia, shell was consciously reserved for ornamental use.

No shell artefacts were recovered from the en settlement, and relatively few from ln and EBA layers. It could be argued that the fragmentary nature of the eba settlements could have limited the quantity of small finds surviving in these layers. However, intact and extensive ln layers still only yielded six shell small finds. This contrasts with a total of 28 small finds from the mn, where particular concentrations were noted in and around Structure 3 of Phase One and within Structure 7 of Phase Four. The number of shell finds is still small in comparison with Sitagroi where nearly 450 examples of beads, bracelets and pendants were found in ln levels. It is, however, uncertain whether this reflects changing fashion between mn and ln or the greater distance of Servia from the sea.

Phase %

EN O

One 8 17.4 Two 6 13.3 Three 1 2.2 Four 12 26.7 Five 1 2.2 Total mn 28 60.9

Six 2 4.4 Seven 4 8.9 Total ln 6 13.3

Eight 6 13.3 Nine o Ten 2 4.4 Total eba 8 17.8

Eleven 2 4.4

u/s 2 4.4

TOTAL I 46

THE SMALL FINDS: SHELL 277

4.4.1 Beads (fig. 4.42) Twelve tiny shell beads were found and all, with the exception of one disk type (SF761), were well-preserved. Only two had the shell type identified (SF522 Cerastoderma glaucum (?) and SF523 Spondylus gaederopus). Of the twelve, eleven were disk-shaped and one was cylindrical. The disk beads were carefully cut from a small segment of shell ranging from 15-23 mm in thickness with a diameter of 45-56 mm and a central hole 20-25 mm across. Two beads (SF525 and SF526) were recovered from a Phase Two hearth and showed evidence of burning. This seems more likely to be accidental rather than deliberate. It was usually difficult without the aid of a microscope to distinguish between shell and stone (4.2.1 1) beads which were of very similar size and shape and were presumably manufactured in the same way.

No beads were recovered from the en settlement. Nine of the twelve beads were found in MN layers. Five (SF520-SF524) were found on the floor of Phase One's Structure 3. A further two (SF525 and SF526) were found within a hearth, located to the N of Phase Two's Structure 3. The beads from Phase Four (SF493 and SF1083) were each found on two successive yard surfaces established after the collapse of Structure 1. Two more (SF516 and the cylindrical SF518) were found within the fill of an eba Phase Eight ditch in Area E, with another (SF761) being recovered from the ploughsoil layer in Area E. It is probable that more tiny beads of this type would have been recovered if a large proportion of the site had been sieved.

(o) ^ ° (o) œ ©

SF1083 SF516

Fig. 4.42. Shell beads: SF516, Phase Eight and SF1083, Phase Four. 2:1.


Th. = maximum thickness in cm from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter.

SF493 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four Th. 0.21; Di. 0.45; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced.

SF516 fig. 4.42 Zembil: 217; Phase: Eight Th. 0.21; Di. 0.6; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF518 Zembil: 241 ; Phase: Eight L. 0.12; Th. 0.8; Di. 0.56; Di. of perforation 0.21 Complete. Cylindrical, pierced centrally.

SF520 Zembil: 1117; Phase: One Th. 0.15; Di. 0.53; Di. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF521 Zembil: 1117; Phase: One


Th. 0.19; Di. 0.47; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF522 Zembil: 1117; Phase: One Th. 0.23; Di. 0.49; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF523 Zembil: 1117; Phase: One Th. 0.32; Di. 0.53; Z)í. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

SF524 Zembil: 1117; PAöm: One 7%. 0.18; Di. 0.56; Z)î. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced vertically.

SF525 Zembil: 1 1 1 1 ; /%¿«¿: Two

7%. 0.23; Di. 0.45; Z)i. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally, burnt (?).

SF526 Zembil: 1 1 1 1 ; Phase: Two 7Ä. 0.21; Z)z. 0.49; Di. of perforation 0.25 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally. One face grooved, probably naturally.

SF761 Zembil: 3703; Phase: u/s Th. 0.2; Di. 1; Z>í. of perforation c. 0.2 Approximately half of broken disk, pierced centrally.

SF1083 fig. 4.42 Zembil: 1333; Phase: Four 7%. 0.1; Zh. 0.44; Z)i. of perforation 0.2 Complete. Disk, pierced centrally.

4.4.2 Bracelets (fig. 4.43, plate 4.28, F74, F75) Parts of eighteen shell 'bracelets' were found, of which five were made from Spondylus gaederopus and thirteen were Glycimeris. No other shell type was used. Only one complete, although fragmentary, bracelet (SF691) was found; and the majority were less than 50% complete. All bracelets were smoothed and polished, and burning was recorded on seven (SF400, SF532, SF691, SF731, SF732, SF813, SF816 and SF850). This is not thought to be deliberate, but rather the result of fire which destroyed Structure 7 of Phase Four and Structure 2 of Phase Seven. The Spondylus bracelets range from 7-10 cm in diameter and are all large enough to be worn at the wrist by an adult. Those made from Glycimeris are rather smaller, normally between 5 and 6 cm across, and could only have been worn in this way by a child. It is of course quite possible that both types were worn in some other way as hair, body or clothing ornaments. Additional features included the presence of two pairs of perforations into the ends of the complete example SF691. The natural hinge blades of Glycimeris were utilised for decorative effect (SF400, SF619, SF676, SF704, SF813 and SF878).

Shell bracelets were mainly found in mn layers. All three of the Phase Two bracelets (SF814, SF817 and SF878) were found within the immediate vicinity of Structure 3. The one Phase Three example (SF704) was found within structural debris to the e of Structures 3 and 4. Seven of the eight bracelets from Phase Four, including the complete but shattered example with perforations (SF691), could be associated with the destruction levels in Structure 7. Four of these were the larger variety made from Spondylus. The remaining Phase Four bracelet (SF676) came from destruction levels in Structure 3.

Only three bracelets were recorded for the ln (SF670 Phase Six pit, SF619 Phase Seven soil build-up over debris of Structure 1 and SF532 from a mixed mn/ln context) and a further two for the fills of two separate eba Phase Eight ditches (SF192 and SF621). All four examples represent the discarding of a broken item.

Similar bracelets made of stone and clay were also used at Servia (4.5) while shell bracelets of this form are known from many mn and ln sites. Trade in Aegean shell, especially


Spondylus gaederopus, into the Balkan area where the material clearly carried a premium, is well documented for the LN/chalcolithic periods (Shackleton and Renfrew 1970). The absence of both worked and unworked shell at Servia-Varytimides is paralleled at Nea Nikomedeia where the only use of shell is of a few cockles, probably Cerastoderma edule, which have been pierced close to the hinge but were otherwise unmodified (Pyke 1994, 142).

Fig. 4.43. Shell bracelets of Spondylus gaederopus (SF532, Phase Four/Five/Seven; SF670, Phase Six; SF691B-D, Phase Four; SF731-2 (joining), Phase Four; SF691A and SF850 (joining, two views),

Phase Four) and Glycimeris (SF400, Phase Seven; SF619, Phase Seven; SF621, Phase Eight; SF749, Phase Four; SF782, Phase Four; sf8i6, Phase Four. 1:2.

28o CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

Catalogue of the shell bracelets

L. = preserved maximum length across chord; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter; W. = maximum width across the plane

SF192 fig. 4-43>F74 Zembil: 414; Phase: Eight L. 4.9; Th. 0.25; Di. 5; W. 0.6 Incomplete, c. 50%. Circular with irregular cross- section. Glycimeris.

SF4OO FIG. 4.43, PLATE 4.28a Zembil: 1 149; Phase: Seven L. 5.3; Th. 0.5; Di. 5.5; W. 1.1 Incomplete, c. 50%. Circular with wedge-shaped cross-section. Polished and burnt surface. Hinge blades on inner side. Glycimeris.

SF532 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 1608; Phase: Four/ Five/ Seven L. c. 2.4; Th. 0.5; Di. 7; W. 1.1; Incomplete, c. 1 0%. Fragment from circular example with oval cross-section. Burnt. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF619 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 300 1 ; Phase: Seven L. c. 5; Th.o.$;Di. 5; W. 0.7 Incomplete, c. 25%. Circular with oval cross-section. Hinge blades on lower surface. Glycimeris.

SFÔ2 1 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 3308; Phase: Eight ¿.3.5; Th. 0.5; Di. 6; W0.7 Incomplete, c. 1 0%. Circular with oval cross-section. Glycimeris.

SF670 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 3025; PAöm: Six L. 6.1; 7Ä. 0.9; Z)i. 10; Incomplete, c. 20%. Circular with circular cross- section. Tapered, one end flattened, one pitted with red stain. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF676 Zembil: 3106; Phase: Four L. 4.5; Th. 0.25; Di. 6; W 0.55 Incomplete, c. 20%. Circular with oval-rectangular cross-section. Ground and polished with hinge blades. Glycimeris.

SF691A-D FIG. 4.43, PLATE 4.28Ä, F75 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four Th. 0.8; Di. 6.5 (joined) Complete, comprises several joining pieces. Circular with circular-oval cross-section. Four perforations

forming two pairs. Burnt. SF691A does not join, but is part of SF850. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF704 Zembil: 3033; Phase: Three L. 4.35; Th. 0.3; Di. 7; W. 0.7 Incomplete, c. 20%. Circular with wedge-shaped cross-section. Hinge blades on inner surface. Glycimeris.

SF73I 8c SF732 FIG. 4.43, PLATE 4.28« Zembil: 3325; Phase: Four W. 1.2; Di. 8.4; Z>í. of perforation 0.4 (largest hole) Incomplete, ¿. 60%, 3 joining fragments. Circular with sub-circular cross-section. Pierced four times, burnt. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF749 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four L. 5; Th. 6; Z)i. 5.4; Incomplete, ¿. 60%. Circular with circular-oval cross- section. Glycimeris.

SF782 FIG. 4.43 Zembil: 3335; Phase: Four L. 4.5; Th. 0.4; Di. 5; W0.9

SF813 Zembil: 3342; Phase: Four m 0.5; Z)í. 5; W 1 Incomplete, c. 15%. Circular with wedge-shaped cross-section. Cut, ground and polished with hinge blade on natural edge. Burnt. Glycimeris.

SF814 Zembil: 3063; Phase: Two Th.o.4'Di. 5; W0.7 Incomplete, c. 20%. Circular with wedge-shaped cross-section. External faceting, internal smoothing. Glycimeris.

sf8i6 fig. 4.43, plate 4.28a Zembil: 3338; Phase: Four Di. 5.4; W. 1 Incomplete, £. 45%. Circular with triangular cross- section. Hinge blades. Burnt. Glycimeris.

SF817 PLATE4.28Ò Zembil: 3050; Phase: Two Th. 0.4; 7>i. 6; W 0.8 Incomplete, c. 33%. Circular with irregular cross- section. Cut near to hinge. Glycimeris.


Plate 4.28. Shell bracelets: (a) Spondylus gaederopus SF691B-D, Phase Four; (b) Glycimeris sf8 16, Phase Four; (c) Glycimeris SF400, Phase Seven; (d) Spondylus gaederopus SF731 and SF732 (joined),

Phase Four; (e) Spondylus gaederopus sf8 50, Phase Four.

SF850 FIG. 4.43, F75 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four L. 1; Th. 0.4; Di. c.7.5; WT<i Incomplete, c. 30%. Circular with flattened oval cross-section. Pierced twice-once at either end. Burnt. Joins SF691A. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF878 Zembil: 3142; Phase: Two L. 3.7; 7%. 0.3; Di. 7; WT 0.6 Incomplete, c. 15%. From circular object with asymmetrical cross-section. Hinge blade on inner side. Glycimeris.

4.4.3 Pendants (fig. 4.44, plate 4.29, F74, F75) Twelve shell pendants were recorded, and it is noticeable that Glycimeris, which had been a main source for bracelets, was not used. Six pendants were complete and five were almost complete, usually having suffered a break at their perforation. The natural decorative shape and appearance of the shells was employed in all but one example: SF504 had been cut to form a rounded, drop-pendant which had been pierced horizontally at the top - the hoop from which it would have been suspended, was broken. Otherwise the only modification was piercing close to the hinge for suspension, working to the edges of SF815 and polishing (SF717, SF815 and SF504). Piercing was normally single but could also be


and polishing (SF717, SF815 and SF504). Piercing was normally single but could also be double (SF487, SF815). The length from the hinge varied from 0.9-6.2 cm. It was not always possible to tell whether the piercing was the result of natural prédation, implying that the shells were collected post mortem, or whether they have been intentionally pierced after human consumption. In either case the species represented are marine types and their presence reflects trade or other contacts with coastal regions.

Three of the pendants were burnt (SF152, SF717 and SF504) and, as with the burnt beads and bracelets, they were all recovered from structures and layers which had suffered from fire destruction and the burning is likely to be a result of this rather than of intentional practice.

In terms of spatial and chronological distribution, the pendants have no obvious concentration. Two were recovered from Phase One; one (SF899) from the yard which separated Structures 1 and 2, and two (both SF953) from the structural debris of Structure 3. The one example from Phase Two was found on a yard surface to the s of Structure 3, whilst another two from Phase 4 (SF717 and SF504), were recovered from the debris of Structure 7 and a yard surface. One pendant was recovered from the fill of a Phase Six pit in Fio/D (SF966) and one was found on the Phase Seven burnt clay floor of Structure 7 (SF152). SF24 was found within the fill of a post-hole which formed one part of the southern wall of Phase Ten's Structure 1, whilst a further two (SF223 and SF487) were found within the fill of two separate Phase Eleven pits. One pendant (SF258) is unstratified.

Shell pendants of this form are one of the commonest types of ornament at early Greek sites: they are well represented at Franchthi in the pre-neolithic levels, and are known from en Nea Nikomedeia as well as many mn and ln sites.

Catalogue of the pendants

W. = maximum width; L. = maximum length; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face; Di. = maximum diameter. (All except SF504 employ the natural form of the shell.)

SF24 FIG. 4.44, PLATE 4.29 Zembil: 8 1 ; Phase: Ten L. 6.2; W. 3.2; Th. 0.2 Almost complete, c. 98%. Pierced once. Margaritifera.

SF152 Zembil: 46; Phase: Seven L. 3; W. 2.8; Di. of perforation 0.5 Almost complete, c. 98%. Pierced, ground at umbo. Burnt. Cerastoderma glaucum.

SF223 PLATE 4.29 Zembil: 364; Phase: Eleven Di. 2.4 Complete. Pierced once, ground close to hinge. Cardium {edule ?)

SF258 plate 4.29 Zembil: F20/A; Phase: u/s

L- 3 i 14^ 3; Th. 0.4 Complete. Ground and pierced above hinge. Cerastoderma glaucum.

SF487 Zembil: 1750; Phase: Eleven L. 2.3; W.o.S Incomplete, c. 80%. Conical with oval cross-section. Pierced twice, once laterally and once vertically; broken at perforations. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF504 FIG. 4.44, F74 Zembil: 1336; Phase: Four Ht. 1.2; W0.9 Droplet shape. Almost complete, broken, c. 95%. Pierced once to form hanging 'loop'; broken at perforation. Polished and burnt surface. Spondylus gaederopus.

SF717 FIG. 4.44, PLATE 4.29, F75 Zembil: 3323; Phase: Four Ht. 1.8; Di. 1.4; Di. of perforation c. 0.5 Almost complete, c. 98%. Solid with single perforation at top. Polished and burnt surface. Broken at perforation. Spondylus gaederopus.


SF815 FIG. 4.44, PLATE 4.29 Zembil: 3068; Phase: Two L.5.6; W6.5 Complete. Pierced twice at hinge end. Polished ridges and worked edge. Pectén Jacob aeus.

SF899 PLATE 4.29 Zembil: 1258; Phase: One £.34; W3.1 Complete. Pierced, ground at umbo. Cerastoderma glaucum.

SF953 FIG. 4.44 Zembil: 3058; PAo5¿: One L. 3.3; W s Two. Complete. Pierced, ground at umbo. Cardium edule.

SF966 Zembil: 3025; Phase: Six Z. 0.9; PK0.8; Th. 0.5 Complete (?). Probably unworked with natural perforation. Probably utilized as ornament. Cyclope neritea.

Fig. 4.44. Shell drop pendants (SF504, Phase Four; SF717, Phase Four) and perforated shells (SF815, Phase Two; SF24, Phase Ten; SF953, Phase One). 1:1.


Plate 4.29. Shell. From left, top: Pectén jacobaeus pendant SF815, Phase Two; margaritifera pendant SF24, Phase Ten; bottom: Cerastoderma glaucum pendants SF258, Phase u/s; SF223, Phase u/s; SF899,

Phase One.

4.4.4 Polisher One shell (SF136), which was found within the fill of a Phase Eight ditch, appears to have been utilized as a polisher. If this interpretation is correct, SF136 represents the only example of shell being used for anything other than decorative purposes at Servia.

W. = maximum width; L. = maximum length.

SF136 Zembil: 47; Phase: Eight L. 2.2; W. 1.1 Complete (as object). Worked fragment (?) with blunted point and worked edges. Mother-of-pearl. Possibly polished through use, but may also be natural.

THE SMALL FINDS: SHELL/ORNAMENTS OF STONE, CLAY AND SHELL 285

4.4.5 Unworked Shell Three fragments of unworked shell (sF22, SF283 and SF633) were also recovered from eba features. They presumably represent raw material which was never utilized or found unsuitable.

C. A. M. H. C. R. K. A. W.

Catalogue of the unworked shell

W. = maximum width; L. = maximum length; Th. = maximum thickness from face to face.

SF2 2 Zembil: 81 ; Phase: Ten L. 1.9; W3.4; Th. 0.15 Fragment.

SF283 Zembil: 1638; Phase: Eight L. c. 2.8; We. 1.8 Fragment. Cardium.

SF633 Zembil: 3014; Phase: Five L. 2.95; W2.3 Fragment. Burnt, with some striations.

4.5 ORNAMENTS OF STONE, CLAY AND SHELL

Altogether 89 beads, bracelets and pendants of different materials were registered at Servia. Together with another 11 stone items which may represent preliminary stages in the preparation of ornaments which were discarded before completion, they comprise 1 0% of all the finds. Half of these were tiny beads, many of which were found during sieving but, more surprisingly, over a quarter were bracelets of similar type and size made of stone, clay and shell. In contrast, the pendants were very varied, with pierced but otherwise unmodified shells forming the largest group but no examples of the human or animal representations known occasionally from other sites. Shell was the most common material used - perhaps because of its 'exotic' character while clay versions were the least frequent.

Over half of these ornaments came from the mn levels and it is likely that many of the examples from the later ditches are also of mn date. Unsurprisingly the en period is poorly represented. It is harder to judge whether the 10 items found in ln levels are really of ln date but they can be paralleled at other sites in the ln period. The only items which seem to belong to the eba period are small clay beads.


Table 4.10. The distribution of ornaments in each Phase. (St. = stone; Cy. = clay; Sh. = shell; T. = total)

Beads Bracelets Pendants Total St. Cy. Sh. T St. Cy. Sh. T St. Cy. Sh. T

EN 1 10200000101 3

One 005500000033 8 Two 002202351012 g Three 000010120000 2 Four 12 o 2 14 2 o 810 10 2 3 27 Five o 00000000000 o

MN 12 o 9 21 3 2 1217 2 o 6 8 46

Six 000000110011 2 Seven 1 10201341012 8

LN 1 1020 14510 23 10

Eight 8 o 210 o o 2 2 00 o o 12 Nine 1 20300001001 4 Ten 3 20500001012 7

EBA 12 4 218 o o 2 2 20 1 3 23

Eleven o 00000000022 2

u/s 2 01300001012 5

TOTALS 27 6 12 46 3 3 18 24 6 1 12 19 89

% 51 27 21

Recent surveys of ornaments have been published by Kiparissi-Apostoliki (1992) and Karali (1992; 1996) but few sites are available for detailed comparison, apart from Dimini. Here Hourmouziadis found c. 500 items (Tsuneki 1989) which form the basis for Halstead's discussion of the significance of the unequal distribution patterns reported (Halstead 1993). The publication of Sitagroi II (Elster and Renfrew forthcoming) is eagerly awaited. The ln levels are especially rich in ornaments, notably beads, bracelets and pendants of shell. The general lack of neolithic burial sites in Greece is also an impediment to understanding how

THE SMALL FINDS: ORNAMENTS OF STONE, CLAY AND SHELL 287

jewellery was used and whether it was universal or restricted to different strata or groups within neolithic society.

