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Sensory-Cognitive Stressors and Adaptation. Common Sensory-Cognitive Disorders in Children ADHD...
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Sensory-Cognitive Stressors and Adaptation
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Common Sensory-Cognitive Common Sensory-Cognitive Disorders in ChildrenDisorders in Children
• ADHD• Cerebral Palsy• Mental Retardation• Depression• Autistic Spectrum Disorders• Downs Syndrome• Visual and Hearing impairments
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Attention Deficit with Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Behavioral disorder affects 6% of US school age children
• Ranges from mild to severe• Child has inattention, impulsiveness and
hyperactivity developmentally inappropriate for the age w/o deficits in intelligence
• Etiology is unknown• Suspect genetic component• Possible neurologic abnormality• Increased incidence in males
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SymptomsSymptoms
Attention Deficit• unable to complete tasks
effectively due to inattention or impulsivityHyperactivity
• excessive or exaggerated muscular activity
*symptoms must be present in at least 2 settings*must have been present before age 7
“Engaging” Personality
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AssessmentAssessment• Can not be made by diagnostic tests, imaging,
etc.• Diagnosis is confirmed by comprehensive tests• Assessment usually begins in school• Need to have exact description “all or none”
reaction to stimuli• Difficulty with right & left, today & tomorrow• Difficulty with common tasks • Awkward motor movements• Early identification is critical
• Maladaptive behavior patterns• Exposed to negative feedback
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ManagementManagement**A Multiple approach is needed
Environmental Manipulation• Stable learning environment with special
instruction• Encourage parents to be fair but firm• Encourage parents to build self-esteem• Correct bad behavior immediately • Assign age appropriate chores with slow
instructions
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ManagementManagementMedication (Stimulants)
Ritalin, Cylert, Dexedrine, Adderal• Work by increasing dopamine and
norepinephrine levels• Should be used in adjunct to
environmental manipulation and therapy
Side effects:• insomnia (give first thing in morning)• anorexia (monitor height & weight)Diet: nothing substantiated in research
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ManagementManagementFamily support• Remind parents to be patient• Usually a “childhood condition”• Resolves by adolescence
(increased attention span, ability to filter stimuli improves)
• Long Term Planning is still necessary
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Cerebral PalsyCerebral Palsy• A nonspecific term applied to disorders
of early onset of impaired movement and posture secondary to abnormal muscle tone and coordination
• May be accompanied by intellectual impairment and language deficits
• The most common physical disability in children
•
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Factors Associated with Cerebral Factors Associated with Cerebral PalsyPalsy
Prenatal• Maternal diabetes• Rh or ABO incompatibility• Rubella in the first trimester• Genetics• Intrauterine ischemic event• Toxoplasmosis• Cytomegalovirus• Congenital brain abnormality
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Factors Associated with Cerebral Factors Associated with Cerebral Palsy (cont’d)Palsy (cont’d)
Perinatal• Asphyxia• Low birth weight• Prematurity• Precipitous delivery• Pregnancy-induced
hypertension• Birth trauma
• Anoxia• Prolonged labor• Perinatal metabolic
condition (diabetes)• Intracranial
hemorrhage
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Factors Associated with Cerebral Factors Associated with Cerebral Palsy (cont’d)Palsy (cont’d)
Postnatal• Infections• Trauma• Stroke• Poisoning
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Types of CPTypes of CP
• Spastic• Dyskinetic• Ataxic• Mixed-type• Rigid
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SpasticSpastic• may involve one or
both sides of body• hypertonicity with poor
control of posture, balance, and coordinated movement
• impaired fine and gross motor skills
• active attempts at movement increase abnormal posture
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DyskineticDyskinetic• abnormal involuntary
movement• Athetosis: slow worm-
like, writhing movements that involve extremities, trunk, neck, facial muscles and tongue
• Poor oral tone, drooling, difficulty with speech
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AtaxicAtaxic• wide based gait• rapid repetitive movements
poorly performed• disintegration of movement
when child reaches for an object
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MixedMixed
• combination of spasticity and diskinetic
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RigidRigid• Rare form• Rigid flexor and extensor muscles• Tremors at rest and movement• Very Poor Prognosis due to lack of active
movement
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Clinical Manifestations of all Clinical Manifestations of all types in infantstypes in infants
• Delayed gross motor development
• Abnormal motor performance
• Alterations of muscle tone
