Sedimentary Systems Carbonates PDF Final

8/13/2019 Sedimentary Systems Carbonates PDF Final

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Thema:Sedimentary

Systems

Carbonates

JuanPabloNavarroDoktorand(PhD.student)Ruhr-UniversittBochum

InstitutfrGeologie,MineralogieundGeophysikBochum-Germany

[email protected]

SprachwissenschaftlichesInstitut


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Institut SedimentarySystemsCarbonates [2]

ChapterI:

Introductiontothetopicofcarbonate

systems

Sprachwissenschaftliches


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Goals

Understandtheprinciplesofcarbonatesedimentation.Understandthefactorsthatcontrol(sub)tropicalcarbonatesedimentation.Knowwhatareefis.

SprachwissenschaftlichesInstitut SedimentarySystemsCarbonates [3]


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Natureof(sub)tropicalcarbonatesedimentationOver90%ofcarbonatesformedinmodernenvironmentsarethoughttobebiological

inoriginandformundermarineconditions.Distributionofmostcarbonateisdirectlycontrolledbyenvironmentalparametersfavorableforthegrowthofthecalciumcarbonatesecretingorganisms.Theseparametersincludeillumination,temperature,salinity,substrate,andpresence/absenceofsiliciclastics.

Carbonateproductionintropicalwatersisfasterthanintemperateorcoolerwatersbecausehighcarbonateproducerssuchashermatypiccoralsthriveinthewarmclearwatersofthetropics.



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ThereefTheabilityofcertaincarbonate-secretingorganismstodramaticallymodifytheir

environmentsbyencrusting,framebuildingandbindingleadstothedepositionalenvironmenttypicaltothecarbonaterealm:the reef.DefinitionofReef(James,1983,geneticsense):asolidorganicframeworkthatresistswaves(andrisesabovetheseafloor).

Inamodernreefthereisanorganismsedimentmosaicthatsetsthepatternfortheframeworkreefsequences:

1.Frameworkorganisms,includingencrusting,attached,massiveandbranchingmetazoa.

2.Internal sediment,fillingprimarygrowthaswellasbioerodedcavities3.Bio-eroders,whichbreakdownreefelementsbyboring,rasping,orgrazingand

thereforecontribute

sediment

to

peri-reef

and

internal

reef

deposits.

4.Cement,whichactivelylithifiesthecarbonatesedimentintocarbonaterock.



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Subdivisionofcarbonatesedimentaryrocks

AfterDunham(1962)



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Framework

Cretaceous(Aptian)ofOmanAdeepwatercoralreefoffthecoastofBelize(source:www.smithsonianeducation.org).

Recrystallizedcorals CenomanianofOmanSprachwissenschaftliches


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InternalSediments

CretaceousofOman



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Bioerosion-Spain Bioerosion

Seaurchins,Spain

Bioerosion-Spain



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MarineCarbonateCements

RadiaxialfibrouscementinanAptianlimestone.

RadiaxialfibrouscementinaCarboniferouslimestone.



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CarbonatePrecipitation

Pathwaysofcarbonateprecipitationinaquaticenvironments acascadeofoptionsgovernedbythedegreeofbioticinfluence.AfterSchlager(2000),modified.



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CarbonatesandClimate

Comparisonofterminologiesproposedforcarbonatesedimentsofdifferentclimaticzones.Mosttermsarecreatedbycombiningpartsofthenamesofthemostcommongroupsoforganisms(Schlager2005).



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Summary

Carbonatesarebornnotmade!Mostmoderncarbonatesedimentsstemfrom(sub)tropicalcoralreefs.ModernanaloguesarefoundintheGreatBahamasBankandtheGreatBarrierReef.Nevertheless,noneofthethesemodernplatformsmatchthegiganticplatformsofthepast.

Modernreefsaremainlybuiltbyscleractiniancoralsbutinthegeologicpastmanydifferentorganismstookthisplace.Lithifiedreefsarecharacterizedbyframeworkorganisms,bio-eroders,intra-frameworksedimentsandcarbonatecements.



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Keywords

abiogeniccarbonateprecipitationAutotrophicbio-erodersbiogeniccarbonateprecipitationbio-inducedcarbonateprecipitationcarbonatecementCoolwaterenvironmentalparametersframeworkorganisms

heterotrophic

illumination internalsedimentreefsalinitysubstrate(sub)tropicaltemperatetemperature



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ChapterII:

Factorscontrollingcarbonateproductionandratesofcarbonate

sedimentation



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Goals

Understandthefactorsthatcontrolcarbonatesedimentation.

Understandwhatgovernstheratesofcarbonateproduction.



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Factorscontrollingcarbonateproduction



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Temperature

Temperaturecontrolonreefs.Recenttropicalreefs(red)arelimitedinthenorthandsouthbythepositionofthe20C-isohermforthecoldestwintermonth,shownhereasaboldline.Cool-waterbioherms(blue)occuralmostexclusivelypole-wardofthisline.The20Cisohermfollowsthe30latitudeonlyapproximately(compiledfromReefBaseinSchlager,2005).