There is little difference between the disk-shaped beads of stone and those of shell which are best represented when sieving has been used. A good collection of parallels has been published from the different phases of Anza (Gimbutas 1976, 242-56), Dikili Tas (Karali 1992, 159-64; 1996, 335 no. 286) and Dimitra (Karali-Yannokopoulou 1997, 205-9). At Sitagroi beads of clay, metal, shell and stone are mostly short and cylindrical while pinched beads are characteristic of Phase III. There is however only one example of the tubular bead form which seems to become much more popular after the mn period.

Bracelets of shell or sections of shell prepared for bracelets, are published for a small number of sites contemporary with mn Servia such as Anza levels II-IV (Gimbutas 1976, 243, 249-50, 254-5, fig. 215, pl. 27), while the majority are from later contexts. These include examples from Alepotrypa (Papathanassopoulos 1996, 229, no. 46 a&b), Agia Sophia Magoula (Tsuneki 1987), Basilika (Grammenos 1991, 114, fig. 36 [numbered 37]), Dikili Tas (Karali 1992, 163, fig. 207 g), Dimini (Kiparissi-Apostoliki 1992, pl. 47, Tsountas 1908, 356, pl. 46:5-7, Tsuneki 1989), Dimitra in both Spondylus and Glycimeris (Grammenos 1991, 110-3, %s- 3°~36 [numbered 31-37]; Karali-Yannokopoulou 1997, 209, pl. 56:9), Makriyialos (Besios and Pappa 1997), Saliagos (Evans and Renfrew 1968, 65, fig. 78:7, pl. xlvi). The exact date of examples from Theopetra has not yet been reported (Kiparissi- Apostoliki 1996, 66), while at Tsangli Wace and Thompson did not assign the examples found to a particular stratum (1912, 125, fig. 78 a, e-gj. Over 150 bracelets of shell are recorded from ln Sitagroi (A. C. Renfrew 1973, 187 fig. 212; Elster and Renfrew forthcoming) in contrast to only three examples in stone and none in clay. Stone versions of these bracelets are also rather rare at other sites (e.g. Tsangli, Wace and Thompson 1912, 125, fig. 78c, d; Dimitra, Grammenos 1991, 110 fig. 30:5 [numbered 31]) and those in clay only reported from Anza II and III (Gimbutas 1976, 243, 250-2, fig. 216).

It should also be noted that there is no sign of the stone 'studs' or nose plugs frequent at Nea Nikomedeia where 81 were found (Pyke 1994, 1 1 1-12, fig. 37) and also known from Sesklo although Tsountas does not provide a precise provenance (1908, 337, pl. 43:11- 17). Examples are also known from the en sites of Podgori (Prendi and Andrea 1981, pl. VI: 1) and Vashtëmia (Korkuti 1982, tab. XVII: 14-16) in se Albania. Presumably these, like the hemispherical beads with double perforation (Pyke 1994, 112, fig. 38) had already ceased to be popular by the mn period. Equally there are no examples at Servia of the ring pendants which seem to be of ln date and are best known from the gold examples published from Platomagoules and Aravissos (Papathanassopoulos 1996, 339-40, nos. 299, 302, 303) and recently (autumn 1997) reported in the press from the vicinity of Pella.

C. A. M. H. C. R. K. A. W.


4.6 THE METAL SMALL FINDS

Seven metal small finds of different dates, two of which were arsenical bronze with a high iron content (R. E.Jones 1979) (SF345 and SF236), three iron (SF194, SF51 and sf6ib), one 'bronze' (sf6ia), and one lead (SF37) were recorded at Servia.

A well-preserved needle (SF345) was recovered from the fill of Phase Nine Pit i in Area G. The second arsenical bronze small find (SF236) was a single fragment of a double- bevelled edged shaft-hole axe, first identified by Istvan Ecsedy, which was from an unstratified layer in F20/D. This axe fragment compares well with the series of shaft-hole axes in arsenical bronze from the Petralona cave recently published by Grammenos, Tzachili and Mangou (1994) together with examples from other parts of northern Greece as well as a stone mould from Toumba Mesimeri. Although the Servia example was unstratified there is little doubt that it is of eba date. The relatively high iron content (4%) of the axe fragment matches with other Macedonian analyses, but not with the Petralona results where only a trace of iron was present (<o.i%).

Two earrings (sf6ia-b), one bronze and one iron, were found with the Phase Eleven female burial in F20/B-F20/D. Both were plain in design, and had been formed from cylindrical strips. They were found on either side of the skull and may have originally been attached to the ear-lobes at the time of burial. A fragmentary piece of iron wire (SF194), which may represent a third ornament belonging to the female, was found within the backfill of the burial pit.

A corroded nail or bolt (SF51) was recovered from a mixed eba and Phase Eleven context in F20/C, whilst a lead button (SF37) was found within the ploughsoil in F30/A. The button is thought to date to World War I when French troops were active within this region.

C. A. M H. C. R. K. A. W.

Catalogue of the metal objects

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. - maximum thickness from face to face.

SF37 Zembil: 78; Phase: u/s Lead button French soldier's with perforated shank. WWI. Inscribed with DUGOUR PARIS on its outer face, and a cross on its inner face

SF51 Zembil: 301-302; Phase Nine/Ten/ Eleven L 5.3; Di. 1 Sherd: L. 2.5; W. 2; Th. 0.5 Iron nail/rivet (?) Corroded piece of iron, possibly shaft. Approximately circular in cross-section.

SF6i FIG. 4.45, PLATE 4.3O Zembil: 199; Phase: Eleven Earrings, two sf6ia: Ht. 0.15; Di. 2.2 'Bronze' - not analyzed. Complete. Circular. Formed from a cylindrical strip with ends that meet to form a circle. sf6ib: Ht. 0.3; Di. 3.2 Iron. Complete but broken. Circular.

SF194 Zembil: 1622; Phase: Eleven L. 1.3 & 1.5; W. 0.2 Iron: two fragments of wire.

THE SMALL FINDS: METAL 289

SF236 FIG. 4.45, PLATE 4.3O, F76 Zembil: 151/152; Phase u/s L 4.4; W.$.2;DL 1.5; Wt.85 Bronze axe fragment Arsenical bronze with significant iron content. Rectangular wedge-shaped piece with two smooth surfaces and one slightly bevelled edge.

SF345 FIG. 4.45, PLATE 4.30, F76 Zembil: 1445/47; Phase Nine L. 10.5; Di. 0.15 Bronze needle Arsenical bronze with significant iron content. Incomplete, broken at point, bent, slender, small eye.

Plate 4.30. [dj needle of arsenical bronze SF345, Phase Nine, (b) axe fragment of arsenical bronze SF236, Phase u/s; (¿) iron earring sf6ib, Phase Eleven, (d) 'bronze' earring sf6ia, Phase Eleven.

29o CATHARINE A. MOULD, CRESSIDA RIDLEY AND K. A. WARDLE

- «««

W ' ^SS^^ ^' , / SF236 iï

SF61A SF61B SF345

Fig. 4.45. Axe fragment of arsenical bronze (SF236, Phase u/s), bronze earring (sf6ia, Phase Eleven), iron earring (sf6ib, Phase Eleven) and needle of arsenical bronze (SF345, Phase Nine).

1:2.

4.7 THE GLASS SMALL FINDS Five fragments of glass were recorded at Servia. Three green, painted, fragments (SF282) were recovered from the fill of a Post-Roman trench in Area G, and one fragment (SF710) was recorded from the fill of a Phase Eleven pit in Area E. A fifth fragment (SF220), which was recovered from the make-up for the southern wall of Phase Nine Structure 2, is thought to be intrusive.

C. A. M. H. C. R. K. A.W.

THE SMALL FINDS: GLASS 291

Catalogue of the glass fragments

L. = maximum length in cm; W. = maximum width; Th. = maximum thicknesss from face to face; Ht. = maximum height from base of fragment to top of rim; Di. = estimated diameter of vessel.

SF22O Zembil: 18; Phase: Nine L. 2.4; W. 2.3; Th. 2 Thin flat fragment, trapezoidal in shape. Partly devitrified.

SF282 Zembil. 1410; Phase: Eleven

A: (ext. measurements) Ht. 1.3; Di. e. 7 B:L 2.5; W. 1.2 C:L 1.9; W.1.6 Three fragments of greenish glass, very fine with tiny air bubbles. One rim sherd (A). Slightly irridescent surface. Painted (now black) pattern of fine horizontal and oblique lines.

SF710 Zembil: 3707; Phase: Eleven L. 1.4; W. 1.2 Small, thin fragment. Irridescent surface.

Chapter 5

The Environment and Agriculture

5.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING OF THE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT

5.1.1 Introduction (fig. 1.1, plate 1.1, F1-2) The Haliakmon is one of the few perennial rivers of Greece. It rises w of Kastoria, near the Albanian border, and flows s for about 80 km before turning ne. After a further 60 km or so, the river, which has hitherto occupied a wide, fertile valley for much of its course, encounters the southern end of the Vermion range. The encircling hills draw in, and the river enters a fairly impenetrable gorge that it has cut for itself as the range has been upthrust. The valley of the Haliakmon is several hundred metres below the level of the surrounding country, and consequently forms an island of temperate conditions in an area with a distinctly harsh prevailing climate, especially in winter. The upland country around Kozani is bare, with a rather bleak beauty: rounded, eroded hills with a thin cover of prickly oak (Quercus coccifera), Christ's Thorn (Paliurus spina- chi isti), and a juniper {Juniperus oxycedrus) punctuate the wide horizon created by this plateau. Almost the only trees among the fields are a small wild pear (Pyrus amygdaliformis) and Paliurus. As one travels s from Kozani to the town of Servia, one is presented with a magnificent view down into the lower Haliakmon valley, with the Kamvounia range beyond. Before the flooding of the valley, it was a much more gentle and benign prospect, with ribbons of woodland (albeit plantations) between the fields. Hills overlooking the river block the vista on the left, leaving the town of Servia, snuggled against the base of the hills, almost the last feature to be seen. It is along this line of sight that the road descends. Nowadays the Polyphytou dam has created a lake not seen since Pliocene or Miocene times; but where the road used to make a final sharp descent to the bridge, a low bluff faced one on the far side. It was on this promontory that Wace and Thompson found the archaeological site that was excavated by Heurtley in 1930 and further excavated in the early 1970s.

The prehistoric settlement of Servia is thus located where the Haliakmon was constricted between a spur of limestone in the valley bottom, and the low limestone hills forming the n and E side of the valley. The ford and the springs of delicious water were the obvious major attractions of the location. What of the other advantages? What did the place look like when neolithic farmers first visited it, and what did it look like by the time the original settlement was abandoned in eba times?

293

294 R. N. L. B. HUBBARD

5.1.2 Basic Considerations Underlying Palaeoecological Reconstruction

Combining the various sources of evidence, one can answer these questions fairly precisely, if speculatively. Each source of palaeoecological evidence, however, has its own character, and must be interpreted accordingly. The differences arise from the ways in which the evidence forms, the ways it gets distributed to the places from which it is recovered, and the ways in which it gets fossilised. For instance, land snails roam over distances to be measured in tens of metres, and correspondingly tend to tell one about what the immediate vicinity was like - but they can be moved much further, by humans gathering hay or making daubed structures; and if they get moved by a river eroding its banks, they seem to get transported (and mixed up) over a range of kilometres. It is accordingly sensible to distinguish between a number of kinds of 'environment'. At the largest scale, there is the regional environment, extending over tens of kilometres radius from the site: lake and peat pollen analyses, and (apparently) the wild animals tell us about this sort of context. At the opposite extreme is the evidence from pollen analyses of buried land surfaces (which reflect the vegetation within a hundred metres or so), and from land snails - the immediately local environment. In prehistoric settlements, this immediate proximity probably corresponds to the houses and the spaces between them. In between these two scales of perspective is a more distant local environment, which corresponds to the fields, river banks, hillsides etc. that lie within the walking distance that make them convenient to exploit. This is the most enigmatic zone, as the crop weeds are about the only source of evidence that can be guaranteed to come from it, and they only reflect a very restricted aspect of it. Sometimes impressions in daub and pottery, bird and fish bones, marine molluscs and charcoal can throw light on the character of this extremely important area.

5.1.3 The Palaeoecological Evidence The palynological work of Greig and Turner (1974; Turner and Greig 1975; 1986) and the magisterial investigations of Bottema (1974; 1982) have given us a clear picture of the nature of the woodlands of Greece in post-Glacial times. They tell us that in the lower-lying upland regions, such as the middle valley of the Haliakmon, mixed oak woodlands dominated. All peat and lake pollen diagrams, however, give a generalised picture of regional vegetation (which is part of the reason they are so useful). For finer details, other sorts of information are needed, and imagination based on sound botanical and palaeoecological foundations.

The calcareous alluvial flats on the right bank of the river would have harboured the mixed oak forests recorded by the regional pollen diagrams [and were probably subject to periodic flooding. Heurtley's camp site at approximately this level was flooded during the 1930 excavation. Skeat pers. comm. to H. C. R.]. Willcox (1974) pointed out that charcoal analyses can be used for quantitative palaeoecological purposes, but (paradoxically) only if the quantities of charcoal are ignored. Treated in this way, the preliminary charcoal analyses from the site (table 5.1) confirm that deciduous oak was the commonest tree in these woods, but indicates that pine (Pinus cf. sylvestris) was frequent. Maple (Acer), ash (Fraxinus) and poplar (Populus) are trees that are to be expected in such an environment. It was expected that elm (Ulmus) would be common (given the combination of damp and calcareous soils); but this was not the case. One must remember the possibility that the charcoal evidence can be biased by human selection - for instance, pine might have been favoured for its long, straight timbers. It also must be borne in mind that it would have been very easy for the inhabitants to import wood from further up the Haliakmon - though we have ño evidence

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 295

that they did so, or ever needed to. (To put the Servia charcoal evidence in some sort of context, six Gumelnita and two Karanovo I charcoal analyses from Hopfs Bulgarian archaeobotanical studies (1973) are also tabulated, together with Rackham's results from Sitagroi in southeastern Macedonia (Rackham 1986).) The low-lying area to the E of the main site (and to the N of the en site) probably was originally a damp thicket of willow and alder. It was also probably the source of the reeds (Phragmites) used in making the roofs of the houses, and recorded in daub impressions.

Although the evidence from snail shells is misleading in certain respects (q.v. post), it does tell us that two distinct environments were present at the start: dry open ground which resembled that of the present day; and damper, shaded woods. It is not very important whether the woodland snail faunas belonged to the contemporary ecology, or were from an earlier interglacial: they are the snails that inhabit the sort of Urwald that the pollen and charcoal tell us was present. The evidence about the open ground is very important, as we know very little about the natural open spaces in pre-agricultural (and en) Europe. Some pollen analysts would have us believe that Europe was a continuous carpet of forest until agricultural clearances took place. Although this picture is (in a general sense) undoubtedly true, it is not the whole story. If it were, we would have to deduce that the rich and diverse open-ground floras of our meadows, fields, and downlands evolved within the last eight thousand years - which does not seem at all likely. Equivalent ecological niches must have existed in a state of nature, and one would like to know what they were. Rivers and streams, by continually reworking their sediments, would have preserved habitats for rapidly reproducing herbaceous plants. Places with shallow, rocky, soils (like the hillside on the opposite side of the river) would provide a drier habitat where light-loving perennial herbs could find a home, and where smaller trees and bushes could out-compete the large forest trees which would otherwise shade them out.

One must also remember the contribution of grazing by wild animals in maintaining open spaces. The natural herbivore fauna seems to have been dominated by red deer (Cervus) in southern Europe (replaced by ibex (Capra ibex) and roe deer (Capreolus) in the scrubby environments), and wild cattle (Bos) in the northern and western parts (Hubbard 1993). Reworking the analytical results from Sitagroi presented by Bökönyi andjánossy (1986) in the same way as was done by Hubbard for Umm Dabaghiyah and Tell Abu Hureyra, one finds that the wild animal spectra show no evidence for any significant change in the environments surrounding the site during the life of the settlement. Cervus dominated the fauna (about 60%), with at most 5% of Bos primigenius and perhaps 20% of wild pig. Dama comprised about 2% of the faunal spectrum, and Capreolus about 8% in neolithic times. (In the BA, Dama stopped behaving like the other wild animals, and may have been ranched from Sitagroi phase IV (Hubbard 1995)). Thus in prehistoric southeastern Macedonia, animals of scrub environments accounted for about 10% of the wild animals, and forest dwellers about 70%. The grazing by wild herbivores would have tended to prevent the regeneration of forest whenever an opening in the canopy occurred - such as when an old or diseased tree fell. There must have been slowly migrating natural glades in various states of reforestation that were scattered though the primeval forest.

5.1.4 Clearances

Conversely, the phrase 'clearance for agriculture' evokes images of wide open spaces that are probably misleading. A field does need open space, and this must have been created in


the first instance by cutting down and burning everything that was amenable to destruction. Whether a massive object like a mature oak or ash tree would have been attacked is more doubtful: if they were ring-barked and left to fall in their own good time, they would not deprive the crops of light and water, and no great effort would be involved. On the other hand, saplings of 20-30 cm diameter (or less) would be easy to fell and would provide the straight timber that building required, and which the post-holes document. Whether or not the fields contained trees (large or small, live or dead), it seems likely that the process of deforestation was mainly carried out by preventing regeneration by the felling of promising young trees, and by domestic animals grazing on the seedlings. The pollen analyses of Bottema, Greig and Turner show - like others throughout Europe - that large-scale clearance of forests was not apparent until the ba. One must remember, however, that the places yielding pollen analyses are usually not the places that a prehistoric farmer would choose to occupy if there were any alternative. Who would chose to cultivate a damp, acid, upland environment if a calcareous, well-drained lowland one were available? Moreover, a clearing will only show up in a pollen analysis if it is very near by, or is big enough to comprise a significant fraction of the area from which pollen is being recruited. In reconstructing the Haliakmon valley in neolithic-EBA times, one should probably imagine the prehistoric settlement existing in the centre of a clearing of a couple of kilometres radius, which probably was not utterly devoid of trees, and which merged by way of clearings and glades into the wildwood beyond. As the natural line of communication follows the modern road s to the town of Servia, then up over the hills to the w and s, it is likely that the clearing of the woods also followed this axis, spreading more gradually to the E and w.

5.1.5 Human Use of the Natural Resources A further insight into the natural ecology comes from the wild plants whose remains were found on the site. Fig. 5.1 summarises the chronological distribution of the commonest wild plants and tree fruits from the site in the form of presence analyses (Willcox 1974; Hubbard 1976 b' 1980; Hubbard and Clapham 1992), using data detailed in section 5.2. In interpreting the graphs, it is necessary to remember that the exact shape of the curves will be influenced (to some extent) by the character of the samples. For instance, Cornus and Rubuswere almost certainly equally common at all periods, and the apparent oscillations in their curves probably only reflects variations in the character of the 'average' sample examined in the various phases. One would not expect to find blackberry pips in a sample from a clean stored crop, for example.

A very valuable find was a daub impression of oak leaves, from mn strata (plate 5.10). These were matched most closely by Quercus pedunculiflora-Q^ robur (they were wrongly identified as Q. cerris in Hubbard 1979). One en sample yielded an acorn cupule consistent with Q. pedunculiflora; and several produced bits of beech mast (Fagus).

Apart from blackberry and raspberry (Rubus fruticosus and R. idaeus, of which the former seemed to predominate), whose seeds tend to get preserved because they stick between one's teeth and then are spat into a convenient corner like a fireplace when freed, and whose ecology and consumption are too familiar to need explanation, other relevant plants represented included a plum - to judge by the plants to be found in the vicinity today, probably cherry-plum [Prunus cerasiferá), a pear (Pyrus, probably P. amygdaliformis), hazel or


filbert (Cory lus), fragrant cherry (Prunus mahaleb), cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), dogwood (Cornus sanguined), nettle-tree (Ceitis), vine (Vitis vinifera), and turpentine tree (Pistacia cf. terebinthus).