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Clinical Manifestations of all Clinical Manifestations of all types in infantstypes in infants
• Reflex abnormalities • Associated disabilities
(subnormal learning: MR in 2/3 of pop, seizures, impaired vision or hearing)
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DiagnosisDiagnosis
• Neurologist• MRI- identifies lesions and spinal cord
pathology• ECG• CT head
*early recognition important to maximize child’s abilities
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ManagementManagement
GOAL:
to promote optimal development
Therapy on individual basis (PT, OT, Speech)
home
school
hospital
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ManagementManagement• Establish locomotion,
communication, self-help• Gain optimum development of
motor function (braces, walkers, surgery to release contractures)
• Pain management• Provide educational
opportunities• Promote socialization
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DepressionDepression• Childhood depression
hard to detect• Kids can not always
verbalize feelings
• Feelings are usually acted out and overlooked
Depression can be either
Acute
Chronic
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DiagnosisDiagnosisMajor Characteristics
• Should have at least one of these present for 6 months:
• Depressed mood
and/or
• Loss of interest or pleasure
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Minor CharacteristicsMinor Characteristics
• Must have five of these for 6 months:• Insomnia• Change in appetite or significant weight loss
or gain• Psychomotor agitation• Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate
guild• Diminished concentration or indecisiveness• Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
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SymptomsSymptoms
• Solitary play• Withdrawn from previously enjoyed
activities• Tearful• Clinging• Aggressive• Physiologic symptoms
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EtiologyEtiology
• Biologic basis (neurotransmitter level)• Genetic basis• Interpersonal factors• Greater incidence in adolescents
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TreatmentTreatment
• SSRI’s• TCA• Therapy
• Individual• Group• Family
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Cognitive ImpairmentCognitive Impairment• Classically defined as sub-average
intellectual functioning, deficits in adaptive behavior and onset before 18 years of age
• AKA Mental Retardation, “cognitive impairment” is preferred term
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DefinitionDefinition
IQ of < 85 and adaptive limitations in two or more of the following areas:• communication • self-care• home living• social skills• leisure• health & safety• self-direction• functional academics• community use • work
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Causes of Cognitive ImpairmentCauses of Cognitive Impairment
• Hereditary origin• Early embryonic alterations• Early intrauterine or neonatal alterations• Acquired childhood conditions or diseases• Environmental problems and behavioral
syndromes• Unknown causes
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AssessmentAssessment
• Few physical indicators• History
• Developmental milestones• IQ test
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ClassificationClassification
• Borderline• Mild• Moderate• Severe• Profound
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Early behavioral signsEarly behavioral signs• Nonresponsive to contact• Poor eye contact during feeding• Diminished spontaneous activity• Decreased alertness to voice or
movement• Irritability• Slow feeding
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ClassificationClassification
Normal IQ: 85-115
Borderline: 71-84• Early milestones achieved• Noticed when school performance
is monitored• Vocational skills adequate for
competitive employment
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ClassificationClassificationMild: 50-70
• Slight delay in milestones• Special education services
needed on vocational and self-maintenance skills
• Able to form and maintain adult relationships
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ClassificationClassificationModerate: 35-58
• Noticeable delay in motor and speech development
• Early and persistent training in self-care required
• Supervision required for complex activity or problem solving
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ClassificationClassification
Severe: 20-40• Marked delay in all motor
skills• Limited expressive speech• Constant supervision
required
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ClassificationClassification
Profound: 0-19• May be able walk• May have primitive speech• Constant supervision
required
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Problems Related to Problems Related to Cognitive ImpairmentCognitive Impairment
• Mild • Self-esteem issues related to presence or absence of physical
features• Social isolation and loneliness• Depression
• Severe• Self-injury• Fecal smearing• Tearing of personal clothes and objects• Severe temper tantrums• Disrobing
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Goals of Nursing CareGoals of Nursing Care
• The child will be educated using effective teaching strategies.
• The child’s optimal development will be promoted.
• The child will learn self-care skills.• The family will plan for future care.