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Light

Predictedandobservedvaluesofcoralgrowthversusdepth.CirclesMontastrea

annularis,

red

curves:

growthratespredictedbythelightGrowthequation(afterBosscherandSchlager,1992,modified).

Changeoflightintensityandtropicalcarbonateproductionwithdepth.Lightdisplaysasimpleexponentialdecreasewithdepth.Intropicalcarbonatefactories,thezoneoflightsaturationreachestoabout20mforcorals(afterBosscherandSchlager,1992,modified).



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DepthoftheeuphoticzoneintheIndo-PacificandtheCaribbean,constrainedbythelimitsofreefgrowth(Schlager,2005).



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Growthformsofcoralsreflecttheenvironmental

changes

related

to

waterdepth.ExampleisfromtheCaribbean.Branchingformsdominatetheuppermost,highenergylayerofthesea.Domalandmassiveformsoccupyintermediatedepths.Belowthezoneoflightsaturation,coralsbecomeplatyandfolioseinordertocaptureamaximumamountoflight.Atthebiologicallydefinedlowerlimitoftheeuphoticzone,coralgrowthinthisregionisalmostnegligible(Schlager2005).



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Factorscontrollingratesofcarbonateproduction



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Northwarddecreaseofreefgrowthandchangetocool-watercarbonatedepositionintheNorthPacific.Upperpanel:decreaseoftherateofreefgrowthwithlatitude.DarwinPointmarksthenorthernlimitofreefgrowth.Lowerpanel:longitudinalchangefromtropicaltocool-watercarbonatefaciesobservedontheWasaii-Emperorchainofislandsandseamounts(Schlager,2005).



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SedimentationratesofplatformmarginsandlagoonsinBelizeandFlorida.Ratesofreefrimsare3to25timeshigherthanthelagoonrates.Thedifferencemustrecollecthighergrowthpotentialoftherimbecausethelagoonsaredeepandhaveunusedaccommodation(afterSchlager,2005).



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Today,underconditionsofrelativelyhighsealevelstand,inareasoptimalforcarbonatefaciesdevelopment,suchasthetropicalBahamasplatformintheAtlantic,theratesofbiologicalproductionofcarbonatesedimentsseemtofaroutstriptherateofformationofnewsedimentaccommodationspace.



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Summary

Tomainfactorscontrolcarbonateproduction:watertemperature(


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Keywords

20C-isohermaccommodationspacebiologicalproductioncarbonateproductioncool-waterbiohermscorals(eu)photiczonelightintensitylightsaturationseawatertemperaturesedimentationratestropicalreefs



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ChapterIII:

Carbonate

factories



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Goals

Knowthedifferencesbetweencarbonateandsiliciclasticsettings.Knowthethreeprinciplecarbonatefactories(T,C,M).Understandthemaincharacteristicsofthesefactories.



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Differencesbetweencarbonateandsiliciclasticsettings



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DifferencesbetweencarbonateandsiliciclasticsettingsShore-to-slopeprofilesofsiliciclastic,cool-watercarbonatesandrimmedcarbonateplatforms.A.)Siliciclasticswithabundantsedimentsupply.Resultisseawarddippingsurfaceinequilibriumwithdeepeningwavebase.B.)Rimmedcarbonateplatforms.Ontropicalplatforms,thewaveequilibriumprofileisgrosslydistortedbythewave-resistantreefs.C.)Carbonaterampsareaccumulationswithoutrimsthatresemblethesiliciclasticequilibriumprofile(AfterSchlager,2005).



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Typicalprofileofasiliciclasticcoast

Modelofatide-lesssea,suppliedwithsandandmuddominatedbyonshorewindsthatsetupastrong,shorewardcurrentatthesurfaceandaweakerreturnflowbelow.Waveactioncreatesanearshorezoneofsandthatinterfingerswithoffshoremuds.Inthezoneofinterfingeringmudaccumulatesduringcalmweather,sandduringstorms.Source:SchlagerW.(2005)



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Ashallowsiliciclasticbasin,NorthSea,TheNetherlands



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Shallow-marinecarbonatesdifferfromsiliciclasticsinthefollowingwaysI:Sedimentisproducedmainlybybiologicalandchemicalprocessesinsi tu .Grainsizeisnotnecessarilyrelatedtotheamountand/ortypeoftransport.Sedimentsarecommonlybothcementedanddissolvedinsi tu ;muchcarbonate

mudisproducedthroughbioerosion;precipitationanddissolutionofdifferenttypesofcalcitehasvariedthroughgeologicaltime;andmostshallow-watercarbonatesaredepositedinwarmshallowwaterneartheequator.