Much the most regularly represented was cornelian cherry - one of the things, with acorns, fed to Ulysses' men by Circe after she had turned them into pigs (Odyssey X 242). It is almost ubiquitous in prehistoric sites in southern European oak woodlands from Greece to southern Russia, and, despite Circe, was clearly savoured for its agreeably sharply-flavoured autumnal fruits. Almond-like seed fragments are recorded in the en and mn, but are ambiguous. If they are from almond itself (Prunus amygdalus), then it is either an import or (less probably) an introduction, being (like coriander) a Near Eastern plant. On the other hand, if they are bits of the stones of the very similar Prunus webbii, then they might represent another collection of an edible wild plant. The problem is that the seeds of the two species can only be distinguished by their size - P. webbii stones are less than about 2.5 cm long - and all the fossil specimens were fragmentary and un-reconstructable. In either case, it presumably was an appetiser or treat: a neolithic equivalent of pork scratchings or potato crisps.

At Servia vine appears in mn contexts (fig. 5.7). It appears widely in ln contexts at Servia and elsewhere: it was (debatably) not a native inhabitant of the local oak and cornel scrub (although it seems ecologically appropriate), and was probably being cultivated - at least after the mn (see below). The scarce and late occurrence of fruits of Pistacia cf. terebinthus is also odd. Like vine, it would not be very out of place in the oak, cherry-plum, and cornelian cherry scrub which would have covered the rocky slopes overlooking the site on the other (n) side of the river, or fringed the edges of the woods on the valley bottom on the near side - although its present distribution is mainly in rather lower, warmer, localities. In lowland sites, it is often rather common. Perhaps the fruits were imported in the mn for their tangy flavour: they are used in Anatolia for flavouring food, and for preserving meat (Hillman, in Hubbard 1980).

This evidence for the introduction of grape growing (however tentative) makes an interesting comparison with the information for the cultivation of other non-annual and tree crops, with their implicit reflection of social and economic circumstances in which it makes economic sense to exploit a crop which may not yield profitably for several years, for which continuity of ownership for generations is in turn necessary. Olive (Olea europaea) is the classic example. The evidence for olive cultivation at em Myrtos (Rackham 1972J. M. Renfrew 1973), seems to be preceded by the Cypriot ln site of Ayios Epiktitos (Kyllo 1982). Greig and Turner's pollen analyses record olive cultivation in Greece in the ba. Brande's beautiful pollen diagram from Vid, on the Dalmatian coast near Mostar (Brande 1973), shows a disjunct record for vine. It first appears as a liana in the aboriginal oak forest and scrub, virtually disappears, then reappears in association with sweet chestnut, walnut (Juglans), and olive, in Roman times. In se central Europe, the establishment of orchards only appears in the archaeobotanical record about a thousand years ago.

It is interesting to compare the apparent usage of turpentine tree and grapes with that of coriander. Coriander ( Coriandrum sativum) is generally accepted to be an Asiatic plant. Like other herbs and spices, it is a light and compact commodity which is capable of being transported long distances with a high profit margin. Because of their value and how they are used, such imported exotica are unlikely to be burned. They are accordingly likely to be under-represented in the archaeobotanical record, and to be recorded archaeologically when they are no longer rare or expensive, a long time after their first importation. J. M. Renfrew (1973) illustrates carbonised eba coriander seeds from Sitagroi. At Servia, coriander appears


in the LN - carbonised and as an impression in pottery (plate 5.1 a). No doubt it had long been used to flavour the lentil and bean pottages that the archaeobotany implies. Just as it is instructive to compare the continuous usage of cornelian cherry with those of

grapes and turpentine tree, so the contrast between cornelian cherry and other tree fruits found in en sites provides food for speculation. Fragrant cherry and dogwood appear in the en but not thereafter. Are we to deduce that they were shrubs of the wildwood on the s bank of the river, which were used while elements of the primaeval forest were still immediately to hand, while later we are seeing the casual gatherings of shepherds on the rocky and largely uncultivatable n bank of the river? Possibly, but the evidence is being pushed a long way.

R. N. L. B. H.

Table 5.1. Neolithic Balkan charcoals: presence analyses.

Servia Karanovo I Gumelnita Eastern Macedonia

Number of 4 2 6 13 samples

0/0 % o/o %

Quercus 100 100 84 86 Pinus 75 Ulmus - - 5° l5 Fraxinus 25 50 15 Carpinus - - 17 23 Acer 25 - -

Castanea - - 17 23 Betula - - - 8 Picea - - - 8 Abies - - - 8

Populus 25 - - 8 Rosaceae

Malus - type - 50 Prunus -type 25 - - 8

Liquidambar - 8 Viburnum - - 33 Styrax

- 8 Cistos - - - 23


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Plate 5.1. (a) Cast of impressions of oak leaves [Quer eus cf. pedunculiflord) in mn daub from the floor of Phase Four, Structure 3; (è) Cast of an impression of a coriander seed (Coriandrum sativuni) in a ln

sherd. The scale bar is one millimetre long.

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE CARBONISED PLANT REMAINS 301

5.2 THE CARBONISED PLANT REMAINS

5.2.1 Introduction The 1971-73 rescue excavations at the neolithic and eba settlement of Servia, on the s bank of the Haliakmon river in western Macedonia, presented a good opportunity to investigate the prehistoric crop husbandry of this well-stratified site. Although earlier excavations by Heurtley (1939, 65) had shown the preservation of charred wheat and lentils in association with MN material, by the early 1970s there was a clear need to supplement this sparse evidence with a much larger assemblage. Therefore when the new excavations were begun in 1971 a programme of sampling for botanical remains was also undertaken.

Field Recovery and Laboratory Methods On-site sampling and extraction of the remains were undertaken by Richard Hubbard, and the author did not become involved with the material from the site until 1980, after the excavation had finished and the site had been inundated. Soil samples of varying sizes were taken from a range of trenches for froth flotation, and from these most of the charred plant remains come, although a few hand-picked specimens were collected from within certain pottery vessels. Of a total of 67 flotsam samples ('flots') examined by the writer, 6 had no botanical remains, while the others ranged from having a single grain to many thousands of seeds. The mesh sizes used with the flotation machine were 0.25 and 2.00 mm. The excavated contexts from which the samples came, together with the phasing, are presented in table 5-5-

As far as laboratory procedures were concerned, in the case of the larger samples some sub-sampling was undertaken, the amount being indicated by a percentage of flot examined to yield the listed remains (tables 5.2-5.4). The sampling method chosen in 1980-81 to subdivide the large flots was that of mixing the flot by tipping it through a cone onto a surface and selecting opposing quarters and repeating the exercise until 10 cm3 (20 cm3 for the larger samples) of flot remained. In retrospect, this was less satisfactory than other procedures would have been (for a discussion of the pros and cons of different sampling methods for dividing large seed samples, see van der Veen and Fieller 1982). Sub-sampling by riffle-box or by random grid square would have been better. All samples were sorted under a binocular microscope, with xio magnification. For the identifications up to X30 magnification was used.

Acknowledgements This study formed part of a M.Sc. thesis undertaken in 1980-81 at the University of Southampton. I would like to reiterate my thanks to Jane Renfrew, for bringing the Servia material to my attention, and for her general assistance and encouragement; to Frank Green and Julie Hanson for helping me with some of the identifications; to Glynis Jones and Gordon Hillman for their guidance and advice on the two-seeded einkorn problem; to Richard Hubbard for recovering the plant remains, and for his critical advice and assistance with the identifications and the interpretation of the assemblage; and to Anaya Sarpaki for permission to use her paper (1992), which at the time of this study was unpublished. Naturally any errors in this article are entirely my own.

3O2 RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

5.2.2 The Botanical Remains The results are given in tables 5.2-5.4. As can be seen, the number of seeds and fruits from the excavations was very large, over 14,100 specimens were individually identified. As explained above, they only represent a proportion of the material recovered by the flotation process, and it is estimated that about 65,000 seeds were altogether present in the samples. The species have been grouped into cereals, pulses and other potential crop plants, collected fruits and nuts, weeds and other plants. The unidentifiable cereal and legume fragments were separated and weighed, and have been summarised on the result tables in terms of their relative quantities. In this section the range of species recovered from Servia has been summarised. For detailed species discussion with measurements see section 5.2.4.

Middle Neolithic More samples came from the mn contexts than from all the later periods combined. This means the range of taxa utilised in this period can be listed with some confidence. In terms of the cereals two species of domesticated wheat were identified (fig. 5.2 a-f), einkorn (Triticum monococcum) and emmer [Triticum dicoccum). The presence of spikelet forks and glume bases of these two wheats confirm the grain attributions. Of interest were the number of grains of einkorn which came from two-seeded, as against one-seeded, florets. Hubbard (1979, 227) stated that bread wheat was present, but this field identification was not substantiated by my analyses. The only other cereal to be found was barley, and interestingly the remains included not only hulled and naked varieties but also six-row, and apparently two-row, varieties as well. In terms of quantities, the naked two-row barley appears to have been the commonest.

The remains of legumes (fig. 5.3) were also to be found in the mn contexts at Servia; the two cultivated species being the chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus/cicera) and the small-seeded lentil [Lens culinaris). Many of the archaeobotanical samples are dominated by one of the pulse crops, in some cases to the exclusion of virtually all other taxa, thus suggesting legumes were an important part of the inhabitants' diet.

Other potentially useful plants were found in this period (fig. 5.4). These include the fruits of flax (Linum sp.; the evidence is not conclusive as to whether the remains are cultivated or wild), pips from the wild grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris) and a single fruit of coriander (Coriandrum sativum). On morphological and metrical criteria (see 5.2.4) the grapes would appear not to have been cultivated and were probably collected and brought to the site (see also 5.33).

As far as other collected species are concerned, the mn levels produced a good range of fruits, including the terebinth-type pistachio (P terebinthus-T.), charred 'cores' of either the crab apple (Pyrus malus) or the pear (Pyrus communis or P. amygdaliformis); fragments of fruitstones of the Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas); shell fragments from the almond {Prunus amygdalus), plus a 'stone' of a second Prunus species (either P cerasifera or P insititia); a fruit of the elderberry (Sambucus nigra), and of a species of Ceitis (possibly the hackberry, Ceitis australis). Finally a range of weed seeds, many being weeds of arable fields, was recovered.


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Table 5.3. Carbonised plant remains from the Phase Four mn destruction levels. (* Quantity of indeterminate fragments present in a sample: X = less than 100 mg; XX = 100-1000 mg; XXX = >iooo mg.

t not carbonised, and therefore possibly intrusive.)

Context: F20/B F30/A H2o:ne H20 Dio/A Dio/A Dio/A Do/C Do/C Do/C Do/C % analysed: 50 100 100 100 100 100 100 25 3.1 25 34-5 Sample No.: 23 30 37A 37B 49 53 57 60 61 62 63

CEREALS: Triticum monococcum

1 seeded - 1 10 1 - 2 - 6 9 -14 2 seeded - - 274 - - - - 49 91 - 184 spklt forks - 5 46 --2 1 -8-4 glume bases - 222 1 - 1 - 2 1 - -

Triticum dicoccum grains - 7-824----- spklt forks - 6 55 1 3 - 4 25 - 2(3 glume bases - 8865-2-420-4

Indeterminable Triticum rachis frags. - 3110 4 - 4 3 - - -8

Hordeum vulgare/distichon hulled symmetrical 4 5_________ hulled asymmetrical 1 4 _________ naked symmetrical - ____8_____ naked asymmetrical - - 1 - 1 !_____ rachis fragments - __________

Cerealia indet. frags. * X XX XXX XX X XX X XX XXX X XXX

PULSES: Lathyrus sativus/cicera

L. sativus type 217 - - - - - - 34 1 2 L. cicero, type _____!_____

Lens culinaris 78 1 1 5 3 98 4 1 2 1066 19 Leguminosae fragments

* XX __________

OTHER POTENTIAL CROP PLANTS: Linum sp. ______ ^____ Coriandrum sativum - _____!____ Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris - __________

Vitis sp. - __________

COLLECTED FRUITS AND NUTS: Prunus amygdalus - __________ Prunus cf. cerasifera/institia - __________ Ceitis cf. australis - ----------

Pyrus sp. ----------- Cornus mas frags. 1 - - 1 - - - - 1 - 1 Rubus fruticosus - ----------

WEEDS: Ajuga chamaepitys t -----------

Lithospermum arvense t - ______ ---1 Rumex spp. - _____-_--- Mercurialis annua - ----------

Veronica cf. persica - ______--i- Brassica sp. _____------ Galium sp. ____-_-----

Chenopodium sp. - _____-----

Viciae - ------- 1 1 -

Leguminosae indet. - ----2-4--- Indeterminate - ____----i-


Table 5.3. continued. Carbonised plant remains from the Phase Four mn destruction levels.

Context: Do/C F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D F10/D % analysed: 12.5 14.9 100 25.6 100 16.1 1 8.5 44.6 100 18.2 14.7 Sample No.: 64 74 76 77 111 112 115 116 117 118 119


1 seeded - 26 2 -10 13 4 10 - 6 9 2 seeded - ____ ___ ___

spklt forks - ____ __2 ___

glume bases - ____ ___ ___ Triticum dicoccum

grains - - 1 1 2 12 65 3 ~ 3 23 spklt forks - ---1 ___ ___

glume bases - ____ ___ __, Indeterminable Triticum

rachis frags. - ____ ___ _ _ | Hordeum vulgare/distichon

hulled symmetrical - ____ ___ __2 hulled asymmetrical - ____ ___ ___ naked symmetrical - 27 44 82 15 87 4 39 - 189 52 naked asymmetrical - 1 5 ~ ~ ~ l 4 -122 rachis fragments - ____ ___ ___

Cerealia indet. frags. * XX XXX XX XXX XX XXX XXX XX X XXX XXX


L. sativus type 326 1--- ___ ___ L. cicera type - 6 3284 - - - - - 64

Lens culinaris 14 760 234 441 908 54 10 665 2 48 89 Leguminosae fragments

* XX - XX - - - XX X - XX

OTHER POTENTIAL CROP PLANTS: Linum sp. ___________ Coriandrum sativum - ____ ___ ___ Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris - ____ ___ ___ Vitis sp. - __________

COLLECTED FRUITS AND NUTS: Prunus amygdalus - ____ ___ ___ Prunus cf. cerasifera/institia - 1 ___ ___ Ceitis cf. australis - ____ ___ j _ _

Pyrussp. - ____ ___ ___ Cornus mas frags. - ____ __, ___ Rubus fruticosus - ____ ___ ___

WEEDS: Ajuga chamaepitys t - ----______ Lithospermum arvense t - -----4---- Rumex spp. - ____ ___ ___ Mercurialis annua - ____ ___ ___ Veronica cf. persica - ____ ___ ___ Brassica sp. 1 ----______ Galium sp. 1 __________

Chenopodium sp. - ---_______ Viciae - ____ ___ ___

Leguminosae indet. - ____ ,__ _ _ r> Indeterminate 1 ____ ___ ___


Table 5.3. continued. Carbonised plant remains from the Phase Four mn destruction levels.

Context: Fio/D Fio/D Fio/D F20/B - - Dio/A Dio/A Dio/A/ D10A/ D10/B D10/B

% analysed 16.4 7.6 100 27 100 100 100 28.(3 3.8 18.2 Sample No.: 123 125 127 128 133 134 138 140 142 143


1 seeded 11 1 1 - - 1 - - 2 seeded - -- - ______

spklt forks - -- - ______ glume bases - -- - ______ Triticum dicoccum

grains 40 4 9 17 13 - 43 spklt forks - -- 3 ___!__ glume bases - -- - ______ Indeterminable Triticum

rachis frags. 1 -- - ______ Hordeum vulgare/distichon

hulled symmetrical - -- 17 - -- hulled asymmetrical - -- 8 ______ naked symmetrical 42 2- - - ~ 3 3 l& 7 naked asymmetrical 3 _____2i-i rachis fragments - -- - ____!_ Cerealia indet. frags. * XXX XXX X XX - X XX - XXX


L. sativus type - 298 1 - - 5 23 - 9 L. cicera type - -1 - - --13 1

Lens culinaris 31 122 162 7 - - 12 27 446 150 Leguminosae fragments * - XX XX - - - - X - -

OTHER POTENTIAL CROP PLANTS: Linum sp. __________ Coriandrum sativum - - - - ______

Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris - - - - _____j

Vitissp. - _________

COLLECTED FRUITS AND NUTS: Prunus amygdalus - -- - 1 ,____ Prunus cf. cerasifera/institia - - - - ______ Ceitis cf. australis - - - ______

Pyrussp. - - - - ______ Cornus mas frags. - -- 1 _____i Rubus fruticosus - - - __!___

WEEDS: Ajuga chamaepitys f - - 1 - ______

Lithospermum arvense t - --17 - - 3 l l Rumex spp. 1 ______--- Mercurialis annua - - - - ______

Veronica cf. persica - - - ______

Brassica sp. ______---- Galium sp. _____-----

Chenopodium sp. - ---------

Viciae - ---------

Leguminosae indet. - - - - ----1- Indeterminate - - - - ______


Late Neolithic A limited amount of change was found in terms of the types of taxa recovered from ln levels in comparison to those of the mn. The cereals still included einkorn, emmer, and the various varieties of barley. The only addition to the cereals is the appearance of a single grain of oats (probably Avena cf. barbata, the ubiquitous wild oat of the region today). Of the legumes, lentils (Lens culinarie) and the chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus/cicera) are still prominant. New pulse species were found in the ln, in particular the cultivated pea (Pisum sativum ssp. elatius) and bitter vetch ( Vicia ervilia), although not in large numbers. Within the category of collected fruits and nuts, the only additions were nut fragments of acorns (oak - Quercus) and the fragrant cherry (Prunus cf. mahaleb).

It is possible to argue both for continuity and for discontinuity between the mn and ln plant remains assemblages at Servia (see 5.2.4). With many of the taxa the general impression is one of continuity, since many of the same species continue in cultivation. However the appearance and disappearance of a number of taxa, particularly flax/linseed and the vine, may be more to do with their under-representation in the archaeobotanical record than with any perceived shifts in use.

Early Bronze Age and Post-Roman Levels The small number of samples (5) from the eba, together with the possibility that residual neolithic charred remains may have been incorporated into the fill of eba ditches and pits, makes us cautious in the use of these samples. The range of species recovered, einkorn, emmer, barley and lentils, could all have come from earlier levels, and the presence of large caches of uncharred Lithospermum arvense and Ajuga chamaepitys seeds suggest some modern disturbance (in one or two cases probably due to the action of ants). The same arguments very much apply to the one sample taken from a post- Roman pit, which cut through earlier levels, and again has small numbers of similar taxa.

5.2.3 Discussion

Cereal Cultivation and Crop-processing at Servia The interpretation of assemblages of charred plant remains is a complex matter. The historical development of archaeobotany has been well summarised by M. K. Jones (1985). Jones outlines the dichotomy of approach which has developed in the subject between the discrete 'site' studies, typified by the focus on the fine detail of human activity and its effect on the archaeological record, and those studies which deal with the 'environment', where often the region is only described in terms of general parameters, e.g. the ratio of arboreal to non-arboreal pollen, etc. Within the site-based tradition there have been some attempts to use general parameters, such as dominance ratios and presence values (Hubbard 1975; J. M. Renfrew 1972, 276), although over the last 15-20 years less attention has been given to such an approach. Instead, efforts have been devoted to devising predictive models applicable to archaeobotanical assemblages. Many of the models have emphasized the behavioural approach, inferring human crop-related activities from the internal structure of the recovered assemblages and seeing how such activities differ spatially on a site. The study by


Table 5.4. Carbonised plant remains from mn post-destruction, ln levels, eba ditches and Phase Eleven levels.

(* Quantity of indeterminate fragments present in a sample: X = less than 100 mg; XX = 100-1000 mg; XXX = >iooo mg. t not carbonised, and therefore possibly intrusive.)