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EducationEducation• most do well in pre-school• helps them learn to be comfortable with other
children• depending on the degree of MR should be
included in regular classes as much as possible
• offers stimulation• helps them to reach their best potential and
learn to work and socialize with people of average intelligence
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Institutional vs.Institutional vs.home carehome care
• severe & profound need constant supervision
• mild & moderate can live at home and keep normal routines or group home setting when older: home atmosphere that allows community experiences
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Health maintenance Health maintenance needsneeds
• treat child according to intellectual age not chronological age
Illness:• may be more difficult to detect
illness• cannot describe pain, respond with
generalized crying like an infant
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Safety for the Child with a Cognitive Safety for the Child with a Cognitive ImpairmentImpairment
• Safety is a persistent concern for children with cognitive impairments
• The child’s maturation in anticipating danger, in problem solving, and in judgment are generally impaired across the life span
• Children with motor disabilities are often unable to perform skills in ways that foster safety
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Self-care activities Self-care activities
• need to learn the maximum amount of self-care possible
• leads to sense of control and accomplishment
• play activities a good teaching tool• choose toys appropriate for
developmental age
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Social relationshipsSocial relationships• ability to communicate is often
delayed because speech is delayed• teach early social behavior (thank
you, excuse me, taking turns)
Preparation for adulthood: • Teach socially acceptable sexual
behaviors (abuse, pregnancy)
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Autism Specgtrum DisordersAutism Specgtrum Disorders
• Increased awareness of health care professionals and public
• High estimations of prevalence and incidence (1/250 births)
• Chronic life-long condition
• Potentially severe impactIndividual, family, society
• Ranges from MILD to SEVERE
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Autism Spectrum DisordersAutism Spectrum Disorders
• Autistic disorder• High Functioning Autism• PDD NOS• Asperger’s Syndrome• Childhood Disintegrative Disorder• Rett’s disorder
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EtiologyEtiology
• Unclear• Neurological origins • Genetic Factors• Possible Infectious, metabolic and immunologic
causes• Possible environmental causes• Probably multifactoral• NO RESEARCH TO SUPPORT VACCINES AS
A CAUSE!!!!!
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Autism is:Autism is:
Developmental disability
• Symptoms are present before age three, in the developmental period
• It causes delays in many different areas from infancy into adulthood
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History of AutismHistory of Autism
• First recognized in 1943 – Dr. Leo Kanner • extreme aloofness & indifference• little eye contact• severe language deficits• lack of desire to communicate• lack of pretend play
• “Infantile Autism”• Since then DSM has changed criteria DSM-I 1952, DSM-
II 1968, DSM-III 1980, DSM IV• Aspergers only entered in 1990
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Prevalence/IncidencePrevalence/Incidence
• Gender• Higher incidence in males
• Familial• Higher degree of siblings at risk• Higher incidence in people with other
developmental disorders
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AutismAutism1. Restrictive repetitive and stereotyped
pattern of behavior, interests and activities
2. Hypo/hyper sensitivity
3. Qualitative Impairment in:• social interaction• symbolic or imaginative play• communication
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Impairment in social Impairment in social interactioninteraction
• Ranges from mild to marked impairment in nonverbal communication (eye-to-eye gaze, facial expressions, postures and gestures for communication)
• Lack of peer relationships• Lack of social reciprocity
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Impairment in Impairment in communicationcommunication
• Ranges from minor impairment in either receptive or expressive language to lack of spoken language without alternative modes (gestures, mine)
• In adequate speech, lack ability to initiate or sustain conversation
• Repetitive or idiosyncratic language
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Lack of imaginative playLack of imaginative play
• Prefers to line up toys in a row• May play with non-toy items• May not acknowledge toys with “faces”• Interested in parts of a toy• Lacks ability to pretend play
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Restricted interests, Stereotyped Restricted interests, Stereotyped behaviorbehavior
• Abnormal intensity or focus• Inflexible and/or nonfunctional routine and
rituals• Repetitive motor mannerisms (hand flap, whole
body movements)• Preoccupation with parts of an object
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Autism Red FlagsAutism Red Flags• Language is delayed• Child doesn’t respond to name• Child can not indicate wants• Lack of pointing, waving “bye-bye”• Intense tantrums• Has odd movement patterns• Child doesn’t play with toys in intended way• Child seems independent for age-gets things only for self,