Shallowmarinecarbonatesaredepositedoncarbonateplatformswhichvaryinshapeandextent;theseincludecarbonaterampsandrimmedshelfcarbonateplatforms.



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Shallow-marinecarbonatesdifferfromsiliciclasticsinthefollowingwaysII:Carbonatedepositioniscontrolledbythetypeandnumberoforganisms;theclimatewhichinturninfluencesthewatertemperature,circulation,oxygenation

andsalinity;andsiliciclasticsedimentsupplyandtectonicsetting.Thephysicalprocessesthataffectshallow-marinecarbonatesincludewaves,tides

andcurrents.Thechemicalprocessesincludeprecipitationanddissolution. Biologicalprocessesareparticularlyimportantinshallowmarinecarbonatesandaffectboththeamountofdepositionanderosion.

(Sub)tropicalcarbonatesarerapidlycemented.Incontrast,siliciclasticsettingsarecontrolledbyphysicalfactorsincludingwaveaction,currents(hydrodynamicbottomprofile),sedimenterosionanddepositioninthehinterland.Siliciclasticsaremoreeasilyerodedastheydonotcementrapidly.



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Thethreecarbonatefactories



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Weknowthreemaintypesofcarbonatefactories:

Thetropicalfactory(T-factory)presentlymainlyscleractiniancoralsThecoolwaterfactory(C-factory)presentlymainlybivalves,bryozoa,

algae,echinodermsetc.Themoundfactory(M-factory)presentlymaindeepwatermounds



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Tropicalcarbonatefactories

Asturias,NorthernSpain,Pennsylvanian

Orthorectifiedhigh-resolutionaerialphotograph:Verweretal.(2005)



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Coolwatercarbonatefactories

Bryozoa&bivalves,Neogene,SouthernSpain

Oysterreef,Pleistocene,Argentina



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Moundcarbonatefactories



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Carbonatefactories.

The

typical

material

of

the

T

factory

is

biotically

controlled

precipitate

fromtropicalautotrophicorganisms(orheterotrophicorganismswithautotrophicsymbionts);theCfactoryiscontrolledbyheterotrophicorganismsandtheMfactorybybioticallyinducedprecipitates,mostlymicrite(Schlager2005).



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T(tropical)factoryproducesplatformsrimmedbyreefsorsandshoals;

C(coolwater)factorycannotbuildshallowoffshorerims,onlyscattereddeep-waterskeletalmounds.Thegeometryoftheaccumulationsisthatofarampwiththehighestenergyconditionsclosetoshore.M(mound)factoryformsconvexmoundsongentleslopesbelowthezoneofwaveaction.Themoundsdevelopflattopsandcapsofgrainstoneswheretheybuildintothezoneofintensewaveaction.Theflanksofmoundsmaybesteeperthanthemaximumangleofreposeofsandandrubble(about42)becauseautomicritecementsandstabilizestheflanks.Source:SchlagerW.(2005)



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MapoftheworldshowingapproximatelyLateCretaceoustimes.Notethattheareasofpelagicdepositionarenotshownseparatelybutincludemuchofthedeepoceanandshelfsea.Notallthedepositsshownareentirelycontemporaneous.Redlinesindicatethesubtropicalzoneofmajorcarbonateplatformgrowth.



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Proportionsof

abiotic,

biotically

induced

and

biotically

controlled

material

in

factory

outputestimatedfromthecompositionofsomewell-knownPhanerozoiccarbonateformations.Cfactoryconsistsalmostentirelyofonecategory(Schlager,2005).



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Mineralogicalcompositionofsedimentsinthethreefactories(Schlager,2005).



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Productionratesanddepthwindowofproductionofcarbonatefactories.Dominanceofphoto-autotrophic(i.e.lightdependent)organismsinthetropicalfactoryleadstoveryhighproductionratesbutonlyinanarrowdepthwindow(Schlager,2005).



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SedimentationratesoftheT,C,andMfactoriesplottedagainstthelengthofthetimeintervalofobservation.Ratesofallthreefactoriesdecreasedwithincreasingtimelengthageneralpatternofsedimentationratescausedbytheoccurrenceofhiatusesonallscalesintherecord.

RatesofTfactoryarehighest,Mfactoryissimilarbutoverallproductionislowerasthefactoryexportslesssedimentlaterally.RatesofCfactoryareabout25%oftheT-factoryratesinthemillionyeardomain(afterSchlager,2005).



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Mapoftheworldshowingdistributionofmaincarbonatefactories(exceptMfactory)wheresedimentareproducedandaccumulatingatthepresenttime.



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Acomparisonoftheratesofaccumulationforpelagic,shallowcool-waterandshallowwarm-watercarbonates,andtherateatwhichaccommodationspacemaybecreatedbyglacio-eustasy,basinsubsidence,andfault-relatedsubsidence.Source:Coeetal.(2003)



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Summary

Carbonatesdifferinanumberofcharacteristicwaysfromsiliciclasticsettings.Amainaspectisthatcarbonatesamainlybiogenicwhereassiliciclasticsaremainlyphysicalinnature.Carbonateslithifyrapidlywhereassiliciclasticslithifymoreslowly.