Phase: Five Six Six/Seven Context: Eio/A Road Fio/D Fio/D Dio/A D 10/ A Dio/A F10/D F20/B F20/B D10/B % analysed 66.7 100 26.3 100 l$-7 lo-5 3°*3 10.7 iS-7 lo° 100 Sample No.: 67 107 109 124 135 136 137 126 129 130 146


1 seeded __6____2_ , 2 seeded _________ __

spklt forks 2---12--1 __

glume bases ^________ __ Triticum dicoccum

grains 22 4 23 - 42 58 11 14 26 2 spklt forks 21----1-1 2 -

glume bases 4 1 - - 1 3 1 - - 1 - Indeterminable Triticum

rachis frags. 22--1-1-- 2 - Hordeum vulgare/distichon

hulled symmetrical _________ (5 _ hulled asymmetrical _________ 2_ naked symmetrical 14 43 - 21 8 2 5 3 5 naked asymmetrical 3 -2-5-1 -- --

Cerealia indet. frags. * XX X XXX X XXX XXX XX XXX XXX XX

Avena cf. barbata grains _________ i_


L. sativus type 2-9-1---- -- L. cicera type ________i __

Lens culinaris 162 - 18 4 21 48 9 2 10 14 Pisum sativum ssp. elatius _________ __ Vivia ervilia _______!_ x -

Leguminosae fragments * ________ XX

OTHER POTENTIAL CROP PLANTS: Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris _________ __ Vitis sp. _________ __

COLLECTED FRUITS AND NUTS: Pistacia cf. terebinthus/lentiscus ____i____ __ Prunus cf. malaheb _________ __

Quercus sp. ___________ Ceitis cf. australis _________ __

Pyrus sp. _________ _, Cornus mas frags. - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - Rubus fiuticosus _________ __ Sambucus nigra _________ __

WEEDS: Ajuga chamaepitys t _______----

Lithospermum arvense t --4---104- 4 Aifl/z/_ Sp. ____--_-!-- Rumex spp. _______i_ __ Adonis cf. ¿znnttfl _______-- -- Bromus ssp. ____--- 1- -- Mercurialis annua --------- 2 -

Medicago sp. --------- 1- Centaurea cakitrapa.solistitialis -------- 1 --

Brassica sp. ____i------ Fumaria cf. officinalis ____!---- __

Euphorbia cf. helioscopia --------- --

Chenopodium sp. ___---i--i- Kíciflf ___-----i --

Leguminosae indet. --------- __

Indeterminate 2___---2- - -

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE CARBONISED PLANT REMAINS qoq

Table 5.4. continued. Carbonised plant remains from mn post-destruction, ln levels, eba ditches and Phase Eleven levels.

Phase: Seven Eight Ten Eleven Context: F20/B F10/D E10/A D10/B G20/A F10D/ F10D/ G20/A F20/C

F20/A F20/B % analysed 75 100 100 3°-3 1O° lo° 1O° 1O° 1O° SampleNo.: 21 122 132 141 34 41 42 131 103


1 seeded - 13 2 - - -- 2 2 seeded - - _______

spklt forks - - ______ ^ glume bases - - 1 _ _ _ _ _ 7 Triticum dicoccum

grains 3 17 130 7 - - 4 spklt forks - - 6 -----3 glume bases -■ - 1 _ _ _ _ _ ^ Indeterminable Triticum

rachis frags. - - __ ____i Hordeum vulgare/distichon

hulled symmetrical - - _____!_ hulled asymmetrical - - _ 2 - - - - - naked symmetrical 2 127 9 48 - naked asymmetrical - 4 - 5 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Orífl/ífl indet. frags. * X XXX XXX XXX X X X

Avena cf. barbata grains - - _______


L.sativus type 228 - - - - -- - 3 L.cicera type 4 - 6 !_____

Lens culinaris 110 91 24 26 1 - 5 - 3 Pisum sativum ssp. elatius - - 2 ______ Woifl ¿rz>z7t- - - _______

Leguminosae fragments * - -X---X-X

OTHER POTENTIAL CROP PLANTS: Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris - - 1 ______ Vitis sp. _____!___

COLLECTED FRUITS AND NUTS: Pistacia cf. terebinthus/lentiscus - - _______ Prunus cf. malaheb - - 1 ______

Quercus sp. __i______ Ciftû cf. australis - - _______ Pyrftj sp. __!______ Cornus mas frags. 1 - - 1 - - - - - Rubus fruticosus - - 1 ______ Sambucus nigra - - ______ ^

WEEDS: Ajuga chamaepitys t - - _ _ _ _ 2100 - 78 Lithospermum arvense t - 7 22 4 - - 135 12 Af_/z>_ sp. _________ Rumex spp. - - _______ Adonis cf. _/m„_ - - _______ Bromus ssp. - - 3 ______ Mercurialis annua - - _______ Medicago sp. _________ Centaurea calcitrapa.solistitialis - - _______ Brassica sp. ___1_____ Fumaria cf. officina lis - - _______

Euphorbia cf. helioscopia - - _______ Chenopodium sp. - - _______ Fíaflí - - -----..^ Leguminosae indet. - - 2 ______ Indeterminate - - _______

3 1 o RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

Table 5.5. Contextual, location and phasing details for the archaeobotanical samples

Sample Zembil Phase Trench Structure/ Feature

1 1005 Ten F10/D Yard. 4 1025 Nine F10/D Structure 3.

10 1118 One F20/A Structure 3, floor. 12 1121 Three F20/A Structure 3, post-hole, central

support. 17 337 Three F20/C Oven contents. 19 1156 Four F20/B Structure 4, structural debris. 21 X154 Seven F20/B Pit. 23 X159 Four F20/B Structure 4, structural debris. 27 1207 Two F20/C Structure 2, clay floor, with burnt

material from hearth. 28 1210 One F20/C Structure 1 , clay floor. 30 !329 Four F30/A Structure 2 (?), post-hole 33 1362 Three F30/A Structure 1 , post-hole. 34 M04 Ten G20/A Structure 3, clay floor. 36 1447 Nine G20/A Piti. 37 a 2122 Four H20 Structure 6, structural debris. 37B 2128 Four H20 Structure 6, post-hole, central

support. 41 1015 Ten F10/D-F20/B Trampled surface. 42 1011 Ten F10/D-F20/B Structure 3, floor. 4g 3323 Four D10/A Structure 7, structural debris. 53 3325 Four D10/A Structure 7, burnt clay floor, P224. 57 3338 Four D10/A Structure 7, structural debris. 60 3342 Four Do/C Structure 7, structural debris, P254 61 3342 Four Do/C Structure 7, structural debris. 62 3342 Four Do/C Structure 7, structural debris.

63 3342 Four Do/C Structure 7, structural debris.

64 3342 Four Do/C Structure 7, structural debris, P283. 67 3744 Four E10/A Pit.

74 3020 Four F10/D Structure 3, structural debris.

76 3021 Four Fi o/D Structure 3, burnt clay floor, under P2.

y y 3021 Four F 10/ D Structure 3, burnt clay floor.

84 3040 Three F10/D Yard.

87 3047 Three F10/D Structure 4, structural debris. 88b 3063 Two F10/D Structural debris.

90 3064 Two F10/D Structural debris.

93 1119 Two F20/A-F20/C Hearth.

97 3113 Three F20/B Structure 3, floor.

103 313 Eleven F20/C Pit.

!O7 Five Road Section Recovered from layer above Phase Four structural debris.

108-9 3O19 live Fio/1) Post holes. 110-12 3020/21/27 Four Fio/1) Structure 3, structural debris, burnt

(lay Moor, (lay floor.

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE CARBONISED PLANT REMAINS 3 1 1

Table 5.5. continued. Contextual, location and phasing details for the archaeobotanical samples from Servia.

Sample Zembil Phase Trench Structure/ Feature

113-18 3020/21/27 Four F 10/ D Structure 3, structural debris, burnt clay floor, clay floor.

119 3024 Four F10/D Structure 3, structural debris. 120 3°33 Three F10/D Structural collapse. 122 3°c>5 Seven F10/D Pit. 123 3020/21 Four F10/D Structure 3, structural debris, burnt

clay floor. 124 3O19 Five F10/D Post-holes. 125 3024 Four F10/D Structure 3, structural debris. 126 3022 Six Fio/ D Structure 3, burnt clay floor. 127 Four F10/D 128 1160 Four F20/B Structure 4, wall, post-hole. 129 31O9 Six F20/B Pit. 130 3 no Six F20/B Pit. 131 !4O4 Ten G20/A Structure 3, clay floor. 132 - Seven E10/A Yard. 133 - Four 134 - Four - -

135 33 ! 7 Five D10/C Structural debris. 136 33 1 8 Five D10/C Structural debris. 137 3322 Five D10/A Structural debris. 138 3323 Four D10/A Structure 7, structural debris, area

surrounding P223. 139 3325 Four D10/A Structure 7, burnt clay floor. 140 3323 Four D10/A Structure 7, structural debris,

lower contents of P223. 141 333° Eight D10/B Ditch fill. 142 3338 Four D10/A-D10/B Structure 7, structural debris. 143 3338 Four D10/A-D10/B Structure 7, structural debris, P2 66

contents. 144 3063 Two F10/D Structural debris. 146 3334 Six/Seven D10/B Structure 8, burnt layer.

Korber- Gröhne ( 1 967 ; 1 98 1 ) of the plant remains from Feddersen Wierde is an early example. In this study the spatial distribution of the botanical remains and their relationship to site features were linked with activities such as threshing and storage. The approach taken by Dennell (1972; 1974), when investigating charred remains from Bulgaria, looked for the remains of particular actions and related them to different types of archaeological contexts. This can be illustrated by an example: assemblages characteristic of grain consumption would be expected to contain very few weed seeds and chaff, and should correlate with contexts associated with storage or baking (ovens), as against assemblages which represent processing by-products which would be richer in weed seeds and should correlate with threshing floors or middens.

3 1 2 RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

Although attractive, the potential complexity of modelling past activities became evident when modern studies of technologically unsophisticated crop-processing methods were undertaken (Hillman 1981; G.Jones 1981). To take account of numerous possible actions the models had to be complicated, as illustrated by the number of separate alternatives Hillman (1981) included for processing different cereal crops - up to 28 stages in some cases (although many were short-lived and therefore unlikely to be found in carbonised remains). When possible changes through post-depositional processes are added, the overall potential complexity of such a system can very well be envisaged.

However as G.Jones (1984, 46-7) points out, there are four stages which, because of their longevity, are much more likely to come into contact with fire and thus be preserved by charring. These are: the winnowing by-product, the coarse sieve by-product, the fine sieve by-product, and the fine sieve product. Each can be distinguished by the proportion of crop seeds, chaff, and weed seeds. The winnowing by-product consists of the light chaff and straw which is separated out by winnowing. The coarse sieve by-product consists of large straw fragments, weed heads, unthreshed ears, etc., which were retained by the coarse sieve - the grain being allowed to pass through the sieve. The fine sieve by-product consists of small weed seeds which passed through the fine sieve, while the grain was retained. The fine sieve product is the fully cleaned crop, although it often still contains some weed seeds which are of similar size to the grains themselves, and which have to be picked out by hand. Therefore, by plotting the relative proportions of these three components for each sample, it is possible to estimate the importance of differing activities on, and across, a site. Fig. 5.5 shows the relative proportions of grain, chaff and weed seeds for the ethnographic data from Amorgos (van der Veen 1 985, 218; data supplied by G.Jones). Note however that this diagram applies to the processing of two free-threshing wheats, Triticum aestivum and T. durum (plus six-row hulled barley) rather than the glume wheats found at Servia.

Fig. 5.6 illustrates the relative proportions of grain, chaff and weed seeds for the archaeobotanical samples from Servia. Seeds of wheat and barley formed the 'grain' category; included in chaff were spikelet forks, glume bases and rachis internodes of emmer, einkorn, and barley; weeds included the following species/genus: Avena, Rumex, Adonis annua, Bromus, Mercurialis annua, Medicago, Centaurea calcitrapa/solistitialis, Veronica persica, Brassica, Fumaria

officinalis, Euphorbia helioscopia, Galium, Chenopodium, Viciae and Leguminosae indet. Lithospermum arvense was excluded because the semi-mineralised preservation state of the seeds raised questions as to whether they were modern. The large sample of Ajuga chamaepitys in sample 42 was thought to be intrusive - possibly the result of ants - and so was omitted. Pulses, nuts, fruits and condiment plants have not been counted, nor have particularly small samples.

Given the difference in the types of wheat at Amorgos compared to Servia, it is perhaps not surprising that the pattern seen in fig. 5.6 does not entirely equate with the four groupings in fig. 5.5. However the data from Amorgos is of value if allowance is made for the differing processing technique needed for glume wheats. As can be seen, many of the Servia samples are grain dominated and almost all have very few weed seeds. Considering the type of contexts many of the samples come from, i.e. destruction levels in mn storage areas, it is almost certain that in some samples much of the assemblage represents the main stored harvest. This would explain the dominance of grain and the general compositional similarity to the fine sieve product. The absence of weed seeds in some samples may be because they represent grain ready for cooking and consumption, the remaining weeds (of similar size to the prime grain) having been removed by hand. But why do most of the samples still have varying quantities of chaff? On-site mixing (Hubbard 1976 0, 1976 ¿), i.e. where the chaff


contaminates the cleaned crop at the time of destruction, or subsequently during burial, may well, in part, be a factor. (The best samples for assessing the purity of the 'grain store' type of samples at Servia are nos. 60-64 fr°m a Phase Four mn burnt structure in trench Do/C (Structure 7) - for a detailed discussion see below.) However in a number of cases the explanation almost certainly lies with the fact that the wheat at Servia is hulled. Hillman (1981 ; 1984, 4-6) described the differences in composition of a free-threshing wheat which enters a bulk grain store as against a glume wheat. He showed that with the glume wheats, after the third sieving (his stage 12), the stored crop would contain prime grain, many spikelet forks, and only a few weed seeds (with seeds of similar size to the grain). In contrast the free-threshing wheats would have virtually no rachis at the equivalent point of processing (stage 7). This explains why many of the Servia samples have varying amounts of grain and chaff but few weed seeds. G.Jones (et ai 1986, 100) observed a similar state of affairs at Assiros when examining glume wheat samples. Furthermore it suggests that the majority of samples with grain-dominant compositions almost certainly represent the primary stored cereal crop, in some cases the minor components being the result of on-site mixing but in others they probably represent 'admissible contaminants'. At Servia, in contrast to Assiros (G.Jones et ai 1986) where it was observed that glume wheats may be stored at two different points in the processing cycle - as intact spikelets or as fully processed grain, only the fully processed grain was found. This is perhaps surprising, since storing grains in their spikelets has certain advantages, but no complete spikelets were observed.

As far as differences between the various periods in the ratios of grain to chaff, and to weeds, are concerned, the small number of samples within certain phases argues for caution. Although there does appear to be some difference between mn Phase Three (and some mn Phase Two) contexts - which have a higher proportion of chaff - in comparison with those from the main mn Phase Four destruction level, the number of samples is hardly representative. Only a few samples had compositions typical of by-product assemblages, which implies such activities were taking place on other (unexcavated?) parts of the site. One might summarize the picture at Servia by saying that the archaeobotanical assemblage recovered mainly comprised the part of the harvest people probably intended to eat, and would have eaten if the destruction had not happened, rather than that part intended for other purposes.

Legumes: an Important Supplement or a Main Crop? Much discussion of Greek agriculture in the past, and certainly that which deals with the ba and later periods, has tended to focus on the triad of the olive, the grape and the cereals (Sarpaki 1992). As Sarpaki points out, this may partly derive from the attention paid to the writings of the Classical authors, who emphasized the marked dependence of Greek agriculture in later periods on both the olive and the vine. But it also partly comes from the high archaeobotanical representation of cereals, because of the fact that many species have to be parched at some stage of their processing thus increasing their chances of being charred and preserved. However, there is a fourth component to which less attention has been drawn, namely the legumes.

Within the charred plant assemblage at Servia the remains of pulses feature prominently. Three cultivated species - four if one counts both the grass pea and dwarf chickling as being present in the assemblage - namely Lathyrus, lentils (Lens culinarie) and the cultivated pea (Pisum sativum). It could be argued that the prominence of carbonised pulses at Servia is due to the extensive sampling and analyis of the material preserved in the mn destruction levels.


On the basis of the recovered remains, it appears that quantities of the dried seeds of pulses were being stored for human consumption, and came to be charred in the subsequent conflagration. This may explain why the remains of pulses are found in 75% of the archaeobotanical samples from the mn Area D contexts (see below and table 5.2). An analogous situation, i.e. stored products being preserved through a calamity, was found at the Late Cycladic I site of Akrotiri, Thera. Here, instead of a fire, it seems the building was abandoned due to an earthquake which was followed sometime later by a volcanic eruption. The archaeobotanical samples from the West House (Sarpaki 1 987) revealed very little wheat (einkorn only), rather more barley (hulled Hordeum vulgäre) but many samples which contained legumes [Lens, Pisum and Lathyrus clymenum). In interpreting the assemblage, Sarpaki (1992, 70-5) made the suggestion that if a wealthy urban household were consuming such large quantities of pulses, then the poorer general mass of the population would surely be consuming even more legumes. Hubbard (pers. comm.) has suggested that one relevant factor affecting the importance of pulse crops might be a scarcity of animal protein in the economy, given that a decrease in the availability of such protein would encourage increased pulse consumption. To what extent scarcity of animal protein was important at mn Servia is debatable, however in lba Akrotiri it could well have been a concern.

Why were pulses important at Servia? Apart from being a supplement in the human diet, as demonstrated by the dried seed remains from the basements and destruction levels, pulses could, and almost certainly were, used as a fresh green crop or for animal forage (both dried or fresh). Stems and pods of lentils, peas and vetch are spectacularly rare in the archaeobotanical record (see Hopf 1973, 4, Abb. 1 (5), sample 2/29, for possibly the only example of such a find, in this case a pea pod from Chevdar in Bulgaria), nor do they turn up in the pottery and daub impressions. The lack of preservation precludes verification of these practises; however, given the numbers of legumes from the site (over three times more pulses were found than cereals), one would suspect such uses would not have been overlooked. The second benefit of growing the pulses derives from the fact that legumes fix nitrogen in the soil and are therefore good for revitalising exhausted fields. Wheat and barley are very demanding of nutrients, and for intensively-farmed land the growing of legumes (together with manuring and the use of fallow) would have played a part in maintaining nutrient levels, and therefore yields. Whether at Servia full use was made of these properties at this time can only be a matter for speculation.

Evidence for the Use of Other Plants at Servia The presence of a number of species which in later periods became important crop plants, i.e. flax, the grape, and some of the fruits, is of interest although the evidence for whether they were necessarily cultivated at Servia in the neolithic is unclear. The grape pips are of a size and morphology that suggest we are dealing with the wild form ( Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris - see 5.2.4). The flax seeds from the mn are small and could, on metrical grounds, belong to the wild form {Linum bienne), although the presence of a long (3.45 mm) seed from Servia- Varytimides makes it much more likely that we are here in the mn dealing with undersize fruits of the cultivar, Linum usitatissimum. The various fruits and nuts could, most likely, have been collected from the surrounding environment - perhaps indicating that the gathering of plants still had a part to play, together with the hunting of red deer, as a supplement to the agricultural economy.


On-site Storage of Crops at Servia The excavation of Area D led to the discovery of a rich mn level. This provided a unique opportunity to investigate one half of a large in situ burnt structure (Structure 7). The five archaeobotanical samples (60-64) taken within this structure (fig. 5.7) are particularly valuable in that they were undisturbed in their primary contexts, as opposed to the more commonly found situation where the recovered material derives from secondary re-use of a feature, or the result of accumulation after abandonment. For this reason close attention has been focused on them.

Sample 63 is almost pure einkorn - the grains in morphology and dimensions resemble those from two-seeded florets - although the rachis would seem to be predominantly from emmer. This observation was confirmed by G. Jones and Gordon Hillman (pers. comm.) who have suggested the matter can only be resolved with the aid of a Scanning Electron Microscope, by examining the third layer of the pericarp. No opportunity has arisen to do this and so the matter remains unresolved. Adjacent to sample 63 was an extremely pure sample of lentils - sample 62. It is almost certain that the presence of lentils in sample 63 (and possibly the two Lathyrus cotyledons), as well as a few cereal fragments in sample 62, are the result of mixing during excavation. Both samples must have been virtually clean, and only came into contact with each other in the destruction.