prefers to be alone• Spends time lining things up, putting in certain order• Poor eye contact• Has unusual attachment to objects• Does not seem interested in other children
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Diagnostic and Treatment BarriersDiagnostic and Treatment Barriers
• Lack of recognition of the early signs• Parental resistance• Uninformed school professionals• Lack of qualified professionals in early
intervention• Private insurance non-payment for developmental
disabilities• Costly services_______________________________________
= Delay in referral for evaluation
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TreatmentTreatment• No known cure• Wide variety of therapeutic options• Early therapy - positive effect• Characteristics may improve with age• Can not generalize successful therapy
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Comprehensive PlanComprehensive Plan
• Behavior management• ABA (Applied Behavior
Analysis)• Speech-language therapy• OT• PT• Social Skills therapy• School and special
education services
• Habilitative Services• Home/family
• Respite care
• Supervised group living
• LTC
• Medications• Dietary• Community support
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Down SyndromeDown Syndrome• Most common chromosomal abnormality• Etiology unknown
• Late maternal age identified
• Caused by extra chromosome (nondisjunstion) failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or (translocation) fusion of two chromosomes
• Usually chromosome 21 and 15• Can be diagnosed in utero
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Clinical manifestationsClinical manifestations
• Small, square head• Upward slant of eyes• Flat nasal bridge• Protruding tongue• Mottled skin• Transverse palmar
crease• Hypotonia• Should do
chromosomal analysis to confirm diagnosis
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Down SyndromeDown Syndrome• Other manifestations:• Congenital heart defects (septal)• Upper respiratory infections• Thyroid dysfunction• Cognitive impairment
Prognosis:• More than 80% survive to age 30
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Nursing goalsNursing goals
• Family support at time of diagnosis
• Decisions about future care• Assist family in preventing
physical complications
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Hearing ImpairmentHearing Impairment
Disability that may range in severity from mild to profound and includes subsets of deaf & hard of hearing.
Normal hearing 0– 15 dB Slight hearing impaired 16–25 dB Mild hearing impaired 26–40 dB Moderate hearing impaired 41–65 dB Severe hearing impaired 66-95 dB Profound hearing impaired 96+dB
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Types and Causes of Types and Causes of Hearing LossHearing Loss
• Conductive• Sensorineural• Mixed • Central
Etiology• Prenatal and Postnatal
-anatomic malformation
-asphyxia
-prematurity
-otologic toxic rx
-continuous humming
Perinatal infections
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Hearing ImpairmentHearing Impairment
Assessment:• Early dx (6-12mos of age) is imperative
to prevent social, physical, and psychological damage to child
• Identify those at risk • Observe for behavior that may indicate
loss (See below)• Screen children for auditory function
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BehaviorsBehaviorsIn infancy: poor response to auditory stimuli• No startle reflex• No head turning to voice• Indifference to sound• Absence of babble or inflections in voice
by 7 mos.• Absence of well-formed syllables by 11
mos
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BehaviorsBehaviorsIn children:• Failure to develop 3 word vocabulary by 18
months • Use of gestures rather than verbalization to
express needs • Failure to develop intelligible speech by 24
mos. • Responds more to facial expressions and
gestures than to verbal explanation
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Nursing Care for the Nursing Care for the Child with Hearing LossChild with Hearing Loss
• Promote communication • children will imitate what you say, describe
daily activities, repeat child’s words using correct pronunciation
• Look directly at child’s face when speaking • Have the child’s complete attention before
beginning to speak
• Speak clearly but not loudly or slowly
• Eliminate background noise
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Nursing Care for the Nursing Care for the Child with Hearing LossChild with Hearing Loss
• Encourage the child who has a hearing aid to use it
• Make sure the hearing aid is in place before speaking to the child
• Use visual aids
• Use basic sign language or an interpreter when necessary
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Visual ImpairmentVisual Impairment
• Common in childhood• Range from slight impairment to vision loss• Most can be corrected with lenses• Causes
• Genetic• Anatomic• Pre-post natal infections (rubella, chlamydia)• Trauma
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Visual ImpairmentVisual ImpairmentBehaviors:• In infancy:• suspect blindness if an infant
does not react to light• lack of eye contact• if parents of any age child express
concern
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Vision ScreeningVision Screening