FollowingSchlager,wedifferentiatethreemaincarbonatefactories:T,CandMfactory.Eachfactoryhascharacteristiccarbonatemineralogyandproportionofcontrolled,inducedor,abiogenicproducts.

ProductionratesvarywithtimeandbetweendifferentfactorieswithTfactorieshavingthehighestratesofcarbonateproduction.



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Keywords

abiotic angleofrepose aragonite automicrite autotrophic biotic bioticallycontrolled bioticallyinduced Cfactory calcite carbonatedepositionalenvironments carbonateramp cementation

depthwindowequilibriumwithwavebaseheterotrophicinsitucarbonateproductionMfactoryMgcalciteproductionratesandshoalsscleractiniancoralssiliciclasticdepositional

environmentsTfactory



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ChapterIV:

Carbonate

reefalfaciesthroughtime



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Goals

Understandthatcarbonatefactorieshavechangeconsiderablythroughgeologicaltimefollowingchangesinthemarineecosystem.

Understandthatthepastisnotapr ior i akeytothePresent.



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Today,coralsandredalgaeconstructthereefframe.Greenalgaecontributetothereefsystem.Reeforganismshaveundergoneaprogressiveevolutionthroughgeologictime,thereforecausingchangesinthenatureofcarbonateconstructions.



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Distributionofstromatolitetypesacrossahigh-energy(windward),Proterozoic,rimmedcarbonateshelffromlagoontodeepfore-slope.Thebarrier-reefcomplexischaracterizedbystronglyelongatestromatolitemoundsandcolumns.Conicalstromatolitesformbelowwavebase;domalstromatolitesgrewinlow-energy,back-reeflagoon;tufas,includingmicrodigitatestromatolites,formedbyprecipitationontidalflats.Source:R.Wood(1999)



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PrecambrianstromatolitereefSouthAfrica.



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2 35

ReconstructionofUpperCambrianreefcommunity.Llando

Uplift,

Texas.

1:Thrombolite;2:eocrinoids;3:lithistidsponges

4 1

(Wilberniscyathus);4:calcifiedcyanobacterialmats(Girvanella);5:calcifiedcyanobacterialbushes(Renalcis);6:horizonsrichinooids;7:wackestone/packstone

7 2

sediments;8:gastropod 6

Source:R.Wood(1999)



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Spongesandcrinoids

Anomalocaridid,abizarrelifeform.

CambrianreefalcommunitiesNaturalHistoryMuseumChicagoandvariousothersources



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84 5

12

6

73

9

LowerOrdovicianreefreconstruction:Thrombolite-Lichenaria-Renalciscommunity.1:Livingalgalmatsandthromboliteheads;2:Lichenaria(tabulatecoral);3:Renalcis(calcifiedcyanobacterium);4:swimmingtrilobite;5:crinoids;6:brachiopods; 7:straightnautiloid;8:coilednautiloid;9:grazinggastropod.

Source:R.Wood(1999)



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Nautilids,trilobites,gastropods,crinoids,bryozoa.

OrdovicianreefalcommunitiesNaturalHistoryMuseumChicagoandUniversityofWisconsin



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37

10

512 1

2

11 98 6 4

ReconstructionofSilurian(Wenlock)patchreef,England.1:Tabulatecoral(Favosites);2:tabulatecoral(Heliolites);3:tabulatecoral(Halysites);4:bryozoan(Hallopora);5:rugosecoral;6:spirifidbrachiopod(Atrypa);7:crinoid;8:brachiopod(Leptaena);9:trilobite(Dalmanites);10:orthoconenautiloid;11:stromatoporoid(Actinostroma);12:thrombolite. Source:R.Wood(1999)



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Orthoconenautiloids,tabulatecorals,trilobites,ammonites,stromatoporoids

Silurianreefalcommunities

NaturalHistoryMuseumChicagoandvariousothersources


4


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8 3 57 4 142

6

110

15

12

13 1611

9

ReconstructionofaLowerCarboniferous(LateVisan)reef,NorthernEngland.1:Stromatolite/microbialite;2:tabulatecoral;3:tabulatecoral(E.parasitica);4:tabulatecoral(Cladochonus);5:rugosecoralCyathaxonia);6:bryozoan(Fistulipora);7:frondosebryozoan(Fenestella);8:Iithistidsponge;9:bivalvePachypteria);10:brachiopod(Reticularia);11:rhynchonellidbrachiopod(Stenoscisma);12:fenestrateryozoan(Thamniscus);13:productidbrachiopod(Limbifera);14:productidbrachiopod(Proboscidella);15:myodocopidostracod(Cypridinella,Entomonchus);16:trilobite(Griffithides);17:strophomenidbrachiopod(Streptorhynchus);18:strophomenidbrachiopod(Leptagonia). Source:R.Wood(1999)



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Carboniferousreefalcommunities

Bryozoa,crinoidsandbrachiopods

NaturalHistoryMuseumMichiganandvariousothersources



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Carboniferousbrachiopodmicrobialmicritecementfacies;AsturiasSpain.