Sample 64 represents the contents of P283, and consisted of an almost pure crop of Lathyrus sativus, contaminated by a few lentils (perhaps an acceptable contaminant?). It is very likely that the Lathyrus cotyledons were within the hole-mouthed jar in water (it being necessary to soak Lathyrus before use to remove the alkaloid which causes the disease lathyrism - J. M. Renfrew 1973, 118) before being knocked over in the destruction. The adjacent sample, 61, is very different in composition, but closely resembles sample 63 with grains of two-seeded einkorn but rachis of emmer wheat. The Lathyrus sativus and lentils are most likely to come from the contents of P283, the seeds getting mixed when the jar tipped over. Finally the last sample from Area D, sample 60, mirrors 61 and 63 in being an almost pure wheat crop although still with some chaff remaining - presumably the spikelet forks and glume bases were to have been removed immediately prior to consumption.

The remaining mn samples are probably variations on this theme, in that some of them appear to be either a pulse or a cereal dominant assemblage with some contamination, although other assemblages are well mixed. Possibly though, the mixing is not the result of on-site processes but comes from the deliberate growing of two or more species in the same field, making use of the fact that different taxa thrive under slightly different conditions - a type of insurance against complete crop failure.

The Plant Economy in a Wider Context The palaeoethnobotanical record for the mn in Macedonia - and in Greece in general - is not as well documented as the preceding and subsequent neolithic periods (Kroll 1991). J. M. Renfrew (1979, 247) documented only three sites other than Servia, i.e. Franchthi, the Athenian Agora and Achilleion Q. M. Renfrew also includes Sitagroi I- II as mn as also J. M. Hansen (1988, 42), but see discussion of the problems of relative chronology in section 1.7. K. A. W.], while Kroll (1991, 171-3) added two further sites, Sesklo and Otzaki. This makes the mn assemblage at Servia of considerable importance and for this reason this section will concentrate on the mn.


In terms of cereals, the presence at Servia of two and six-rowed barley in both hulled and naked form is of considerable interest. Although if one takes all the mn Greek records for barley together one finds three of the four forms (Hordeum distichon var. nudum has not previously been attested), only at Servia are all four present. As far as the wheats are concerned, the presence of just einkorn and emmer at Servia is unremarkable.

The occurrence of Lens and Pisum at Servia is fairly typical of sites of this period. However the large quantities of the chickling pea are worthy of attention. The exact relationship between the wild L. cicera and the cultivated L. sativus is not clear (Zohary and Hopf 1988, 1 10), and the size criteria used here to separate the respective seeds may not be valid (Hubbard pers. comm.). For this reason I have classed the seeds as being Lathyrus sativus/ cicera and have indicated which I think are, in morphology, like one or the other. Other archaeobotanical analysis has indicated the presence of Lathyrus sativus in se Europe, e.g. Kroll (1979) identified it at LN Dimini. Although bitter vetch ( Vicia ervilia) only comes from ln samples at Servia, it has been found in the mn on other Greek sites.

Many of the potential crop species (Avena, Linum, Vitis), as well as those valued for their fruits and nuts (Prunus amygdalus, Pyrus, Cornus mas, Pistacia, Quercus) have been attested on other mn Greek archaeological sites. The hackberry (Ceitis cf. australis), the plum (Prunus cf. cerasifera/insititia) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) are three new additions to this list.

5.2.4 Botanical Discussion of the Species of Plants Recovered

Emmer Wheat Triticum dicoccum Schubl. Emmer grains varied quite considerably in their form at Servia. The predominant type consisted of a kernel which tapered towards fairly blunt ends, the greatest width being more or less in the middle. The ventral side of the grains was longitudinally flat, or sometimes concave, whilst the dorsal side was covered with a somewhat blunt dorsal ridge sometimes slightly off-set from the centre of the grain (fig. 5.2 a-b). Measurements on a number of 'normal' grains are given in table 5.6 (for samples 93, 132), the large variation in L:B ratios is normal for archaeobotanical emmer whilst the ratio of T:B is fairly typical (cf. the grains of emmer at Dimini (Kroll 1979) and those at Nea Nikomedeia (van Zeist and Bottema 1971)). In addition to the 'normal' type, a small number of drop-shaped emmer grains were found in the archaeobotanical assemblage at Servia (fig. 5.2 c); van Zeist (1968) attributed such grains to distortion caused by the carbonisation process, on the basis that modern drop-shaped grains had not been observed. A further type of grain was found in a number of the samples - one which closely resembled einkorn, i.e. grains which were thicker than they are wide with blunt ends and longitudinally convex dorsal sides. A complication initially arose (Housley 1981) because these emmer grains from single-seeded spikelets (fig. 5.2 a) sometimes occurred in association with 2 -seeded einkorn grains (below). Still further confusion was caused by the association of indisputable emmer spikelet forks (fig. 5.2 l-rri) with an equally indisputable crop of two-seeded einkorn.

Einkorn Wheat Triticum monococcum L. Einkorn wheat was identified in several samples, from both grain and chaff remains (spikelet


forks and glume bases). Two morphological forms of grains were encountered. A 1 -seeded type (fig. 5.2 e-f) where the seeds were pointed at both ends, laterally compressed with both the ventral and dorsal sides longitudinally curved, with a sharply ridged dorsal side, and a narrow ventral furrow with fairly sharp shoulders. Measurements on the 1 -seeded einkorn (table 5.6) show the Servia seeds are small, certainly when compared to the Nea Nikomedeia material (van Zeist and Bottema 1971). The second morphological form found at Servia, sometimes making up the majority of a sample, was a 2-seeded type. In appearance they closely resemble 'spindle-shaped' emmer grains. The 2-seeded einkorn kernels have a sharp dorsal ridge, sides which are approximately parallel and converge abruptly at the base and apex, and sometimes (in the case of well-preserved grains) show sharp edges and distinct flattening of the ventral side in the lower part of the grain. Measurements on a group of 2-seeded einkorn are given in table 5.6.

The close similarity between 2-seeded einkorn grains and some of the emmer grains presented a major problem in this study. Spikelet forks and glume bases in some of the large samples of 2-seeded einkorn [e.g. 63) were mostly from emmer despite the fact the grains most resembled einkorn. Second opinions were sought to try and clarify the matter, and Hubbard, G.Jones and Hillman all examined sample 63. They agreed that the grain was 2-seeded einkorn but the rachis remains were those of emmer. Given the mismatch between the chaff and the grains the author was advised to check the attribution by investigating the third cell layer of the pericarp using a Scanning Electron Microscope [cf. Korber- Gröhne and Piening, 1980; Feindt and Mesterharm, 1980). This remains to be done and so the identification must remain tentative. For this reason considerable care should be taken in using the proportion of 2-seeded einkorn to emmer presented in tables 5.2-5.4, as it is far from certain a satisfactory division of the grains of the two species has been achieved. It is hoped that sometime in the future this important point can be resolved.

Barley Hordeum vulgäre L. emend. Lam. and H. distichon L. Barley was identified from grains and rachis fragments. Naked forms of both two-row [Hordeum distichon var. nudurri) and six-row [Hordeum vulgäre var. nudum) barley were noted at Servia. The grains showed maximum width in the middle, with kernels wider than they were thick (table 5.6: T:B measurements) which tapered evenly to both ends (fig. 5.2 g-h). The lack of lateral nerves running longitudinally along the grain, and the presence of fine transverse wrinkling on the surface (albeit on only a few grains) confirmed the identification. On the basis of the recovered assemblage, naked barley seems to have been more common than the hulled forms at Servia. The presence of the six-row barley was demonstrated by the presence of twisted asymmetrical lateral grains together with straight median ones. The existence of two-row barley on the site was less clear-cut, however in several samples (especially nos. 77, 87, 112) the absence of twisted lateral grains in assemblages which otherwise contained considerable numbers of straight grains suggested we were dealing with the two-row form.

Hulled barley was less common in the Servia assemblage. Six-row hulled barley [Hordeum vulgäre) was indicated by the identification of a few twisted lateral grains although the majority of the hulled grains were symmetrical implying that the two-row form [Hordeum distichon) was being grown. This was confirmed by the finding of an en complete spike impression of two-rowed hulled barley from Servia-Vary timides (see plate 5.2). Measurements for a small number of grains are given in table 5.6, and two hulled grains are shown in fig. 5.2 i-j.


Table 5.6. Measurements of cereal grains (in mm).

L = length, B = breadth, T = thickness

Species Sample No. of L B T L:B T:B Grains xioo xioo

Triticum 74 15 mean: 4.54 1.59 2.30 291 147 monococcum range: 4.0-5.0 1.2-1.9 2.0-2.7 222-377 111-183 ( 1 -seeded (min-max) spikelets) std.dev.: 0.32 0.22 o.ig - -

Triticum 37A 49 mean: 5.48 2.46 2.88 225 118 monococcum range: 4-3-7-O 1.9-3.5 2-3-3-4 183-268 89-142 (2 -seeded (min-max) spikelets) std.dev.: 0.49 0.29 0.24

Triticum 93 51 mean: 5.20 2.02 1.84 258 92 dicoccum range: 4.0-6.0 1.3-2.7 1.2-2.4 2OO~373 60-129

(min-max) std.dev.: 0.53 0.28 0.27

Triticum 132 60 mean: 6.02 2.75 2.48 220 91 dicoccum range: 5.0-6.9 2.1-3.3 2.0-3.0 177-270 70-125

(min-max) std.dev.: 0.42 0.29 0.24

Naked 87 50 mean: 4.80 2.80 2.04 172 73

Barley range: 3-6~5-6 1 -9-3-5 i-3-2-5 143-262 63-100 (2-row ?) (min-max)

std.dev.: 0.48 0.36 0.24

Naked 118 50 mean: 4.64 2.81 2.05 166 73

Barley range: 3-6~5-5 1.9-3.6 1.4-2.5 128-200 64-84 (2 ? & 6-row) (min-max)

std.dev.: 0.46 °-34 0.26 - -

Naked 122 50 mean: 4.73 2.79 2.04 171 73

Barley range: 3.2-6.0 2.0-3.4 i.5"2-7 *33~227 56~85

(2 ? & 6-row) (min-max) std.dev.: 0.53 0.34 0.25

Hulled 128 10 mean: 3.90 1.99 1.41 197 71

Barley range: 3.0-4.8 1.5-2.5 1.1-1.7 160-218 65-75

(2 ? & 6-row) (min-max) std.dev.: 0.55 0.28 0.20


Fig. 5.2. The charred remains of cereals: (a-b) Triticum dicoccum, 'normal' grains; (¿I Triticum dicoccum, 'drop-shaped' grains; (d) Triticum dicoccum, grain from 1 -seeded spikelet;

(e-fj Triticum monococcum, grains from 1 -seeded spikelets; [g-h) Hordeum (naked) grains; (i-j ) Hordeum (hulled) grains; (k) Avena grain, (l-n) Triticum dicoccum, spikelet forks.

32O RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

Oats Avena sp. A single grain of oat was found in a ln sample (130). The seed is illustrated in fig. 5.2 k. The lack of flower bases means that identification is problematic, however it is likely that the seed comes from the ubiquitous oat of the region, the slender oat [Avena barbata). The presence of a single charred grain can probably be put down to the likelihood that it represents a weed infesting the cereals crop.

Grass Pea Lathyrus sativus L. and/or the Dwarf vetchling: Lathyrus cicera L. Seeds of the genus Lathyrus were present at Servia in many samples, in some cases in considerable numbers. They displayed considerable variation in shape and, most notably, in size. The forms and size of the Lathyrus specimens would appear to closely parallel the material illustrated in Kroll (1979) from the site of Dimini, which he categorised as belonging to two species, Lathyrus sativus and Lathyrus cicera. However research on modern Lathyrus assemblages by Gordon Hillman and others (Hubbard pers. comm.) has suggested that the seeds from the two species overlap in both their morphology and, more importantly, size. For this reason I have categorised the specimens as belonging to Lathyrus sativus/ f cicero, however for the purposes of comparison with the Dimini material I have tried to indicate which of the two forms the seeds resemble. Thus in the tables this taxon has been split into L. sativus type and L. cicera type even though one may be dealing with one species. The illustrations (fig. 5.3 a-b, and 5.3 fi-g) show just how similar in morphology the seeds are, whilst the measurements (table 5.7) demonstrate the considerable size range which was encountered.

Approximately triangular in cross-section, the shape of the Lathyrus seed is governed by its position in the pod. The ones from the middle tend to have truncated ends (see fig. 5.3 a), while the seeds from the end of the pod often have one side flattened and the other slightly pointed (fig. 5.3 c).

Lentil Lens sp. Lentils (fig. 5.3 d-e) were frequently found in many samples at Servia. Because of the abundance of such finds, it is almost certain that we are dealing with the cultivated lentil, Lens culinaris Medik. (= Lens esculenta Moench), although another small-seeded wild lentil, Lens orientalis (Boiss) Hand-Mazz has close affinities (Zohary and Hopf 1988, 85). As is shown by the diameter measurements in table 5.8, all the Servia lentils were of the small-seeded type (spp. microsperma).

Field Pea Pisum sativum L. Cultivated peas were found only in one ln sample at Servia, no. 132, and it is one of these which is illustrated in fig. 5.3 A. Measurements on two of the seeds (table 5.9) show that, as far as size is concerned, the peas at Servia fall within the range of Pisum sativum ssp. elatius.


On one of the specimens I examined the seed coat (testa) is well enough preserved to show that the surface was smooth. Hubbard reports both types of sculpturing on peas from Servia- Varytimides and also makes the point that both forms can be found on testas of domestic peas.

Table 5.7. Measurements of Lathyrus seeds (in mm).

Species Sample No. of L B T Seeds

Lathyrus 97 50 mean: 4.20 3.45 3.78 sativus range: 3.2-5.0 2.7-4.3 2.6-5.1 type (min-max)

std.dev.: 0.52 °-43 0.66

Lathyrus 23 50 mean: 4.02 3.35 3.68 sativus range: 3-2-5° 2-4-4-7 3-°"4-3 type (min-max)

std.dev.: 0.45 0.49 0.42

Lathyrus 21 50 mean: 4.37 3.32 3.62 sativus range: 3-3~5-3 2.7-4.2 2.9-5.0 type (min-max)

std.dev.: °-47 °-43 °-44

Lathyrus 61 35 mean: 2.73 2.34 2.67 cicera range: 1 .9-3.4 1.2-3.4 1-9~3-3 type (min-max)

std.dev.: 0.36 0.37 0.35

Table 5.8. Measurements of lentil seeds (in mm).

Sample No. of Mean Range Std.Dev. Seeds Diameter (min-max)

87 50 2.42 i-7-3-2 0.26 67 5° 2.55 1-5-3-3 °-33

122 50 2.33 1.5-3.2 0.42


Fig. 5.3. The charred remains of legumes: (a-b) Lathyrus sativus type seeds; (c) Lathyrus sativus type, terminal seed; (d-e) Lens culinaris (L. esculenta) seeds; {f-¿ Lathyrus cícera type seeds; (A) Pisum sativum

ssp. elatius seed; (i) Vicia ervilia seed; (y) fóaVziseed.

Bitter Vetch Fïa'û ¿nu/za (L.) Wild. The LN horizons at Servia yielded a further legume species in the shape of seeds possibly attributable to those of bitter vetch ( Vicia ervilia). The illustration (fig. 5.3 1) and the dimensions given in table 5.9 suggest the bitter vetch seeds at Servia are larger than many other comparable carbonised examples.


Table 5.9. Measurements of other individual pulse seeds (in mm).

Species Sample L B T

Pisum sativum 132 3.0 3.0 2.8 Pisum sativum 132 3.5 3.2 2.8

Vicia ervilia 126 4.0 4.0 3.8 Vicia ervilia 129 4.8 4.0 4.0

Flax Linum sp. Flax seeds were found in two mn samples at Servia (fig. 5.4 a). On the basis of their size (table 5.10), the seeds would seem to be Linum bienne Mill. (= Linum angustifolium Huds.). Van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres (1975) put the lower limit for seeds of the cultivated Linum usitatissimum to 3.0 mm in length. Allowing for 1 3-15% shrinkage due to carbonisation (van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres 1975), this would put the Linum seeds in sample 57 within the range normally associated with Linum bienne whilst those from sample 115 could arguably fall in the L. usitatissimum range. The presence of a 3.5 x 2.1 x 0.8 mm Linum seed impression at Servia-Varytimides would indicate cultivated flax, L. usitatissimum, was present in the en, making it likely that we are dealing with undersize specimens of this species in the mn. However the evidence is not conclusive.

Table 5.10. Measurements of the fruits of flax (in mm).

Sample L B L + 1 3% for shrinkage

57 2-3 1-3 2.60 57 2.4 1.3 2.71 57 - 1.3

115 2.9 1.1 3.28

Coriander Coriandrum sativum A non European plant, only one carbonised coriander fruit was found at Servia, in a mn context (sample 57). Ovoid in shape (fig. 5.4 b) it measured 3.5 mm in diameter. See plate 5.1 for a mn Coriandrum impression.

324 RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

Grape Vitis sp. Grape pips were encountered in four samples at Servia, dating to the mn, ln and eba. In general the pips of Vitis sylvestris are small, short and broad whereas those of the cultivated species Vitis vinifera have longer stalks and are narrower in relation to their length. Stummer (1911) distinguished the two species of grape using the B:L ratio, V sylvestris having a range of 54-82 and V vinifera having one of 44-75. The measurements (table 5.11), and in particular the B:L ratio allows the assignment of the pips to two groups: those in samples 132 and 143 mostly likely belong to the wild grape, Vitis sylvestris Gmel., whereas the pips in samples 41 and 119 could be either wild or domesticated and have been therefore assigned to genus level, Vitis sp. Servia does lie within the modern distribution of the wild grape (j. M. Renfrew

Table 5.11. Measurements of the grape pips (in mm).

Sample Length Length Width Diameter Thickness B:L of stem of pip of pip of chalaza

41 0.8 4.0 3.4 - - 0.71 119 0.5 3.5 2.8 0.7 2.2 0.70 132 0.6 3.2 3.3 1.2 2.9 0.87 143 0.6 3.5 3.7 0.8 2.5 0.90

Pistachio Pistacia sp. A single fruit of the pistachio was recovered in a ln context at Servia (sample 1 35). Oblate in shape, the hilum was found on the long side. Lack of sufficient reference material made it impossible to be sure of the identification to species level, however on the basis of the similarity to illustrated fruits the Servian example appears to be either from the turpentine tree (Pistacia terebinthus L.) or from Pistacia lentiscus L.

Fragrant Cherry Prunus mahaleb Resembling a small nut, the seeds of the fragrant cherry (Prunus mahaleb) have a prominent flat hilum at one end. A single specimen was found in a ln context (sample 132) and is illustrated in fig. 5.4 i

Plum Prunus sp. One small fragment of a Prunus 'stone' was encountered in the archaeobotanical samples at Servia, from a mn context (sample 76). The poor preservation condition precluded resolution


to species, however on the basis of the surface morphology it was thought that the stone probably came from either Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. or Prunus domestica L. ssp. insititia.

Hackberry Ceitis cf. australis L. 'Stones', and in one case part of the fleshy mesocarp, of the hackberry were found in two mn samples (117 and 109). In one example it was possible to estimate the approximate dimensions of the stony mesocarp to c 5.3 x 4.0 mm (LxB), however the other specimens were too fragmentary. The strong sculptured surface suggests the stones come from Ceitis australis L.

Apple/Pear Pyrus sp. No seeds ('pips') of Pyrus were found at Servia, however in four samples (84, 132, 144, 146) carbonised cores were encountered. Lacking the seeds it was not possible to tell whether they came from Pyrus malusL., P communisL. or P amygdaliformisViil. and so a genus attribution has been assigned.