• Thoroughly explain the procedure to the child; if using a picture chart, have the child identify the pictures
• Take the child to a quiet, nondistracting area• Have the child cover one eye; use a colorful,
opaque cover; the parent may hold it in place• Point to a picture (letter, number) on a line that
the child can probably see; then move to smaller lines; vary the direction
• Give positive feedback
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Vision ScreeningVision Screening
• Perform the test as quickly as possible• Test both eyes • Refer if there is a discrepancy or if the
child tests in the abnormal range
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Types of Refractive DisordersTypes of Refractive Disorders
• Myopia• Nearsightedness• Ability to see close objects more clearly than those at a
distance• Caused by the image focusing in front of the retina
• Hyperopia• Farsightedness• Ability to see distant objects more clearly than those close
up• Caused by the image focusing beyond the retina
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Types of Refractive Disorders Types of Refractive Disorders (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Astigmatism• Unequal curvature of the cornea or lens,
causing light rays to bend in different directions• May coexist with myopia or hyperopia
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Types of disorders that interfere with Types of disorders that interfere with visionvision
• Nystagmus: rapid irregular eye movement
• Strabismus: malalignment of one eye (may be cross-eyed), unequal muscle strength
• Amblyopia: reduced visual acuity in one eye (“lazy eye”), is correctable if child is treated before 6 years of age
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Blind ChildrenBlind Children
• blind children do not learn to play automatically
• cannot imitate others or actively explore their environment
• depend on others to teach them how to play and to stimulate them
• select activities that encourage fine & gross motor development, and that stimulate senses of hearing, touch, and smell
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Working with a Visually Working with a Visually Impaired ChildImpaired Child
• Orient the child to the hospital environment by emphasizing spatial relations
• Never touch the child without identifying yourself and explaining what you plan to do
• When describing the environment, use familiar terms; avoid mention of color
• Remember that parents are often the best source for communication
• Identify noises for the child
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Working with a Visually Working with a Visually Impaired Child (cont’d)Impaired Child (cont’d)
• Frequently orient the child to time and place• Keep all things in the same location and order• Provide detailed explanations and allow child
to progress through care in steps to learn the order
• Allow as much control as possible• Supervise the child and counsel parents to
supervise the child as needed
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When providing anticipatory guidance to the family of a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, the nurse should emphasize the need:
a. To have the child take medication prescribed for the disorder just before bedtime
b. To be lenient and understanding of the child’s behavior
c. To help build up the child’s self-esteem
d. To involve the child in structured play activities
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A 10-year old child with mental retardation wants to join his younger brothers Cub scout group. His parents are apprehensive about allowing him to join, and asks the nurse for advice. The nurse’s response will be based on the fact that children with MR:
a. Do not have a need for socializationb. Should not be encouraged to participate in clubsc. Should participate in clubs for children that are
cognitively impairedd. Have the same need for socialization as children
w/o mental retardation
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An 11-year-old child with ADHD is being treated with Ritalin twice a day reports that he is having difficulty falling asleep at night. The nurse questions him, and discovers that he is taking the medication in the morning before school and in the late evening after super. Based on this information, the nurse should instruct him to:
a. Continue taking the AM dose, but take the PM dose earlier
b. Stop taking the medication until he can be evaluated by an MD
c. Take both doses in the AMd. Reduce the evening dose to ½ the prescribed dose
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A young child has just been diagnosed with spastic cerebral palsy. The nurse is teaching the parents how to meet the dietary needs of their child, and explains the feeding challenges are:
a. The paralysis of their muscles decreased caloric need
b. The spasticity of their muscles increases caloric need
c. The hypotonic muscles make eating difficultd. The child’s inactivity increases the risk of
obesity
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When planning activities for a school-age child with Down Syndrome, the nurse should:
a. Speak loudly and clearly to help the child understand what is going to happen
b. Involve the parents but not he child who is cognitively impaired
c. Gear the activities to the child’s developmental, not chronological age
d. Anticipate that the child will not willingly engage in planned activities