1


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1

3 6

2

45

ReconstructionoftheUpperPermianCapitanReef:bryozoan-spongecommunity.1:Frondosebryozoans(Polyporasp.;Gonioporasp.)2:solitarysponges;3:Archaeolithoporella(encrustingalgae);4:microbialmicrite;5:cementbotryoids;6:sediment(grainstone-packstone).

Source:R.Wood(1999)



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ThePermianCapitanReef,Texas,NewMexico(USA)andMexico.

UniversityofTexas



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Permianreefalcommunities

ShallowmarinePermianlifeincludedextensivereefs,includingsponges

NaturalHistoryMuseumMichiganandUniversityofWisconsin


21


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15

7 94

123

6 118

10

ReconstructionofJurassic(Oxfordian)coralpatch-reefcommunity,England.1:Scleratiniancoral(Thecosmillia);2:scleratiniancoral(Isastrea);3:scleratiniancoral(T.arachnoides);4:scleratiniancoral(T.concinna);5:scleratiniancoral(Rhabdophyllia);6:bivalve(Lopha);7:trochidgastropod;8:pectinidbivalve(Chlamys);9:seaurchin(Cidaris);10:terebratulidbrachiopod;11:bryozoan;12:sclerctianiancoral(C.conybeari);13:boringbivalve(Lithopaga). Source:R.Wood(1999)



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Jurassiccoralfacies,Morocco


1


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1

39

8 4

115

2

76

12

10Source:R.Wood(1999)

ReconstructionofJurassic(Portlandian)oyster-algalpatch-reefcommunity,England.1:Oyster(Liostrea);2:calcareousredalgae(Solenopora);3:thickbryozoanencruster(Hyporosopora);4:boringbivalve(Lithophaga);5:bivalve(Isognomon);6:gastropod(Pleurotomaria);7:gastropod(Aptyxiella):8:spinybivalve(Plicatula);9:lithistidsponge;10:spongeborings;11:boringsponge(Cliona);12:pelletsandfungalhyphae.



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Jurassiccoralfacies,Morocco

Jurassicoysterfacies,Morocco



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2

1

3

Reconstructionofarudistaggregation(LateCretaceous).1:Rudists(Vaccinitessp.);2:ammonite;3:shelllags. Source:R.Wood(1999)



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CampanianrudistbiohermOman.



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ThediversityoflifeintheCretaceouswasunparallel,includingalargenumberoflargemarineanimals,aswellasflyingdinosaurs(above).

NaturalHistoryMuseumMichiganandUniversityofWisconsin



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Aptiancoralrudistplatformfacies;Oman



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CompilationbyT.Adatte,Lausanne



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Summary

ReefalecosystemshavechangedconsiderablythroughEarthhistory.SomeofthenowextinctreefalcommunitiesaresodifferentfromRecentscleractiniancoralreefsthatcomparisonsfallshort.

Precambriancarbonateproducersaremainlymicrobialinnature.AftertheCambrianradiation,otherhardshelledorganismsbecomeincreasinglyimportant.

InthePaleozoic,itismainlycrinoids,sponges,tabulateandrugosecorals,thrombolitesand

other

microbialites,

brachiopods,

bivalves

and

bryozoa

that

run

the

show.

IntheMesozoic,Jurassicreefalcommunitiesincludescleractiniancorals,bivalves,gastropods,echinoderms,brachiopods,bryozoans,oystersandcalcareousredalgae.Incontrast,Cretaceousmarginalbiohermsaredominatedbyrudist-coralassemblageswithbivalvesandgastropodsaswellasechinoderms.

ThePaleogeneandNeogenecarbonateproducersareveryclosetothemodernonesandaretreatedinsubsequentchapters.Sprachwissenschaftliches


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Keywords

biohermsbotryoidsbrachiopodsbryozoacarbonatefaciescrinoidscyanobacterialmatsgastropodsnautiloids

oystersreefalecosystemsrudistsrugosecoralsscleratiniancoralstromatolitestabulatecoralsthrombolites



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ChapterV:

Carbonate

Platforms



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Goals

Knowthebasictypesofcarbonateplatforms.Knowexamplesandphysiographyofmoderncarbonateplatformsandbarrierreefs.



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http://www.geocomplexity.com/Platforms_ramps.gif



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Organizationofacarbonateplatform

SchematicoverviewofninefaciesbeltsofanattachedcarbonateplatformAfterWilson(1975)modifiedinSchlager(2005).