Cornelian Cherry Cornus mas L. All the carbonised stones of the cornelian cherry found at Servia were very fragmentary, and for this reason no measurements or illustrations are given. However the distinctive structure of the stones, with their two loculi and numerous spherical cavities, allowed identification.

Other Species The remaining species (listed in tables 5.2-5.4) will not be discussed in detail, although many are illustrated in figs. 5.3-5.4. The seeds of Sambucus nigra, Lithospermum arvense, Thymolaea, and the large group oîAjuga chamaepitys seeds in samples 42 and 103 were not preserved by charring, and for this reason there must be some suspicion that they represent modern intrusive specimens. Some of the fruit-bearing plants not already discussed [e.g. the almond: Prunus amygdalus), and the wild nut species (e.g. Queráis), yielded only very fragmentary remains. A number of small-seeded legumes, many lacking a preserved hilum, have been referred to the tribe Vtciae. Most of the remaining seeds belong to arable weeds although a small number could not be identified and are listed as indeterminate.

R. A. H.


Fig. 5.4. The remains of other crops, fruit-bearing plants and selected weeds: (a) Linum sp.; (b) Coriandrum sativum; (¿j Ajuga chamaepitys (uncharred); (d) Lithospermum arvense (uncharred); (e) Rumex sp.; (/) Adonis cf. annua' {¿) Mercurialis annua; (h) Medicago sp.; (1 ) Prunus cf. mahaleb' (j)Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris'

(k) Vitis sp.' (I) Rubus fruticosusr, (m) Malva sp.; (n) Sambucus nigra' (0) Chenopodium cf. album-, (p) Centaurea calcitrapa/solistitialis; (q) Veronica cf. persica; (r) itouHaisp.; (5) Thymelaeasp. (uncharred); (t) Euphorbia cf.

helioscopia' (u) Fumaria cf. officinalis.


GRAIN 100%

X7'' & Winnowing by-product

9Or4td ' vJ Coarse sieve by-product

n. /- ' '/ ' '/ Fine sieve by-product 80 n. A A A / ' / ' / ' ^ [I] Fine sieve product

/wyy - - - - 60 A -

A -

A -

A -

A

^ °o % 9- % % °* % % I ^^

Fig. 5.5. Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of cereal grain, chaff and weeds for the ethnographic data from Amorgos. Each symbol represents one sample. The different symbols (see key) represent different stages in the crop processing activities. [From van der Veen (1985, 218),

based on data supplied by G.Jones.]


▼ Phase 2 GRA|N • Phases

100 % ■ Phase 4 vTW >< a Phase 5

90 JPbTL° ° Phase 6/7 flV%/' A> O Phase 8/10 so / v^v*

70 / y V V 60 / y y y '°

4o^AZVVV'Zy j°/00000(X/y

;7Ô00Ô00C0Ò{ . ^ % °* % % % °* % °* °< 4»/

Fig. 5.6. Triangular diagram showing the relative proportions of cereal grain, chaff and weeds for the archaeobotanical data from Servia. Different symbols represent samples from different phases of the

site. The size of symbol provides a relative indication of the number of samples with that composition.


Fig. 5.7. Phase Four, Area D, Structure 7. Location of archaeobotanical samples and other

selected finds.

33O R. N. L. B. HUBBARD AND RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

5.3 THE AGRICULTURE OF PREHISTORIC SERVIA

5.3.1 Introduction The agriculture (in the loose sense) of prehistoric Servia is summarised in table 5.12 in the form of presence analyses (Willcox 1974; Hubbard 1976 b' 1980; Hubbard and Clapham 1992). Although some relevant archaeobotanical analyses have been carried out nearer to hand, the best comparative evidence available is Hopfs study of prehistoric Bulgaria (1973), which remains unsurpassed for detail and reliability, and Renfrew's analyses at Sitagroi (Photolivos) in se Macedonia (J. M. Renfrew 1972).

In fig. 5.8, the appropriate bits of Hopfs and Renfrew's analyses are summarised in the form of a pseudo-three dimensional presence analysis (Hubbard 1980), with the analytical results of table 5.12 set beside them.

5.3.2 Analytical Considerations In interpreting these results, a number of points must be borne in mind.

Firstly, some plants are used in ways that mean that they are unlikely to enter the archaeobotanical record, and are severely under-represented. Flax/linseed [Linum usitatissimum) is a classic example: if grown for fibre, it is harvested before the seeds are fully ripe, and retted in stagnant water to decompose the stems into their constituents - an activity for which the low ground by the Haliakmon below the en Servia-Varytimides site is extremely well suited. In these circumstances, the seeds might be fed to stock. When grown for oil, the ripe seeds may be boiled to liberate the oil before pressing. It is not usually cooked, and accordingly is usually encountered in the form of pottery-impressions, or of huge congealed blocks when a store of linseed has accidentally caught fire. The archaeobotanical record for flax tends to be discontinuous, erratic, and an underestimate of the crop's use. This is the case at Servia: we must assume that flax was grown at all periods, even though it is only recorded in the en and mn. Another difficulty concerns the identification of the barleys: the two-row and six-row forms are distinguished by the presence of twisted grains in the latter, and their absence in the former. When found mixed together, one has to use statistical arguments (Kyllo and Hubbard 1981), eked out with intelligent guesswork based on rachis fragments and impressions in pottery and daub, to work out what is happening. The more that is known, the easier it is to see the underlying pattern. mn Servia is the first site where two- and six-row naked and hulled barleys are all seen to be cultivated, and where it has been possible to make all the relevant distinctions most of the time. Subsequent sites will be easier to understand, and may enforce reassessment of the Servia results, just as the presence of an impression of a head of two-row hulled barley from Servia-Varytimides sheds clear light on the en barley from Pródromos which G. Jones had had to treat with caution (Halstead and Jones 1980).

Finally, there is the perpetually vexatious question about the independence (unrelatedness) of the samples. It is as easy to take multiple samples of the same 'event' as it is to find it in several disjunct places. If material from an upper story falls down over a lower partition wall, then the deposits on each side will be the same, even though their archaeological contexts are different. Conversely, a levelling or terracing episode will produce widespread

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE AGRICULTURE 331

deposits with an identical origin. Samples that are not independent tell one nothing beyond how reproducible one's results are. The stratigraphy at Servia-Varytimides makes it uncertain how many productive flotation samples are represented. Equally, the destruction of a single MN, Phase Four structure (Structure 7) in Area D (tabulated separately in table 5. 1 2) makes one wonder how independent some of the samples may be. Empirically, the results suggest that most of the samples were unrelated. (To judge by table 5.12 and fig. 5.8, Lathyrus sativus is quite heavily over-represented in the Do/C samples, emmer is under-represented, and two-row naked barley and einkorn are possibly slightly under-represented.)

5.3.3 Neolithic Agricultures of the Southern Balkans Depending upon one's point of view, one can see either continuity or discontinuity in fig. 5.8 and the analyses upon which it is based. The patterns of usage of einkorn and emmer seem essentially similar in w Macedonia, se Macedonia, and Bulgaria.

If lentils seem to be much more important at Servia than in the other two areas, then this is not necessarily of great significance: it is conceivable that this merely reflects differences in sampling strategy and technology. Carbonised pulses are denser than cereals, and are recovered with lower efficiency in normal processing by flotation. The fact that lentils are fairly consistently about twice as ubiquitous at Servia seems too much to be attributable to such causes, however. Of course, if lentils really were much more important at Servia than in se Macedonia and Bulgaria, it could imply that meat and dairy products were in shorter supply. The subjective impression given by plant remains from the main site certainly is that pulses were of great economic importance. We must recognise, however, that the deduction that it indicates a lesser reliance on animal protein is a speculation built on a debatable foundation. In contrast, the apparent absence of lentils from the earliest phase at Sitagroi certainly is likely to be misleading - whenever samples come from as restricted an area as a single 3 x 3 m sounding, one must wonder whether the samples are a fair representation of the site as a whole.

The defective evidence available indicates that the use of barley at Servia was as similar to that of se Macedonia and Bulgaria as was the case for einkorn and emmer: changes take place, but they are gradual and follow similar patterns.

The major changes during the neolithic seem to be the drop in importance of two-row hulled barley; the disappearance and subsequent reappearance of peas and bitter vetch [Vicia ervilia); the increase in use of naked barleys between the en and mn; the drop in the importance of einkorn (Triticum monococcum); and the apparent introduction of vine cultivation during the earlier ln at Servia. The degree of continuity in the agricultural systems, however, seems to parallel the continuity of occupation and culture at the site until the ln abandonment of the site.

In interpreting any general synopsis of agricultural developments, the existence of at least three distinct (but closely related) issues needs to be recognised. One of these - arguably the most important - involves the extent to which agriculture correlates with cuisine. Could a change in the agricultural repertoire reflect a change in what people liked to eat? This question has two corollaries. One concerns people's natural conservatism about what they eat: if eating habits change, is it because the people themselves have changed? In support of this argument one can cite the Avena/Secale dichotomy between Britain and Holland in Dark Ages/Early Mediaeval times, which parallels the difference

332 R. N. L. B. HUBBARD AND RUPERT A. HOUSLEY

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Table 5.12. Synthesis of agriculture at Servia: presence analyses.

EN MN MN MN MN LN LN EBA Phase One- Four Four Five Six Seven

Three Do/C Number of samples 11 10 12 15 4 4 6 5

% % % % % % % %

Triticum monococcum - single seeded 82 40 42 80 25 50 33 20 Triticum monococcum - two seeded 27 -25 7 Triticum monococcum - chaff 45 70 50 27 25 25 50

75 overall

Triticum dicoccum 91 60 42 80 100 100 84 40 Triticum dicoccum - chaff 45 90 42 40 75 50 50

Hordeum d. distichon 82 - - 7 ___ H. d. var. nudum 36 30 25 60 50 25 67 20 Hordeum v. vulgäre 36 10 - 13 - 25 - 40 H.v. var. coeleste - - 42 53 75 75? 50? 20 Hordeum vulgäre s.l. - chaff 20 ? - ___

i4^nfl barbata (?) _____2~__

Lathyrus sativus - 10 75 40 50 50 50 20 Vicia ervilia 18 - - - ~ 5° Lens cu linar e 55 80 100 100 75 100 84 60 Pisum sativum 36 - - - - -17

Cornus mas 64 30 25 13 25 75 50 20 Ceitis australis - - - 7 2 5 ~ -

Pyrus amygdaliformis (?) -__ + ____ Prunus cerasifera (?) ___7____ Rubus fruticosus & R. idaeus 18 10 8 - - -17 Sambucus nigra - - - -25--

Prunus cf. amygdalus 36 - - + ___ Pistacia cf. terebinthus - - - + ~~33 ~ Vitis vinifera - - 8 - - -17 20

Linum usitatissimum 18 - 8 7 ___ Coriandrum sativum - -8 + ----


(still readily perceptible) in consumption of porridge and oatcakes as opposed to rye bread (Hubbard 1980). The second corollary of the possible relationship between agriculture and cuisine is its technological aspect. This, too, can be developed in two directions, as changing technology can effect both how food is cooked, and how the raw materials are prepared. Obviously, these aspects ought to be manifested most dramatically when metal becomes available for utilitarian purposes - but other, lesser, technological developments may have had as great (or greater) consequences. Finally, one must remember that agriculture and pastoralism are only (important) components of an entire economic system; and an alteration to one part of the system may have consequences in apparently unrelated places. By ln times there are far-travelled imports of pottery to bear witness to extensive networks of contacts that were presumably not purely social. It is conceivable that the need to support mining communities in otherwise undesirable places could indirectly influence the farming habits of metal-using societies; but whether analogous effects were of any consequence in neolithic times is debatable.

If vine cultivation was introduced to ln Servia (on the face of it from se Macedonia), what are we to make of the mn grape seeds? Imported raisins? Or sampling error (in the statistical sense)? (I.e. were grapes really present throughout the later mn at Servia, but happened not to have turned up in any of the samples studied?) The latter is possible, but unlikely; and if it were the case, it would mean that the mn grapes might record the beginning of viticulture. What, too, is one to make of the resemblance between the naked six-row barley curve and the later bits of the emmer curve at Servia? Is it purely fortuitous, or is it an indication of an agricultural or culinary pattern? If it is to be seen as evidence for some kind of real association, what about the analogous (but more tenuous) similarity between the einkorn and lentil curves? What about the bimodal pea curve? Is a renewed enthusiasm for peas really a characteristic of the ln of the southern Balkans? And why should the exploitation of peas (and the six-row barleys) follow a similar pattern from sw Macedonia to Bulgaria, when the agriculture of Bulgaria in general seems to go its own way in the ba? It is obvious that the existing evidence cannot answer these questions: verification or falsification (in the sense of Sir Karl Popper) must come from future research.

In comparisons with the Bulgarian and se Macedonian evidence, it could be argued that the only significant agricultural difference lies in the apparent presence of a hexaploid wheat in the earlier Bulgarian samples. This difference from the Greek records could reflect differences in where these cultures originated. This issue remains mysterious and contentious after more than three decades. The topic is also discussed in the section on the Servia- Varytimides plant remains. Here, one needs merely note that bread wheat arose via brief but intensive selection (which has not yet been detected archaeologically) in Triticum spelta (which sixty years' of study of wheat genetics shows to have been an intermediate stage), presumably when emmer cultivation was first introduced into eastern Anatolia, where Aegilops tauschii (the donor of the D genome of the hexaploid wheats) has its southwesternmost limits. The presence of hexaploid wheats (or Triticum durum) in the earliest neolithic of Crete (Helbaek, in Evans 1964) and Bulgaria points to an Anatolian origin, as this is where these wheats were most common at the time. In the case of the Bulgarian neolithic, one may tentatively deduce an introduction from n Turkey across the Black Sea; while the agriculture of the Thessalian neolithic, with which Servia has close links, seems to have had its closest analogues in the northern Levant, and Nea Nikomedeia's nearest affinity seems to be with Hacilar (Helbaek 1970).


5.3.4 Comparison of Early and Middle Neolithic Agricultures In comparing the en and mn ethnobotanies at Servia, it is perhaps worth recognising (at the start) that three kinds of comparison are possible. There is the 'ecological' comparison of changes in the use made of wild plants: this has been treated in the ecological review. Any attempt at a technological comparison is severely constrained by the fact that only two kinds of deposit (other than impressions in pottery and daub) were represented at the Servia-Varytimides site (a rubbish pit and a yard); and both are the sort of context in which relicts of many kinds of crop processing and consumption episodes are liable to accumulate and be mixed. All that one can say is that there is no obvious sign of change in agricultural technology between en and mn; and it is possibly reasonable to assume, tacitly, that there was no significant change.

The third kind of comparison, of the kind of crops grown and in what sorts of proportions, can be made legitimately. It produces some interesting results.

Whereas there is undoubtedly a great degree of continuity in the agricultural history of the site (and of the Balkans in general), some of the agricultural changes during the life of the neolithic settlement apparently have a quite specific significance. It strains credulity to accept that it is a pure accident that the abandonment of two-row hulled barley, the introduction of six-row hulled barley, and the (temporary) abandonment of peas and Vicia ervilia in favour of Lathyrus sativus happened in the interval between the desertion of Servia- Varytimides and the start of occupation of the main site. Just as the overall patterns of agriculture and pastoralism in the eastern Mediterranean en imply (more or less) simultaneous colonisation from several different areas in sw Asia (Hubbard 1995), so it seems likely that this crop of changes between the en and mn at Servia reflects not just new external contacts, but new arrivals who were responsible for the new village.

By extension of the same logic, it could be perhaps argued that the reappearance of peas during the (early) ln, and the decline in popularity of six-row naked barley at this time, marked a further wave of immigration - especially as it seems to be accompanied by the introduction of vine-growing. On this occasion, however, the agricultural changes are not associated with any architectural or other cultural discontinuities. Either only a new idea was introduced, or the scale of any immigration was trivial in relation to the size of the population of the settlement as a whole - and maybe the distinction between the two is trivial in any case.

5.3.5 Local Adaptations and Indigenous Origins

Twenty years ago, it was fashionable to see prehistoric agriculture as being governed by the local environment, and to seek indigenous origins for it. Until sophisticated economies developed in the later ba and unless cheap transport was available (as when a placid river was to hand), farmers would have had to grow anything they wanted to eat. This implies a balance between what was environmentally suitable and what people wanted. The evidence shows that environmental determinism is usually of trivial importance in explaining prehistoric agriculture. The controlled environment of a field suppressed the worst of competition from indigenous plants; and if the only marked difference between prehistoric agriculture in environments as different as Britain and the eastern Mediterranean is the relatively insignificant contribution of pulse crops in northern Europe - presumably reflecting a greater availability of animal protein in an environment with year-round rainfall


and lush grazing - then environmental control is not very important. That being said, one of the intriguing features of fig. 5.8 is the apparent lag of between a couple of centuries and half a millennium or more between Servia and se Macedonia and Bulgaria in the matching patterns of exploitation of many of the crop plants. This does superficially suggest an economic change driven by some natural process - soil exhaustion, perhaps - rather than human choice. However, the gradual abandonment of bread wheat (in Bulgaria) and of two-row hulled barley and two-seeded einkorn (shown shaded in fig. 5.8) in Greece is not readily attributable to any likely natural mechanism, and argues the opposite way. Certainly the changes between the different forms of barley defy explanation by all but a Procrustean environmental determinist. These are problems that further investigations will doubtless elucidate: sufficient that one can now identify the questions to be answered, and define them fairly precisely.

The obsession with an indigenous element to European agriculture is only slightly less unrewarding. In a world without subsidies, price-support mechanisms, and other forms of intervention, farming must adapt itself to suit the local circumstances, within the limits imposed by the overriding necessity for self-sufficiency. Apart from the possible exception of gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa), the ia oil seed crop, the only prehistoric crops that seem to have emerged within Europe are the two secondary crops, oats and rye. They appear in central Europe early in the ba (Hubbard 1 980) - but rye's ancestors are Near Eastern, not European, plants; and the last twenty years' research indicates that the introduction of agriculture to Europe was a rather trivial concomitant of the explosive growth and spread of farming throughout the Near East, long after the 'experimental' stage was over (Hubbard 1990). Similarly, Payne (1985, 215-9) has demolished the case for de novo domestication of animals in Europe, pointing out that sheep were as unlikely to be native to Europe as emmer.

5.3.6 Early Agriculturalists: Primitive or Sophisticated? It is all too easy to make the fallacious assumption that because the remains left by early farmers are unimpressive, they themselves were unsophisticated and primitive. It is a misconception that is rather prevalent. There is plenty of evidence to the contrary. Some of the most explicit evidence comes from plant genetics: it has long been established that the hexaploid wheats arose from the crossing of emmer wheat with Aegilops tauschii; but the progeny is spelt (Triticum spelta) - which has not yet been found in archaeological deposits of appropriate age in the Near East. For many years archaeological botanists did not concern themselves with genetic evidence, any more than many archaeological zoologists do now. The geneticists, no doubt, thought that the archaeobotanists could not distinguish between Triticum spelta and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). By now, it is clear that eastern Anatolian farmers of the early seventh millennium be (eighth millennium cal. bc) spotted the hybrid in their fields, investigated it, cultivated it, and selected the Triticum aestivum phenotypes so rapidly that the process has not yet been detected in the archaeological record. Whether the stages between one man growing the first experimental patch of hybrids and the adoption of bread wheat as a crop by the whole district took twenty years or two hundred is not very important: what is relevant is that Triticum aestivum sensu stricto was 'created' about 6,500 bc [c. 7,500 cal. bc), and Triticum aestivum/ durum thereafter turns up all over the Near East.

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE AGRICULTURE/MALACOLOGY 337

The establishment of the first farming settlement at Servia-Varytimides is as unlikely to have been a tentative experiment as was the founding of Nea Nikomedeia or the en villages in Thessaly. Hunters' expeditions or information from the aboriginal inhabitants would have identified the locality as a suitable spot; and at an appropriate moment a group of Thessalians set out to make a new home not too far away, but in a less crowded and noisy place.

R. N. L. B. H. R. A. H.

5.4 MALACOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS AT SERVIA: A FOOL'S ERRAND?

Recovery of carbonised plant remains by water flotation can also recover snail shells (albeit imperfectly - assuming that any are present), and snail shells were indeed present among the seed and charcoal samples. So they were examined, in the full knowledge that things like slug granules and platelets would not have been recovered, and that not all of the snail shells might have floated.

