Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Research Paper

THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY AND EDUCATION

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Education

Bethany J. Verbrugge

Calvin College


Abstract

This paper will explore the concept of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, as well as stereotype

threat, confirmation bias, the Golem effect and the Pygmalion effect and how they relate

to the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. It will also discuss studies and statistics that suggest the

existence of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, as well as examine its effects and suggest

methods of eradicating the phenomenon. Finally, this paper will wrestle with its

implications and the questions and challenges it raises. It will alternate between male and

female pronouns so as to keep all examples fair and non-gender specific, where

applicable. This paper will also highlight examples from the classroom. Its intent is not

solely to explore the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in education, but to explore the concept as a

whole and dedicate space in which to explore its implications in the classroom setting.

Keywords: Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, education, stereotype threat, resiliency,

confirmation bias, learned helplessness, Golem effect, Pygmalion effect

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Brian Tracy once said that “whatever we expect with confidence becomes our

own Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.” In other words, what one believes, hears or is convinced

of becomes his reality. A study of White and African American Stanford graduates

showed that “Black participants underperformed compared to their White counterparts

when the test was presented as a measure of their ability,” but performed just as well as

the White participants when “the test was less reflective of ability” (Smith & Hung,

2008:252). Countless examples throughout history suggest the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

not only exists, but also has the ability to affect anyone who finds herself identifying with

a people group within a stereotype. This phenomenon can also be observed when an

individual tells himself or is told by others that a reality is or will be true for him. The

assumption may not have been true to begin with, but the individual tends to adopt the

assumption which fulfills the original expectation. This paper will explore the concept of

the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, present studies and statistics that suggest its existence,

examine its effects and suggest tools with which to combat its existence, as well as

wrestle with its implications and the questions and challenges it raises.

Critical Terms

Before tackling the evidence of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (SFP), it is first

important to understand what the SFP actually entails. It has been established that “if men

define situations are real, they are real in their consequences” (Merton, 2010:173;

Crescimanno, 1982:xii). As suggested, if the individuals begin to believe what they have

been told, by themselves or others, the outcome is often what they were taught to believe

in the first place. This may include comments like, “you’re stupid,” “you won’t

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understand,” or any number of racial slurs. Merton further proposes that humans not only

respond “to the objective features of a situation, but. . . to the meaning this situation has

for them” (2010:174). “The SFP is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation

evoking a new behavior, which makes the originally false conception come true”

(Merton, 2010:175). The first step in the SFP’s development is the “perceiver [forming]

expectations about the target” (McGraw-Hill Companies, 2005:157). This is where the

stereotype is born or believed. Secondly, the “perceiver acts toward the target based on

their expectations,” which leads the target, or the individual, to decipher the actions of the

perceiver and respond “so that his or her behavior is consistent with [the] perceiver’s

expectations” (McGraw-Hill Companies, 2005:157). This is why the phenomenon is

coined ‘the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.’

The stereotype threat, while not the same concept as the SFP, contributes to it.

The stereotype threat is defined as “the fear of confirming a negative stereotype

concerning one’s own group” (Smith & Hung, 2008:245). It is a “social psychological

[state] created by situational cues in susceptible individuals” (Smith & Hung, 2008:246).

This means that individuals’ thoughts and emotions are influenced by others’

assumptions of said individuals. When different identities become associated with

different stereotypes, “individuals may be susceptible to them” (Smith & Hung,

2008:246). In the classroom, for example, “the expectations and images which teachers

and other school officials come to hold of a student are often a result of having defined

and labeled the race, social class, previous test scores and whatever additional ‘diagnostic

data’ are available” (Crescimanno, 1982:xii). When these labels are created and in play,

they “function to create or perpetuate the very conditions they define” (Crescimanno,

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1982:xii). Due to these labels, individuals begin to “accumulate information about

themselves as learners, achievers, potential citizens, and even as humans with whatever

measure of worth is doled out in the process” (Crescimanno, 1982:xii). While it is not

necessarily the individual who initiates the stereotype, once she becomes aware of the

stereotype’s implications, she will often begin to display signs of the stereotype.