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Carbonate Platforms Source:ysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/.../carbonate.html Sedimentisproducedmainlybybiologicalandchemicalprocessesinsitu;Grainsizeisnotnecessarily

relatedtotheamountand/ortypeoftransport; Sedimentsarecommonlybothcementedanddissolvedinsitu;muchcarbonatemudisproducedthrough

bio-erosion; Precipitationanddissolutionofdifferenttypesofcalcitehasvariedthroughgeologicaltime;andmost

shallow-watercarbonatesaredepositedinwarmshallowwaterneartheequator.Sprachwissenschaftliches

Carbonate Platform Models


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CarbonatePlatformModels

Anidealized3-dblockdiagramofamoderncoralreef(Source:Coeetal.2003;modifiedafterWrightandBurchette,1996).



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A t i N th S i P l i b t l tf


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Asturias,NorthernSpain:Pennsylvaniancarbonateplatform

Faciesdistribution:DellaPorta(2003)

Orthorectifiedhigh-resolutionaerialphotograph:12km

Verweretal.(2005)



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Modernisolatedcarbonateplatforms:TheBahamas


TheBahamas,oneofthefewmoderncarbonateplatforms


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p

Source:trata.geol.sc.edu/.../003-Bahamas-Platform.html



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The Great Bahamas Bank


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TheGreatBahamasBankIdealizedW-Ecross-sectionshowingdepositionalenvironmentsanddistributionofsediments

leeward windward



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MapofSouthFloridaandtheBahamasshowingregionaldistributionofmajorcarbonatefacies.InparticularnoteoccurrenceofreefsonmostwindwardmarginsandooidshoalsontheleewardmarginofGreatBahamaBank.Redlineshowspositionofseismicsection.



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FeaturesofSouthFloridarimmedcarbonateplatform.(d)Idealizedcross-sectionshowingdistributionofsedimentsacrosstheshelf.(e)Generalizedcross-sectionthrougharimmedcarbonateplatformintheKeysshowingidealizedfaciesbelts.TurquoiseareashowsthicknessanddetailsofHolocenecarbonates

Source:Coe,A.L.etal.



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CoralreefssurroundHeronIsland.Mostorganicparticlesinthereefwateroriginatefromcorals

(http://www.ocean.fsu.edu/newsletters/FALL03/fall_winter03.html).

Modernstromatolites,8m,offLeeStockingIsland,Bahamas(http://cc.usu.edu/~davel/5430.html).


ModernooidshoalsNJoutlersCayBahamas


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http://strata.geol.sc.edu/CarbonateParticles/pages/006-Ooid-Shoals-N-Joutlers-Cay-Bahamas.html


Bahamian ooids


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Bahamianooids

http://strata.geol.sc.edu/CarbonateParticles/CarbonatePartGallery_2.html



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Great Barrier Reef A modern Fringing or Barrier Reef


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GreatBarrierReefAmodernFringingorBarrierReef

http://eos.nasa.gov/outreach/posters.html


Cross-sectionacrosstheGreatBarrierReef.Figurea)showspresent-day,Inundatedsettingandfigureb)thesituation during the last glacial (sealevel lowstand (S C t l 2003)


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situationduringthelastglacial(sealevel lowstand (Source:Coeetal.,2003).



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Summary

Awaytodistinguishdifferentcarbonateplatformsisin:(1)fringingplatforms,(2)barrierreefs,(3)isolatedorattachedplatforms,(4)atollsand(5)carbonateramps.Herethefocusisonisolatedandattachedplatforms.

Carbonatesarebornnotmade!Mostmodernplatformcarbonatesedimentsstemfrom(sub)tropicalscleractiniancoral-algalreefs.ModerncaseexamplesaretheGreatBahamasBankandtheGreatBarrierReef.Nevertheless,noneofthethesemodernplatformsmatchthegiganticplatformsofthepast.

Carbonateplatformsaremorethanjustreefs.Infact,thereefalbeltisoftenonlyaverythinzone.Mostofthecarbonatesarereefaldetritus.Theusuallyarecharacterizedbyawindwardandaleewardside.Theyusuallyhaveanelevated,outerreefalbeltbehindwhichalagoonissituated.Moderncarbonateplatformsarealsocharacterizedbyooidshoalsormuddy,moreprotecteddomains.



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attached

platform

backreefBahamasplatformbarrierreefcarbonateplatformcarbonaterampfaciesbeltfringing

reef

isolatedplatformlagoonleewardooid

Keywords

platform

interior

platformtopreefalzonerestrictedplatforminteriorsandshoalsskeletalsandsslopestromatolitetoe-of-slopewindward


Ch VI


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ChapterVI:

CarbonateRamps


G l


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Goals

Understandwhatcarbonaterampsareandhowthedifferfromcarbonate

platforms.