It soon became clear that at least four ecological groupings of snails were represented - even excluding the burrowing Cecilioides acicula, which was almost ubiquitous, and extremely common in the more shallow strata. There were the usual shade-loving, catholic, and open ground groups of terrestrial snails; and additionally, freshwater snails.

Two components were ubiquitous: a woodland component dominated by a large Zonitid species resembling Oxychilus glaber, and an open ground element dominated by a Helicella sp. obvia species, accompanied by Chondrula tridens. The open ground Vallonia costata and V. excentrica were present, as were Lauria cylindracea (shade), Acanthinula lamellata, and Vertigo cf. pusilla. The most frequently encountered catholic species was Trichia hispida, but it was not very common. The possibly partially subterranean Oxychilus hydatinus was frequently common. (The mixed oak woodland setting of the prehistoric settlements at Servia means that a central or northern European perspective of snail ecology retains validity, whereas in a more strictly Mediterranean environment quite different rules prevail.)

A worrying feature of the analyses was the lack of consistency. Not only did the ratio of open to closed environment taxa vary greatly, but the representation of species was inconsistent. The impression of incoherence can be seen in the meticulously documented malacological analyses from the Yugoslavian later neolithic site of Gomolava (Bottema and Ottaway 1982) - not yet published at the time this work was done. Ridout's analyses of the terrestrial snails from the neolithic site at Ayios Epiktitos in Cyprus show similar patterns (Ridout 1982), although some of the imbalances were attributed to the introduction of snails on rush matting.

The last straw came when a planorbid shell came to light in one of the Servia-Varytimides samples. The planorbids are fresh-water snails - small, flattened ram's horn snails. It might be suspected that the snail had been introduced in the water used in the flotation operations; but the water was drawn from a spring with extremely clean water, in which the snail would have been obvious. Moreover, the shell had sediment attached to it. It was clearly fossil. What was an aquatic snail doing in a blatantly terrestrial deposit?


After a little reflection it became obvious that, as the buildings were made of timber and reeds plastered with daub, the aquatic snails were being introduced in the water used when the prehistoric inhabitants were making mud to apply to their houses. The aquatic snails were therefore of no relevance. But what about the earth used in making the rendering? Was it likely to be snail-free? Alas, no. It was quite clear that the inconsistencies of the malacological record reflected (at least in part) the haphazard digging of earth to supply daub; and that there was no certainty that the snail shells even belonged to the present interglacial period - they could equally be later Pleistocene fossils from the alluvial terraces on which the sites are situated. Interest collapsed, and work terminated. Whatever archaeomalacology may have to offer as a method of reconstructing prehistoric environments, it is not profitable where mud-brick or daub were standard constructional techniques.

One sample, however, did seem to tell a real story. This sample was a hand sample of snail shells noticed as an obvious concentration in the upper layers (279.80-279.50 m) of the filling of the destroyed mn Structure 7. About 200 ml of earth yielded 170 shells:

Oxychilus cf. glaber 14% Trichia hispida 1% Helicella sp. 66% Chondrula tridens 1 9%

This assemblage shows the heavy dominance (85 %) of the open ground, drought tolerant snails that are found in the locality today. Three questions arise from this analysis. The first two concern the nature of the sample and the origin of the shade-loving snails present. Why should so many snail shells have been found together in one place? The impression we got when excavating these deposits was that the rubble surface of the destroyed building was very uneven, and that a pocket had formed in which the snails had taken shelter. Such an interpretation would explain why the assemblage has such a clear-cut ecological composition; but accentuates the anomaly of the woodland component, whose proportions seem too high for the essentially bare open space that the settlement must have been. In normal circumstances, the houses would probably have offered enough shady and damp places to make an acceptable substitute for woodland. Colonisation would not pose problems: there were woods in the vicinity, and the inhabitants exploited them for timber, fire-wood, fruits, and other things. We have the impressions of oak leaves (plate 5.10, Queráis pedunculiflora, wrongly identified as Q. cerris in Hubbard 1979) to prove it. If the unintentional introduction of Oxychilus on fallen branches or leaves was not responsible, the escape of snails caught and carried away by birds might introduce the founders of a colony. After a catastrophic fire, however, things would be rather different. Houses had been destroyed over an area of half a hectare or more. One possibility is that these shells represent a fauna that had survived the fire in shelter in the spaces between the houses. It seems somewhat improbable, however, that the patches of wind-blown leaves, grass, Artemisia, Salsola, Malva, etc. that we may imagine existing in the untrampled places between houses would have survived such a fire intact. Colonisation of a devastated area from distances of several hundred metres seems more realistic. Another possibility might be that a few trees were preserved for their shade in various places in the settlement, that they survived the fire, and that they produced the conditions in which the woodland element of the snail fauna persisted.

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: MALACOLOGY/DENDROCHRONOLOGY 339

The third question arising from this fragment of evidence about the immediate surroundings of the prehistoric settlement concerns the length of time between the fire and the reconstruction of the settlement.

We have no evidence that the catastrophic mn fire caused any abandonment of the settlement. The fire seems to have occurred after the crop had been harvested and when there was plenty of produce in store - presumably in the autumn (the observation that the Lathyrus sativus seeds may have been soaking in water (Hubbard 1979) indicates that the crops were probably not stored seed-corn). After it took place, the snails had time to migrate into the devastated area, before their shelter was buried in the reconstruction. It is tempting to see them sheltering in the rubble from summer heat and drought. This would imply that reconstruction of the settlement started only after the next harvest had been successfully garnered. Although this speculation makes good logistical sense, it would mean that the homeless families would have had to shelter with neighbours or relatives, or to camp out in stables and outbuildings, or in temporary shelters, for about a year before normal life could be resumed. But, on the other hand, what was the alternative?

5.5 A MIDDLE NEOLITHIC DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL SNIPPET

During the excavation of the basement room in trench Do/C in 1973, some carbonised structural timbers were recovered.

One was a piece of oak beam found lying approximately n-s by P283 at 4.6E, 4.00N. It was about 4 cm in diameter, and had been made by splitting a larger timber in two, and trimming the piece into a cylindrical shape.

Two other timbers were found about two metres to the se, lying on the patches of einkorn and lentil seeds at about 1.20E, 2.80N. One of these may have been another beam, or perhaps a floor board, made by splitting a large bit of poplar wood into a 7 x 4 cm plank or board. It did not appear to have been trimmed.

The other timber was another beam made by splitting a larger piece in two and trimming to a circular cross-section. This one was about 6 cm in diameter, and was made of pine wood. It is of interest because it recorded sixty growth rings and retained its bark in places.

For dendrochronological purposes, it is necessary for the wood to be of a species (genus) that can be used for building chronologies (mainly oak and pine); eighty to one hundred rings are usually needed to give much chance of a reliable cross-match; and a local master- chronology is needed for comparison. In this case, there is no master-chronology with which comparison can be made, nor is there any immediate prospect of one. However, Kuniholm (pers. comm.) has been able to make dendrochronological correlations over far greater distances than is possible in nw Europe, and has a rapidly growing Turkish master- curve. As the specimen retains its bark (so defining the year of felling), and has some fairly dramatic patterns, it seems worth reporting the measurements of the growth rings (table 5.13) despite the shortness of the sequence.

Baillie, in his highly readable and educational book on the construction of the long Belfast oak chronology (1982), argues that this is the sort of study that is pointless, whether or not it is practicable. Knowing the exact date of construction of an isolated prehistoric structure tells one nothing, in contrast to the value of equivalent information about a

34O R. N. L. B. HUBBARD

Roman or later structure that exists among other such structures, and which may have been rebuilt or repaired. His arguments are perfectly valid, but not completely conclusive. 'Nothing will come of nothing', and, while any isolated observation is virtually meaningless, it is impossible to tell what patterns may emerge in due course. The fact that there are approximately synchronous patterns of exhaustion and regeneration of the oak woods in Britain and Germany was not suspected - and would probably have been ridiculed - until the dendrochronological investigations were well advanced. It is the scientist's duty to report observations: if they are less likely to be of value, little time and space should be expended on them.

Table 5.13. Do/C Pinus beam annual increments. (Measurements in 0.01 mm units)

Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910

o 74.2 99.8 121.6 1319 105.8 123.4 141-9 143-7 149-3 128.4 10 141.6 108.5 124.1 1478 116.5 120.6 103.1 65.2 18.7 94.9 20 100.3 81.5 3.4 92.6 13.2 105.3 1394 118.5 108.8 127.0 30 131.8 88.5 66.8 64.5 68.6 68.2 102.1 122.0 104.1 113.9 40 107.2 109.4 5^-5 43-8 38.0 34.6 29.8 26.0 41.0 45.2 50 17.8 21.4 23.2 21.5 66.0 26.7 29.0 3°-2 27.9 13.1

Decade

5.6 THE ARCHAEOBOTANY OF EARLY NEOLITHIC SERVIA

The en part of the Servia settlement (known as Servia-Varytimides) is some hundreds of metres from the main site, on the edge of the same terrace of alluvium. The site overlooks the Haliakmon where it spreads into a wide fan having squeezed through the rocky narrows by the main site to the NW.

5.6.1 Some General Considerations The questions to be answered by archaeobotanical investigations are usually four: what was the botanical part of the economy; how does the economic botany compare with other sites; what was the environment like; and what ethnobotanical deductions can be made? Unfortunately, the nature of the site means that some of these questions can only be answered in a very circumscribed kind of way. For instance, ethno-technological interpretation of archaeobotanical analyses in the style of Gordon Hillman and G. Jones demands samples whose archaeological context and taphonomy is extremely well

ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: THE ARCHAEOBOTANY OF EN SERVIA 341

understood. This in turn implies a destruction level, or (sometimes) deep stratigraphy that has been carefully excavated over a wide area. Servia-Varytimides is not that End of site. All that one can say is that the weed seeds represented in the various samples are consistent with the disposal of the rubbish passed by a fine sieve, as are the dimensions of most of the cereals, which resemble tailings. A triangular graph of cereals/chaff/weeds for the Servia- Varytimides samples (fig. 5.11) produces results extremely similar to Housley's ones for the main site - but there is absolutely no reason to believe that any of the Servia- Varytimides samples reflect single archaeological events, which is a necessary condition for the interpretation of such diagrams. And if these meaningless jumbles yield results as interpretable as more 'legitimate' ones, can the latter be relied upon to mean anything?

On the other hand, the comparative economic botanical picture is clear, even if the evidence is sketchy: in general, Servia-Varytimides can be compared much more closely with the Thessalian en site of Pródromos (Halstead and Jones 1980) than with the much nearer site of Nea Nikomedeia (van Zeist and Bottema 1971), beyond the Haliakmon gorge at the foot of the Vermion mountains.

The stratigraphy of Servia-Varytimides is shallow, and this is not the only bugbear that the site shares with ones in more northerly and damper climates.

In 1957 Atkinson drew the attention of British archaeologists to the stratigraphical implications of the mixing of soils by earthworms (R. J. C. Atkinson 1957). Those lessons are still surprisingly unfamiliar to many northern European archaeologists; and, moving southwards and eastwards across Europe, the phenomena are less and less familiar. Yet classic features, such as the blurring of stratigraphical and structural boundaries, and the accumulation of cultural material of different ages at the base of the levels in which earthworms are active, can be seen in southern Romania - and are misinterpreted by archaeologists. (In fact, earthworms are to be found as far s as Knossos in Crete.) Servia- Varytimides displays some analogous effects. No trace of natural stratigraphy could be found over most of the site, and only in the parts of the site where two pits were dug to a depth of more than about 30 cm were undisturbed strata found. It seems likely that root action, together with worms, ants and other such shallow-burrowing animals, and other soil-forming processes, are responsible for the destruction of stratigraphy in the upper parts of the site - even before the deep-ploughing took place.

It is worth noting that these soil-forming processes seem to affect radiocarbon dates from shallowly-buried contexts. It is an effect with which Pleistocene geologists are moderately familiar, but which archaeologists are not. Servia provides two excellent examples that illustrate this effect. The date from the eba pit, 1744 ± 98 be (BM 1 108) is about 400 radiocarbon years younger than it ought to be; and the en date (4955 ±87 be, BM 1157) is also about 400 years too young (section 1.7). Both are from about a metre below the soil surface. As physics (and radiocarbon dating) cannot lie, one must always expect that anomalous dates have arisen because what has been dated is something other than what it was thought to be - usually because of some kind of stratigraphical corruption. In this case, however, the anomalies form part of a general pattern: dates from adequately- sized samples of suitable materials which are always too young, always from samples that have come from strata less than a couple of metres below the modern soil surface, and producing anomalies whose size tends to be related to the expected age of the sample. Where equivalent samples come from deeply-buried contexts, they produce the expected date: this is well illustrated at Tepe Abdul Hosein (Pullar 1981; 1990), where a large sample from one of the fire-pits marking the earliest occupation, but from a part of the site


where the Aceramic mound had been mined away leaving less than half a metre of overburden, gave a date of 6150 ± 255 be (GX 6353). A sample from the early aceramic neolithic strata above the fire-pits, but from an area capped by several metres of undisturbed deposits, gave a date almost a thousand radiocarbon years earlier (GX 6357). Since all samples of carbonised material for radiocarbon dating receive a fairly rigorous washing with acid as a standard decontamination procedure in processing, but are only treated with very weak alkalies (because 'carbonised' material - and seed in particular, according to Housely - contains very little free elemental carbon, and accordingly dissolves into soup when exposed to ordinary laboratory strengths of alkaline reagents), one can deduce that the contamination is one of the alkali-soluble components involved in soil-formation. The effect, however, has never received systematic study. 'Shallow' radiocarbon dates must be treated with caution.

5.6.2 Archaeobotanical Investigations The upper levels of the Servia-Varytimides site were almost useless from an archaeobotanical point of view. Large volumes of earth (a cubic metre or more) were processed by froth- flotation from some excavation units (flotsam recovery was on 0.25 and 2 mm sieves, with the jetsam being wet-sieved at about 2.8 mm). They yielded trivial quantities of small fragments of carbonised material (often heavily encrusted with illuvial clay and carbonates), and large quantities of modern roots: a familiar picture to nw European archaeological botanists. Almost the only useful thing to emerge from this endeavour was the development of techniques for the mechanical removal of modern roots from flotation samples (Hubbard in press).

Even if cyclical changes of humidity and roots in search of water had destroyed virtually all the carbonised material that may have originally been present, the pottery and burnt daub from such strata would be unaffected, and their archaeobotanical record (if any) would be available. Unfortunately the en pottery is effectively devoid of plant impressions other than the imprint of matting on the bases of a small minority of vessels. Fascinating as they are, their testimony (4.3.8) is of technological, rather than economic or ecological, interest. The pottery from four excavation units was examined for plant (and other) impressions: only two produced any results worth mentioning. For instance, in £¿77^/3644 there were about 500 sherds: of these, eighteen had impressions. Of the 28 casts taken from these productive sherds, fifteen were quite unidentifiable, and one was a chip of wood. Further systematic investigation was deemed not worthwhile.

Burnt daub from these superficial levels was sparse, and - not being perceptibly richer than the daub from the mn and ln strata of the main site - yielded few identifiable impressions. Two, however, were of great interest.

One impression was of a wheat internode, of the type that generally characterises spelt (Triticum spelta) (fig. 5.9 a). In this case, however, the dimensions are smaller than those expected of a prehistoric hexaploid wheat, and the width of the glume bases correspond to those of emmer (T. dicoccurrì). A far more diagnostic feature (as Gordon Hillman has pointed out) is the absence of the lateral veins on the outer side of the internode. The hexaploid wheats have inherited these veins from Aegilops tauschii, the donor of the D genome. The internode is therefore an aberrant specimen of emmer. (Note that most of the glumes have been torn off, and that what appear to be glumes, are, in fact, lemmas.


Glumes are the specialised leaves that are the outer wrapping of grass flowers, and lemmas and palaeas are inner wrapping leaves.)

The other impression was of the upper part of a head of two-row hulled barley [Hordeum d. distichori) (plate 5.2). The specimen is so small that it might be thought to be one of the wild, non-cereal barleys (see below) - but the glume morphologies etc. show that this is not the case. Apart from reminding us that the size of fossils reflects nutrition as well as genetics, the value of this find is that it tells us exactly what kind of barley was being grown, and helps us understand the other, less unambiguously documented, en barley finds.

Under the levels in which stratification was destroyed, two extensive pits came to light. They were filled with darker soil. One of them was a large, asymmetrically-cut, flat-bottomed pit that was tentatively identified as a courtyard (Ridley and Wardle 1979). It may possibly have incorporated part of the original borrow-pit from which earth was dug for daub for the houses. This courtyard-pit produced most of the productive flotation samples. The other pit appeared to be an ordinary rubbish pit, and was one of the two deposits at the site which yielded relatively large quantities of carbonised seeds (zembil 3540). Unfortunately, none of the deposits were rich in carbonised plant remains.

Identification is difficult in circumstances like these where the material is fragmentary and sparse. Another concomitant of dealing with samples that contain little material is that rare taxa are discriminated against. This is because, when two similar taxa are present in very different proportions, all specimens must be attributed to the more common taxon until a diagnostic piece is encountered which proves that the rarer taxon is also present. When there are very few specimens, the likelihood of encountering such a vital diagnostic piece becomes small. Naked two-row barley, six-row barley, and the two-seeded form of einkorn (nearly always a tricky type to identify) are the taxa affected in this analysis.

The weed seeds from Servia-Varytimides are ones of plants (such as Chenopodium botrys and Verbena officinalis) nowadays typical of overgrown waste ground in the relatively lowland areas of Greek Macedonia.

5.6.3 Analytical Results One very large sample (about 0.7 m3) from the rubbish pit was processed, and gave the best evidence about the en agriculture. The other samples were from the 'courtyard', and mostly yielded very small amounts of carbonised material. The inherent richness of the various samples of earth appears to have been rather similar. The figures may be compared with those for the later neolithic site of Ayios Epiktitos Vrysi in Cyprus (Legge 1982), where seed concentrations of between 245 and 910 per m3 were recorded from midden deposits, and 26-61 per m3 for undifferentiated fills, with floors and hearths having intermediate concentrations. In contrast, the seed concentrations reported by van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres (1982) for much earlier Near Eastern sites are about two orders of magnitude higher, and are similar to those encountered in the main site at Servia. In trying to interpret these observations, however, a number of points must be remembered. Firstly, Legge's figures are the raw seed concentrations in the soil that had passed through a 13 mm sieve: it is not obvious whether this value is more or less relevant than one which takes into account the coarse fraction retained on the sieve. Secondly, the accuracy of all the values are constrained by the diligence of the analyst in sorting seed fragments from


charcoal pieces, and from bone, shell, and other material. Thirdly, the seed concentrations calculated for Servia-Varytimides are underestimates, as intruding roots have undoubtedly broken and rendered unrecognisable a significant proportion of the fossil material. A loss of 25-50% may be possible. Clearly, only gross differences can be relied on.

All the samples are undoubtedly Class C samples (Hubbard and Clapham 1992), whose origin is poorly understood, and for which sophisticated methods of analysis are inappropriate.

The results of the various analyses are summarised in table 5.14. In fig. 5.10, the overall compositions of the samples are compared using indices of heterogeneity and cleanness (Hubbard and Clapham 1992). The Index of Heterogeneity is designed to try to indicate the number of separate episodes that may be mixed together in a sample; and the Rubbish Index is designed to show the contribution of cleaned crops to the sample. Following an excellent suggestion of Rob Scaife (pers. comm. 1993), the sample size has been plotted (logarithmically) as a third dimension. This allows the consequences of statistical sampling error to be taken into account in interpreting the diagrams.