Chimamanda Adichie once said that “the problem with stereotypes is not that they are

untrue, but that they are incomplete.” It is often the case that a stereotype labels an

individual or a group of people which frightens the individual into fulfilling the

stereotype out of fear. There are different ‘causes’ of the stereotype threat: “learned

helplessness, cultural norms and values, autonomous learning behavior,” academic

achievement, retention rates, socioeconomic advantages, segregation, discrimination,

biological and psychosocial factors (e.g. low self-esteem, anxiety, and stereotype threats),

mass media, environment, peers, teachers, toys, books, classmates, classes, and careers

that often cause wider performance gaps (Smith & Hung, 2008:246-247). All of these

causes, while too complex to dedicate ample space in this paper, may be directly linked

to stereotype threats.

The term ‘confirmation bias’ is also crucial to understanding the SFP, and will be

used throughout this paper. Confirmation bias is “the tendency to seek information that

supports our beliefs while ignoring disconfirming information” (Franzoi, 2005:155).

Thus, if an individual analyzes a situation or another individual, she will expect to find

confirmation of her assumption. Abraham Lincoln once said that “when you look for the

bad in mankind expecting to find it, you surely will.” The confirmation bias exacerbates

the SFP. If an individual is told that he will do poorly in math class because he is an

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African American male and his informant knew an African American male who flunked

out of math class, the individual will likely feel anxiety while taking his first math test.

Once he receives a poor grade due to his anxiety caused by the stereotype threat which

affects his ability to focus, and because of the informant’s confirmation bias, the SFP will

predictably become a reality for the young man.

The Golem effect leads in part to the negative aspects of the SFP. The Golem

effect suggests that “a superior’s low expectations, made apparent through his or her

behavior, can negatively impact subordinates’ performance” (Reynolds, 2007:475). The

Golem effect may be observed in a classroom when a teacher, well-intentioned or not,

holds her students to a low standard. This is evidenced by the negative effects of easy

testing, lack of motivation to teach academically rigorous and valuable material, and

assuming a student ‘un-teachable’ for any number of reasons. The inverse of the Golem

effect is the Pygmalion effect, or the “enhanced performance of subordinates of whom

supervisors expect more” (Eden 1984:64). This may come into play in the workplace,

school or the home, among other locations and situations.

Studies and Statistics

Over the years, many experiments and studies have been conducted in regard to

the SFP. For the purposes of this paper, a handful of said studies will be discussed, as

well as relevant statistics that support the existence of the SFP.

There are two main strains of the individual’s SFP: the prophecies brought on by

the individual herself, and the prophecies pushed on the individual by others. There are

also examples in history where a mass assumption became a reality due to the public’s

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reactions. Take, for example, the Last National Bank in 1932. On Black Wednesday,

masses lined up in front of tellers’ cages, a result of an insolvency rumor. The insolvency

only became a reality once the public caught wind of the rumor and rushed to the bank to

withdraw their funds. The bank had relied on the public’s faith in their establishment and

the promises they made, so “once depositors had defined the situation otherwise, once

they questioned the possibility of having these promises fulfilled, the consequences of

this unreal definition were real enough” (Merton, 2010:175). Evidence suggests that the

insolvency experienced by the Last National Bank can well be traced back to the public

hysteria, brought on by a myth. The myth became a reality only when the public adopted

it as fact.

Another prime example of the SFP at work can be found in America in the early

to mid 20th century. White citizens held strong prejudices against the African American

individuals and insisted that the Blacks be excluded from labor unions. They believed

that the Blacks were “undisciplined in traditions of trade unionism,” that they were

strikebreakers, that they were “traitor[s] to the working class” and should not be included

in the labor unions of the day (Merton 2010:176). White citizens failed to realize,

however, that “he and his kind [had] produced the very ‘facts’ that he [observed]”

(Merton 2010:176). The African Americans broke strikes because they were excluded

from the unions, not the other way around. The Whites may have given ‘evidence’ to

support their demand that the Blacks be excluded, but what they did not understand was

that their assumption of the Blacks forced the Blacks to also hold the Whites’ assumption

of their reality.