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DefinitionCarbonateramp

Acarbonaterampisaverygently(


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Carbonaterampsdominatemuchoftoday'smoderncarbonateshelvesandwereequallywidespreadinancientsystems.Modelsforcarbonaterampshelveshavecome

from

tropical

settings

in

the

Yucatan,

Persian

Gulf,

west

Florida

Shelf,

and

subtropicaltocool-watershelvessurroundingthesouthandnorthwesternmarginsof

Australia.

AnotherrecentexampleoftherampmodelistheCampecheBank.ThedetritalcarbonatesoftheCampecheBankarearrangedinconcentricbandswhichrangefromgrainstonesandboundstonesinshallow,agitatedwatertomudstonesandwackestonesontheseawardreachesoftheramp.Coral-algalreefsarecommon,buttheydonotoccupyapositionatthe"margin"oftheramp.

Detailedanalysisofancientsystemshaveshownthatrampsarerarelyhomoclinalbutinfactcanbeeasilydifferentiatedphysiographicallybydominantphysicalparameterssuchaspositionoffair-weatherandstormwave-base.

Source:C.Kerans(2005)


Modern (non-rimmed) ramp carbonate margins


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Modern(non rimmed)rampcarbonatemargins

Hine&Mullins(1983)


Generalized3-Dfaciesmodelofaramp-typecarbonateplatform(Source:Coeetal.,2003).


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( )


CarbonaterampoftheUpperMuschelkalk,WutachGorge,SW-Germany


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http://geopal.uni-hd.de/sediment/zuehlke/virttrip/wutach/stop/03.html


Neogenecarbonateramp-Mallorca


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http://www.pbase.com/sschulz/mallorca/



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Moderncoolwatercarbonateramp-Australia


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LacepedeShelfcrosssection,showingfaciesandwaveabrasionandswell-wavebasedepths,withQuaternarysealevelsuperimposed.

Source:Bone&James,1993



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CaseexampleofaJurassicrampsettingfromMorocco,HighAtlas

Source:Christetal.(inpress)



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Subdivisioninamoremuddyandamoregrainyramp

Source:Christetal.(inpress)



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Grainy(oolithic)facies



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Institut SedimentarySystemsCarbonates [116]Sprachwissenschaftliches

Muddyfacies


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Outerrampsettinglimestoneintervalsinbasinalfacies


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Middlerampsettinglimestoneintervalsaredominant


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Oysters


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Oysters


Corals


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Hardgrounds


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Hardgrounds


Summary


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Summary

Carbonaterampsdifferfromrimmedcarbonateplatformsbytheabsenceofaelevatedreefalbeltattheseawardlimitoftheplatform.Incontrast,rampsaregentlytoverygentlyinclinedfeaturesthatarebasicallyshapedbythewaveactivity.Inthissense,rampshavesimilaritiestosiliciclasticshelves.Manyofthemoderncarbonatemargins(bothTandCfactories)areoftheramptype.


Chapter VII:


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ChapterVII:

AtollsandGuyots


DefinitionofAtoll


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Acoral

reef

appearing

in

plan

view

as

roughly

circular,

and

surmounted

by

a

ringofclosely-spacedcoralislets.Thatencloseashallowlagoonandperhapsasubsidingvolcano.Thereefissurroundedbydeepwateroftheopensea,eitheroceanicorcontinentalshelf.Atollsrangeindiameterfrom1kmtomorethan130km,andespeciallycommontodayinthewesternandcentralPacificOcean.Atollsalsodidexistinthegeologicpastandwerenotnecessarilyrimmedbycoralreefs.ExamplesincludetheTriassicatollsoftheDolomiteMountains,NorthernItaly.

ModifiedafterdictionaryofGeologicalTerms


KayangelAtoll,Belau,PalauIslands


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http://Kayangel_Atoll%2C_Belau%2C_Palau_Islands.jpg


NationalMarshallIslandsMaps


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http://www3.uakron.edu/majuro/Maps/


Volcanoesatopofhotspotsbuildseamounts


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Differentstagesintheevolutionofanatoll.Inthefirststage,afringingreefforms,subsequentlyevolvinginabarrierreefandfinallyintoanatoll.Truijllo&Thurman(2005,p.66).


Tahitifringingcoralreef


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Source:NationalGeographic


Bora-Bora,barrierreef


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Source:/parpaillons/tahiti-pacifiq


MankiniAtoll


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http://www.cifr.it/Manihiki%20atoll%20Cook%20islands%20image.jpg


DefinitionofGuyot


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Aguyotisasunkenflat-toppedseamount(adeadatollsotosay).Guyotsshowevidenceofhavingoncebeenabovethesurfacewithgradualsubsidencethroughstagesfromfringedreefedmountain,coralatoll,andfinallyaflattoppedsubmergedmountain.GuyotsareverycommonlyfoundinthePacificOcean,andareconsideredtobeextinctvolcanoes.TheEmperorSeamountsareanexcellentexampleofanentirevolcanicchainundergoingthisprocessandcontainmanyguyotsamongtheirolderexamples