An obvious question is whether the richness of the samples is related to the rubbish and heterogeneity indices: it might be expected that the rubbish-rich samples were from deposits with low concentrations of carbonised material. As the concentration of carbonised material in archaeological sites can range from a matter of grammes per cubic metre to about 200 kg per m'3 (for pure carbonised material), this, too, would have to be plotted on a logarithmic scale. The Servia-Varytimides samples, however, display a low and rather uniform concentration of carbonised material. With the exception of the pit sample (zembil 3540), where the charcoal fragments raised the overall concentration of carbonised material to about 16 g m 3 (7.9 g of small charcoal fragments and groats were submitted for C14 dating - BM 1157), the concentrations of carbonised material were mainly c. 2-3 g m3): ten times as much variability and a hundredfold higher concentrations are not unusual on prehistoric sites. The seed concentrations are indicated in fig. 5.10, which shows the considerable similarity between the samples in terms of their rubbish content: it is not obvious from the raw data that zembil 3540 is quite comparable with the others in this respect. Nor do the raw data immediately suggest that zembilia 3552 and 3627 are the 'cleanest' samples, or that they (and zembil 3620) are so very similar: indeed, the contiguous 'envelopes of uncertainty' indicates that they are probably (effectively) identical. Since the samples come from adjacent excavation units, it seems likely that they do in fact constitute a single sample.

Fig. 5.1 1 shows a plot of the Servia-Varytimides samples on a triangular cereals/chaff/ weeds graph, with circles indicating the Standard Errors associated with the sample sizes. The high degree of overlap between most of the samples is obvious - and the circles only indicate the 68% limit of the estimate of the mean composition. At the 96% level (two Standard Errors), only the three richest samples would remain distinct.

Figs. 5.10 and 5.11 present essentially similar information, with different underlying assumptions. In both cases, the apparent purity of certain samples can be seen to be an artifact of statistical sampling error. The degree of overlap between the samples displayed in fig. 5.11 is consistent with the mixing of material from many sources which the archaeological context implies.


Fig. 5.9. en plant remains from Servia-Vary timides: (a) speltoid Triticum dicoccum internode (impression); (b) Prunus mahaleb' (c) Cornus sanguinea.


Plate 5.2. Cast of a daub impression of a head of two-row hulled barley [Hordeum d. distichon).

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5.6.4 Notes on Certain Taxa

Triticum monococcum One of the carbonised einkorn internodes was very distinctly hirsute. This is a character typical of the wild wheats and barleys, in which the seed is dispersed attached to the rachis internode, and needs to be buried irretrievably as fast as possible to protect it from hungry birds, ants, and other consumers. It is conceivable that wild einkorn {Triticum boeoticumj is represented here, as a weed introduced in the wheat crop, but the internode is not as hairy as a proper wild einkorn. Another possibility (beyond ordinary intra-specific variability in crop plants) is that we are seeing the consequence of relatively recent cross-breeding between wild and domestic einkorn that were growing together in a field as weed and crop. Although unexpected, neither circumstance would be particularly untoward, as one is dealing with an early introduction of agriculture from somewhere else in Greece, and wild einkorn is nowadays generally accepted to be a (rare) native of the southern and eastern lowlands of Greece (Tutin et al. 1980). (The natural distribution of wild cereals is hard to establish, as they may have been spread involuntarily as weeds of their domesticated relatives. Wild einkorn and wild barley are particularly controversial, as they are so widespread - the former being found as far n as Crimea, and the latter extending to Crete and N Africa. It may be noted, however, that wild emmer remains very restricted, despite the widespread and persistent cultivation of Triticum dicoccum in prehistoric times. Recent distribution maps can be found in Johnson (1975) and Davis (1985).)

35° R. N. L. B. HUBBARD

To judge by the synthesis of Greek en agriculture in table 5.15, the identifications of two-seeded einkorn may have been somewhat optimistic. There were no utterly unmistakable specimens, although zembilia 3540, 3627 and 3636 contained some fragments that strongly resembled this type.

Triticum aestivum A single seed was found that strongly resembled bread wheat: however, it was almost certainly just another terminal emmer grain.

Hordeum d. var. distichon and H. v. var. vulgäre The seeds of two- and six-row hulled barley are distinguished from each other by the presence of twisted grains in the latter. When found together, their identification ultimately becomes a matter of statistics (Kyllo and Hubbard 1981). Only four samples seemed to contain twisted grains: of these (if that is correct) the two straight grains in zembilia 3651- 2 must be attributed to six-row hulled barley, and the two-row form must be assumed to be absent from this sample.

The measurements of the median floret in the cast of the head of two-row hulled barley can be compared with an Iraqi wild barley collection as follows:

H. distichon H. spontaneum

Length (to base of awn) 10.2 11.0 mm Breadth 2.5 2.8 mm Thickness c. 0.9 1 .7 mm Width at base of floret 1.89 2.36 mm

Panicum miliaceum An impression of common millet was tentatively identified at Argissa by Hopf (Milojcic et al 1962). The single carbonised seed recovered at Servia-Vary timides that was attributable to this taxon was too covered with adherent mineral for its identity to be absolutely certain.

Pisum sativum The wild sub-species of pea, Pisum sativum ssp. elatius has a finely-granulated testa, whereas domestic ones usually have a smooth seed-coat. Both types of sculpturing have been seen on neolithic peas at Servia (when specimens are sufficiently well preserved) and both types also occur in domestic peas.

Vicia ervilia and Lathyrus sativus While most of the seeds of L. sativus are shaped like the head of an axe, the terminal seeds are flattened-conical and sometimes can resemble the rounded-tetrahedral seeds of V ervilia. Two seeds were found that could be attributed to terminal L. sativus; but later two more, much better preserved seeds were found in a sample which had been mislaid in room- changes. These seeds were fairly unmistakably Vicia ervilia. L. sativus is well-documented from the en of Thessaly (Halstead and Jones 1980), while V. ervilia is equally reliably recorded at Nea Nikomedeia (van Zeist and Bottema 1971). In the absence of better evidence, it is safer to assume that all the Servia-Varytimides vetch seeds are Vicia ervilia.


Cornus sanguinea The oil-rich seeds of dogwood are approximately spherical, about 4.5 mm in diameter, and have some characteristic scars in the shape of a cross at one end (fig. 5.9 c).

Prunus mahaleb The seeds of P. mahaleb superficially resemble wild cherry endocarps, but have a prominent flat hilum at one end, and lack the thickened margins of the ventral suture that are such a characteristic feature of plum and cherry stones. They thus resemble tiny hazel nuts (fig. 5.9 b). Fragrant cherry has a similar ecology to the ordinary wild cherry, but has a much more southerly and easterly distribution. The seeds are edible, and also have many other traditional uses.

Corylus A single burnt fragment of a hazel nut or filbert was found in zembil 3540, with some possible fragments in zembil 3644. The piece seemed too large for Corylus colurna (which, when complete, has a shallowly conical hilum), and in the absence of the base, which is rather flat in C. avellana and C. maxima, and which has a slight constriction above it in C. maxima (as Hillman points out), no precise identification was possible. It is strange that Corylus is so rare, and does not turn up in the later deposits either.

Piunus amygdalus Almond shell fragments were found in several samples. The shells seemed rather thin - but this is a notoriously variable character. Almond is a Near Eastern plant, and it was presumably a luxury item - something delicious and immoral to nibble at, or to keep the children quiet. Although a foreign plant, it could have been grown locally; but its comparative rarity in Housley's analyses from the later neolithic deposits suggests that it was always an import and not an introduction. All this, however, assumes that the shells are from the familiar domestic almond - but there is another very similar almond that might have produced the shells. This is Prunus webbii, another small tree with a rather more western distribution that P. amygdalus, which is distinguishable from its domesticated relative only by the smaller size of its seeds and its narrower leaves. Such minor differences are normally associated with the wild ancestors of domestic forms. On the other hand, P. amygdalus and P. webbii seem to remain distinct even when they grow together (for instance in Crete), implying that there are sterility barriers preventing cross-breeding; and that, in turn, would imply that P. webbii is not ancestral to P. amygdalus. P. webbii is basically also a western Asiatic plant, but is common in Crete, is reported from the Aegean islands (Rechinger 1943), and is found as far N and w as Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. In the absence of complete seeds, it is not possible to be certain which species is represented here.

Fagus Several beech cupule fragments were found, one tiny but unmistakable, most larger but less characteristic. Presumably F sylvatica and not F orientalis is represented.

Cuscuta europaea Dodder seeds measure about 1.3-1.5 x 1.1-1.2 mm, and rather resemble Galium seeds, but have a characteristic rather coarsely reticulated surface, in which the walls of the reticulation are of irregular height. It is as though the seed had been rolled in fine ball-


bearings when it was soft, and they had been removed after it had hardened. An introduced American dodder is very common in w Macedonia today. It is slightly surprising that the plant does not appear in samples from later deposits.

Quercus cf. pedunculiflora Many species of oak grow in upland Macedonia, and since they sometimes inter-breed, identifying modern specimens can be quite difficult. The fragmentary cupuie, and the mn leaf impressions in a piece of burnt daub, are consistent with Q. pedunculiflora and the closely-related Q. robur.

Linum usitatissimum The best-preserved linseed was an impression measuring 3.5 x 2.1 x 0.8 mm.

Brassica In the single seed found that resembled Brassica the fine reticulation that ought to characterise this type was unfortunately not observable.

Teucrium cf. scordium Some small seeds were found that had a lateral hilum in the fashion of the borage family. They were of the size of Myosotis seeds [c 1 mm), but not so smooth and with a much bigger hilum. They resembled tiny, but smoothish, Heliotropium suaveolens seeds. The genera Ajuga and Teucrium in the closely-related labiate (mint) family, however, have rather similar hila. The seeds appear to be of Teucrium scorodonia (wood sage), or of T scordium: common, widespread, rather woody, and not very aromatic representatives of this culinarily-important family, which are generally found growing in fairly damp places.

Verbena officinalis Small cylindrical seeds (about 1.3 x 0.5 x 0.6 mm), with a very coarse shallow reticulation on one face, and a smooth hilum over most of the opposite side (gemmate-baculate in modern material): they thus resemble tiny, very elongated Ajuga chamaepitys nutlets.

Chenopodium album and C. botrys The small, radially-wrinkled, lentil-like seeds of C. album are common in archaeobotanical samples of all periods throughout Europe and the Near East. C. botrys is common, low- growing, and aromatic. Its seeds are significantly smaller than those of C. album (about 0.8 mm diameter, as opposed to about 1.2 mm), often rather angular in cross-section, and are smooth-scabrate, with a radial arrangement of low elongated protuberances in well- preserved material, but often lacking any distinctive sculpturing in fossil specimens.

5.6.5 Early Neolithic Agriculture in Greece The archaeobotany of Servia-Varytimides is compared with that of some other relevant en sites in table 5.15, using presence analysis (Hubbard 1980). It will be seen that the closest match is to be found with the Thessalian site of Pródromos (Halstead and Jones 1980). In fact, the comparison tells us other things too. If we exclude the sample from the rubbish pit (zembil 3540), the samples of carbonised seeds from Servia-Varytimides come from


similar contexts. Although recovered from different excavation squares, they logically might form one sample - the courtyard. When treated separately, however, the results match the Pródromos results much more closely - implying that the samples are actually independent, despite the circumstances. When it is assumed that the samples from zembilia 3552, 3627 and 3628 are not independent (as fig. 5.10 suggests), the match comes even better; and if it is assumed that the tentative identification of two-seeded einkorn in zembil 3627 is mistaken, the similarity is closer still. This close relationship with the Thessalian archaeobotanical evidence is consistent with the pottery, which also shows strong Thessalian parallels. On the other hand, Pródromos has Lathyrus sativus while Servia-Varytimides has Vicia ervilia. As more comparative information emerges, the archaeobotany of the site of Nea

Nikomedeia (van Zeist and Bottema 1971) remains distinctly anomalous, and suggests that a quite distinct cultural tradition existed on the coast beyond the Haliakmon gorge. The cultivation of six-row naked barley and Vicia ervilia resembles far later agricultural traditions. If it is legitimate to use prehistoric agriculture to indicate where the earliest neolithic of Greece came from - and it seems that prehistoric agriculture had reflected peoples' preferences, rather than any other kind of constraint, for at least a millennium and a half (Hubbard 1990) - then the closest analogue of Nea Nikomedeia's agriculture seems to be at Hacilar (Helbaek 1970) (except that Triticum aestivum was present there). By contrast, the earliest Thessalian agriculture (final column in table 5.15; Argissa (Milojcic et al 1962), Sesklo and Ghediki (J. M. Renfrew 1966), Soufli (J. M. Renfrew 1973), and Achilleion (J. M. Renfrew 1989)) seems properly ancestral to that of the Sesklo culture and subsequent traditions (but the identity of the Vetch' is unknown, and only one Hordeum vulgäre var. vulgäre and one H. distichon are unambiguous); and apparently points to a northern Levantine origin. However, the evidence (in the mislaid sample from zembil 3640) that the vetch cultivated at Servia-Varytimides was Vicia ervilia and not Lathyrus sativus (as was previously believed) shows that the situation was even more complicated than appeared to be the case (Hubbard 1995). Unless the Thessalian en farmers cultivated both Lathyrus sativus and Vicia ervilia, Servia-Varytimides is slightly (but quite distinctly) different. Were it not for the rarity of naked and six-row barley - so common at Nea Nikomedeia - one might say that Servia-Varytimides represented a link between the two agricultural traditions: and maybe that is what it will prove to be. It is interesting to compare these with the archaeobotany of Kirokitia (Waines and Stanley-Price 1977), presumably also colonised from the same area. The major differences lie in the exploitation of six-row hulled barley and broad bean (Vicia faba) in Cyprus.

Broad bean is a mysterious crop, possibly archaeologically under-represented. In Britain, there is some evidence that it was grown in earlier prehistoric times as a green vegetable rather than for its seeds (Hubbard, in Hinton 1982). If this were also the case in prehistoric Europe as a whole, it would explain the sparse and perplexing archaeobotanical record of this plant. Although it seems a dramatic conclusion to come to using the absence as evidence, the deduction that broad bean was (like flax) an ubiquitous but 'invisible' crop of prehistoric Europe makes sense of otherwise confusing evidence. In fact, there is some hard fact to support this apparently wild speculation: Follieri (1982) has reported Vicia faba (accompanying einkorn, emmer, bread/macaroni wheat, hulled and naked barley, and lentils) from Rendina, one of the earliest Italian neolithic sites. It would imply, however, that the earliest European farmers were anything but unsophisticated - as other evidence also suggests (see above).


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ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE: ARCHAEOBOTANY/INSECTS 355

The single spike-rush (Eleocharis) nutlet and the tentative identification of Teucrium scordium are thought-provoking. These plants like marshy ground. Does this indicate that during the occupation of the Servia-Varytimides site crops were being cultivated on the adjacent river flats? This damp but flat area below the site may have been attractive to the first colonists because it may have had a thinner, more herbaceous and shrubby, vegetation than elsewhere, which would have been easy to clear. Maybe the pattern of events was as follows: a group of Thessalian colonists arrived at the locality, cleared a space for their crops on the river flood-plain below the Servia-Varytimides site; and built some houses, using saplings from the woods on the terrace behind to the s and w, levelling part of the site to make a courtyard, and using the earth for daub. Rubbish was dumped in the pit and accumulated in the courtyard area. (Many of the cereal and pulse crop remains recovered were very small, and there were lots of runt barley and einkorn grains.) Later, perhaps stimulated by the arrival of another contingent of colonists, when the combined effects of cutting timber for construction and firewood, and ring-barking the mature trees had created sufficient open spaces, fields were increasingly exploited above the level of the flood plain, and a new settlement was established up to the higher ground at the main site, where the best spring was close to hand, and the settlement was safe from flooding.

R. N. L. B. H.

5.7 INSECT REMAINS

Although insect remains are quite frequently encountered in waterlogged environments (and thus are a standard component of northern European urban archaeological sites) they are rare in the 'ordinary' prehistoric site. Three beetle fossils were found at Servia, all preserved as impressions in pottery. The finds therefore partly reflect the effort put into the post-excavation investigation of impressions in pottery and daub.

Table 5.16. Contextual details for the insect remains.

Zembil Trench Phase

Servia 333$ D10/A-B <i4> P265 mn Four Servia 36 F20/A <i6> P21 ln Seven Servia-Varytimides 3653 Q,12-5 <i4> Pit 3 en

Only the first of these specimens could be identified with any accuracy. It was obviously a live individual that had fallen onto the wet clay of a pot that had not yet been burnished: it was originally complete to its antennae, and its elytra are folded in the position of rest, showing that it had fallen and not flown onto the pot. It was identified by P. M. Hammond of the Natural History Museum, London, as the common grain weevil Sitophilus, probably S. granarius L. (Curculionidae). The other two specimens were also attributable to this


genus; but they were dead specimens, articulated but with the legs broken off at the tibiae or femora, which had been impressed in the bases of pots.

Since all the finds are of one of the commonest pests of stored cereal crops, they are of very limited palaeoentomological interest. No climatic, ecological, evolutionary, or behavioural history is made by the finds. This may be contrasted with the breeding colony of Sitophilus preserved in a carbonised Veselinovo period emmer crop from Tell Azmak in Bulgaria, which was accompanied by the earliest find of Oryzflephilus (Cucujidae) to date (Hubbard, unpublished). As the name suggests, this latter genus was originally associated with rice crops. It had been found in Tutankhamun's tomb (Zacher 1937), but the Bulgarian find puts the genus' indigenous European status beyond any doubt.

Boring as they are from the entomological point of view, the Servia grain weevils are not entirely without interest.

Firstly, the dead weevils imply an overhead source of corpses; and this supports the evidence (from Do/C, for instance) of storage of crops in the roof-spaces of the houses. We may feel more secure in concluding that this was the rule rather than the exception, and that it continued throughout the neolithic occupation.

Secondly, the impressions in the surfaces of pieces of pottery show that the pottery was dried indoors, where the dead weevils were falling onto the work.

Finally, the finds return us to the oddity of the scarcity of carbonised insect remains: if seeds and fibres can be preserved by carbonisation, why not insect chitin? One answer is that (of course) it is. It might be thought that the smokey environment of crops stored in the roof-space of a house heated by wood fires and with schematic or non-existent chimneys could have a protective effect. However, a cursory examination of crops stored in such conditions in a Romanian village in the early 1970s indicated that a heavy dose of wood- tar had little effect on weevils' appetite. One reason for the apparent scarcity of carbonised grain weevils is that the weevils develop inside the seeds, and unless the seed is broken, it appears normal. The hollowed-out seed, however, is fragile and (whether carbonised or not) is rapidly reduced to tiny fragments that are unrecognisable among the debris of most archaeological samples. Carbonised Sitophilus larvae are not immediately recognisable as such: they superficially resemble small Consolida seeds. Since the objects involved are quite small, they may simply be overlooked, lost in the mass of fine material that passes through the ordinary 2 mm main recovery sieve and which does not always receive exhaustive attention. Evidence of grain-weevil infestation, therefore, might easily be missed in 'ordinary' archaeobotanical samples from hearths, rubbish pits, and similar contexts. Carbonised stored crops provide the best opportunity for recognising insect infestation; but these by their nature tend to invite superficial examination as they are nearly mono-specific. Moreover, the small size of the specimens means that they are likely to concentrate in the bottom of the storage vessel. One must conclude that non-recognition, non-discovery, or non-recovery is likely to prove the reason for the scarcity of finds of carbonised crop pests.

R. N. L. B. H.

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85

CORRIGENDA

The preparation of this CD Rom has given me the opportunity to make corrections of three errors which escaped me in proofreading the final version of the text before it went to the printers.

I must offer my sincere apologies tor-

Rupert Housley who has mysteriously acquired an alter ego on the title page and elsewhere,

and

Richard Hubbard whose meticulous diagrams would have much greater effect if they were the final versions he supplied us with. The correct versions of FIGS. 5.8 and 5.10 have therefore been reproduced on the following pages.

For these and all other errors still to be recognised I take full reponsibility.

KA. Wardle

Fig. 5.8. Graphs comparing the major agricultural components of prehistoric Servia w

Corrigendum p. 332

.1 components of prehistoric Servia with those of Sitagroi-Photolivos and Bulgaria.

Corrigendum p. 346

As / ^ ° I x

0 / ° ° i v ti >v ~1O

Fig. 5.10. Scatter diagram of Indices of Heterogeneity and Rubbish Indices (with associated envelopes of uncertainty) for the Servia- Vary timidhes samples.

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