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There are also a plethora of individuals’ self-fulfilling prophecies; or, more

specifically, their stereotype threats. Many stereotypes exist around different racial

groups. For example, in a study of African American individuals, the students performed

poorly after being told that their intelligence was being tested (Smith & Hung 2008:243).

A similar study was done where Blacks underperformed when compared to Whites where

the test they were taking was supposedly a “measure of their ability” (Smith & Hung

2008:252). When the test was presented as “less reflective of ability,” however, Black

participants’ performance improved to achieve the same level of performance as their

White counterparts (Smith & Hung, 2008:252). There are also statistics suggesting that

“Whites and Asian/Pacific Islander students continue to outperform Black, Hispanic, and

Native American students at every grade level in all academic subjects,” and that Blacks

and Hispanics are the minority race in all levels of college (Smith & Hung, 2008:246,

244). A similar study of Asian-American females was done where the participants were

separated into three different groups. They were required to answer questions based on

either their gender, ethnicity, or neither in particular. Participants in a female-identity

group had the worst performance on a quantitative test at 28% accuracy, whereas the

Asian-identity tested at 44% accuracy and the no-identity group at 59% accuracy. All of

the abovementioned studies suggest that when an individual identifies with a race or a

gender that is commonly thought of as inferior or superior, their performance levels will

reflect the belief.

As previously mentioned, the SFP includes gender stereotypes, as well. A survey

of teachers’ beliefs showed that “63% of teachers believed that males had superior math

skills when compared to their female classmates,” and 41% of a sample of women stated

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that there is at least “some truth” to the gender stereotype regarding math (Smith & Hung,

2008:244, 250). A gender study was conducted researching the effects of changing the

experimenter based on gender. When the experimenter administering a test was a male,

women scored worse than men; but when the experimenter was a woman, the scores were

equal (Smith & Hung, 2008:249). Women are also underrepresented on the college level,

with “22% [receiving] B.S. degrees… [and] only 13% holding Ph.D.s” (Smith & Hung,

2008:244). Women are painfully aware of the stereotypes regarding women’s inferiority

to men who perceive and anticipate higher levels of sex discrimination in the fields of

math, science and engineering (Smith & Hung, 2008:251). The gender stereotypes even

go so far as to hinder women’s performances in hostile environments. While they can

perform, their results are lower than when performing in friendly atmospheres (Smith &

Hung, 2008:251). In fact, these stereotypes are even evident in elementary aged children.

Children ages six to ten, from all ethnic groups, become dramatically more aware of

stereotypes (Smith & Hung, 2008:244). Girls often outperform boys in math during

grades one through six. However, once they reach high school age, the boys typically

outperform girls. This is especially evident in their math and science classes. This

performance gap continues throughout life (Smith & Hung, 2008:246). Whether the

prophecy is related to race, gender, ability or outcome in general, studies strongly suggest

that the prophecies come to fruition when endorsed through belief.

Effects

The full extent of the effects of the SFP are unknown, given its ability to turn any

stereotype or assumption into reality. When an individual is negatively stereotyped, “they

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carry an extra burden: their performance, good or bad, might well be interpreted in terms

of the prevailing of racial or gender stereotype” (Smith & Hung, 2008:244). Then, when

an individual commits an action that fits within a stereotype, it serves to confirm the

stereotype for those looking on (Smith & Hung, 2008:244). This leads people to believe

in the stereotype by way of the confirmation bias which just occurred and the endless

cycle continues. Various expectancies often stem from stereotypes which may affect

numerous areas of performance (Smith & Hung, 2008:244). This has been termed

‘examination neurosis.’ If an individual is convinced he is going to fail a test, and thereby

spends more time worrying and less time studying, he will likely test poorly. This will

turn the “initially fallacious anxiety… into an entirely justified fear” (Merton, 2010:175).

The student often fails to understand that the outcome is less than desired because of how

he handled the situation, not because of his level of ability. This creates a ‘learned

helplessness,’ or “the passive resignation produced by repeated exposure to negative

events that are perceived to be unavoidable” (Franzoi, 2005:157). This ‘learned

helplessness’ may continue on throughout a child’s entire schooling career.

The threat of stereotypes affects individuals of all socioeconomic statuses,

intellectual levels, races and genders (Smith & Hung, 2008:245). It influences

performance level, career choice, life decisions, and more. Smith and Hung write that

“one’s expectations for future success and… the relative importance one places upon the

options perceived as available, directly influence (for better or worse) one’s career path”

(2008:245). People decide what to do with their lives based on casual attributions, input

received from others, one’s gender role conceptions, and one’s self-perceptions.

Individuals generally hesitate to go into a field where they face “the possibility of

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confirming the stereotype” if they fail to do well. (Smith & Hung, 2008:245). Self-

fulfilling prophecies can “create internal barriers inhibiting success by increasing low

self-esteem, dashed hopes for the future, or even lost confidence due to an environment

allowing stereotype threats to occur” (Smith & Hung, 2008:247-248). Additionally, it has

been shown that “if one is repeatedly told that one is inferior, that one lacks any positive

accomplishments, it is all too human to seize upon every bit of evidence to the contrary,”

a “defensive tendency to magnify and exalt ‘race accomplishments’” (Merton, 2010:184).

Self-glorification becomes a frequent counter-response to persistent belittlement. On the

other hand, if someone is condemned for success, they begin to feel that “these

accomplishments must be minimalized in simple self-defense” (Merton, 2010:185). It

becomes a “deplorable occasion for deep concern, rather than receiving applause”

(Merton, 2010:186). When someone is condemned for being a part of an out-group, or a

group that is stereotyped, “self-assertion and self-effacement become the devices for

seeking to cope” with either the condemnation for being a part of a group with negative

stereotypes or a group with excesses, respectively (Merton, 2010:187-188). The in-group

will observe the self-assertion or self-effacement with ridicule and contempt. The SFP

can also lead to unnecessary conflict when seen as ‘inevitable.’ The anticipation actually

becomes a reality (Merton, 2010:175). There are many different responses to the

fulfillment of prophecies, and all have an effect on the individual or group as well as the

onlookers.

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Practical Solutions

Thankfully, the picture painted of the SFP does not have to remain quite as bleak.

While there are many negative effects attributed to this phenomenon, there are also many

methods by which to combat its existence and rob it of its power. The first step in

defeating the SFP is to acknowledge its existence. It is not always easy to spot the SFP in

play, but it can be detrimental to one’s grades, health and quality of life. If assumptions

or charges made against another people group or gender “are only speciously true,” it

may be time to examine where the belief came from and investigate whether the

confirmation of the belief is biased (Merton, 2010:179). If an individual has spurious

evidence for an assumption about herself or others, this will often create a genuine belief,

a self-hypnosis of sorts. If she trains herself to not make assumptions, she can stop the

prophecy before it comes true. To break the cycle of SFPs,

The initial definition of the situation that has set the circle in motion must be

abandoned. Only when the original assumption is questioned and a new definition

of the situation introduced, does the consequent flow of events give the lie to the

assumption. Only then does the belief no longer farther the reality” (Merton,

2010:177).

There are also practical steps that teachers, schools and parents may take to ensure

education-based stereotypes of children are not sustained. Firstly, “professional educators

should strive to instill in minority students the idea that regardless of one’s race of sex,

each individual has academic potential and that if it is developed, one can succeed in

academics” (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). This may be achieved a number of different

ways. First, the provision of challenging, though not overly challenging classwork for

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students may instill in them a sense of pride in completing a difficult assignment (Smith

& Hung, 2008:248). This brings to light the Pygmalion effect. If a teacher expects more

from the students in the classroom, the students’ achievement levels will usually improve.

Second, the removal of as much bias as possible may indicate to the students that

personal bias is neither normal nor appreciated (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). Third,

“lessening the importance of the task” gives students room to move forward from a poor

grade or outcome and realize that it does not define them (Smith & Hung, 2008:248).

Fourth, “reducing the salience of the stereotype” encourages in students the ability to

disassociate themselves with the stereotype (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). Fifth, “providing

excuses for poor performance” may give students the ability to bounce back from their

setbacks (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). This does not mean giving them excuses for failure

to study or try their best, but this does mean that a teacher may say, “It’s okay. I know

you tried your best,” or “You came really close to finding the answer! I bet with more

studying you will be able to earn an even better grade next time.” Sixth, “claiming the

test is not susceptible to the stereotype” may enable students to try their best without

anxiety fueled by a stereotype (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). If a teacher teaches a class in

which the girls are constantly belittled by the boys on the subject of math or science, the

teacher can claim that the tests that he gives are not subject to gender differences. This

has the potential to give the girls in his class confidence. Seventh, “altering ability

conceptions from static to fluid” may grant students the opportunity to refine their

educational persona (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). In employing this strategy, a teacher

intentionally changes her mindset of the ‘problem kids’ or the ‘slower learners’ which

likely will change the entire dynamic of a classroom. Eighth, “presenting [students] with

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successful role models from their own group” may instill in students a sense of pride in

themselves and their group (Smith & Hung, 2008:248). This may include biographical

essays of successful women scientists, African American doctors, Hispanic lawyers, and

so on. Children often see themselves in literature and naturally identify with the

individuals. This connection affects the way they perceive themselves and others in their

group similarly affected by stereotypes. Ninth, “completing a task to blur group

boundaries significantly reduces the effects of stereotype threat” (Merton, 2010:250).

These nine methods of creating a stereotype and SFP-free classroom are practical ways

by which teachers and schools may enable students to succeed, whatever their race,

ethnicity, gender or last test score.

There are also steps that parents may take to ensure that their children are not as

susceptible to the negative effects of a SFP stereotype threat. Educators should teach

parents that students ought to feel competent at school, that each student is special and

deserves respect, and that their children should not “feel pain or embarrassment in a class

of majority students,” even when test scores are be lower (Smith & Hung, 2008:255).

Children spend the majority of their time in school or at home, so when the teachers and

the parents team up to combat negative SFPs, the children will be taught that they have

control over what they believe, how they act and how well they do in school.

Final Thoughts and Questions

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy is a phenomenon that has the ability to affect

anyone. Studies and statistics robustly indicate its existence. There are also countless

examples and studies that suggest adverse effects when the SFP is used in a negative

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context. Here are some further questions to ponder: Are females being kept by SFPs from

fields that could further humanity? Is there any truth to cognitive differences based on

gender? How significantly does the stereotype threat affect one’s career choice? Does the

SFP and stereotypes transcend cultures? Does family structure change the potency of a

SFP? The answers to these questions are not clear. However, it is crucial that society

understands the truth of the SFP, examines their own personal biases, and makes

necessary changes to eliminate them. Until a large number of people are willing to put

aside what they ‘know,’ mainly via confirmation bias, the stereotypes that affect races,

genders and types of people will still persist. Further, it is crucial that a child understand

that he has direct control over his success in school. While there may be outside factors

that have a role in his education, he is the one who pays attention in class and studies and

puts forth his best effort to effectively learn and grow. It is also imperative that

individuals celebrate the cultures with which they identify without glorifying or shaming

them. A respect for other human beings, no matter their gender, age, race, sexual

orientation, mental or physical capability, is a call that society as a whole must take up

and adopt as principle. Once a society decides to no longer glorify or shame one group or

individual in particular, and once each individual finds the strength to identify and

promptly ignore false beliefs about herself, that society will be a better place in which to

live, work and attend school. The SFP is real and undeniably destructive. However, a

community may stave it off if educated on its existence and prepared to fight it

effectively. In doing so, the community will become safer, healthier and freer. Obviously

such an endeavor will required much pained work; but, in the end, it will be said, in the

words of The Chariot, “you’re free, don’t fear, this is just a revolt.”

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Eden, D. (1984). SFP as a Management Tool: Harnessing

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