Globaldistributionofseamounts


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http://www.seaaroundus.org/ecosystemsmaps/?p=1



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http://www.mar-eco.no/mareco_news/2004/seamounts_of_the_northeast_atlantic


TheTaneySeamountsarelocatedonthePacificPlate,westofSanFrancisco


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http://www.mbari.org/data/mapping/seamounts/taney.htm Sprachwissenschaftliches

FieberlingGuyotoffCalifornia


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Source:http://hrp.whoi.edu/hrpgrp/nh001.html



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Ancientguyots



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Drownedplatformsinmodernoceanscommonlyshowthin,lens-shapedpelagiccapsandsignificanthiatusesbetweenplatformsedimentsandpelagiccover.Someplatformsremainvirtuallybarefor100My(afterSchlager,2005).


TheBlakePlateauoffFlorida,adrownedAptian-Albianplatformthatisnowcharacterizedbyhemi-pelagicsedimentationandmanganesenodules.


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http://faculty.uaeu.ac.ae/fhowari/images/fares/presentations-classes/8.25.gif



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TheJurassicammoniticorossofaciessedimentaryrocksdepositedatopofaDrownedcarbonateatoll


TheLatemar,anotherTriassicatollintheDolomites


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Egenhoffetal.(1999)


TheLatemaratoll,schematicfaciesbeltsandmorphology


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Reefalfacies Tepeebelt

Egenhoffetal.(1999)


EvolutionoftheLatemarAtoll


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Pretoetal.2010


PhysiographieoftheLatemarAtoll


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Pretoetal.2010



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LatemarreefalfaciesmicrobialcementboundstoneSprachwissenschaftliches

LatemarreefalfaciestepeebeltEgenhoffetal.(1999)


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Summary


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Today,anatollisatypeoflow,coralislandfoundintropicaloceansandconsistingofacoral-algalreefusuallysurroundinganinteriorbodyofwatercalledalagoon.Inthegeologicalpast,atollshadsimilaroverallmorphologiesbutdifferentfaciestypes.

Incontrast,aguyotisasunkenformerseamountoratollthathassubsidedbelowtheseasurfaceduetoanongoingbasementsubsidence(cooling)andadeteriorationofthecarbonateproducingorganisms(coolerwateretc.).


Keywords


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ammoniticorossoatollBlakePlateaubiocementstonecoralislandfringingreefguyothotspotLagoonLatemarAtollSellaslopetepeebeltvolcanicisland


ChapterVIII:


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CarbonateMounds


Goals


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Understandwhatamoundis?Understandwhyandhowmoundsdifferfromothercarbonatefactories.

Knowaseriesofcaseexamplesthroughoutthegeologicalrecord.


DefinitionMudmound(extractsfromBosenceandBridges,1995)


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Thetermmud-moundwasfirstextensivelyusedbyWilson(1975)todescribemuddominatedcarbonatebuildups.InparticularWilsonimpliedthatlimemud-moundsareperceivedtoaccumulateboththroughhydrodynamicprocessesandinsituorganicproduction.

SubsequentreviewsbyJames(1980,1993)introducedthetermreefmoundaslenticularcarbonatebodiesconsistingofpoorlysortedbioclasticlimemudwithminoramountsoforganicbindstoneoccurringindeepbasins,lowerslopes,shelfareasandlagoons.

Manyworkersnowrecognizetwomajortypes:1. Microbialmudmounds.Mudmoundsinwhichthedominanttexture,microfabricand

compositionisconsideredtohaveamoreorlessinsitumicrobial(i.e.,cyanobacterial)origin.2. Biodetritalmudmounds.Mudmoundsinwhichthedominantcompositionisbrokenand

transportedskeletalmaterial.Themudmaybelocallygeneratedonthemoundfromthebreakdownoflightlycalcifiedskeletons.



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Source:Monty

et

al.

(1995)

Triangulardiagramillustratingvariationbetweenthethreeendmembersofcarbonatebuildups:microbialmounds,biodetritalmoundsandframeworkreefs.



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Variationinmicrobialmud-mounds(extractsfromBosenceandBridges,1995)


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FourmaintypesofmicrobialmoundsweresuggestedbyMonty(1995):1.

Stromatolithic

mud-mounds

in

which

rhythmic

microbial

growth

and

sedimentationleadtobuild-upofalaminatedsurface.

2. Non-laminarmicrobial(thrombolithic)mudmoundswithmottledorbioturbatedfabrics.

3. Incorporationofmetazoansintomicrobialfabricsleadingtometazoanboundstonesandframeworkreefs.

4. Stromatactoidmud-moundswithmudstonesandwackestoneswithmicrobioclasticspiculites.



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EnvironmentalsettingofthemarineMfactory.Thefactoryisbestdevelopedinthenutrient-richwatersofthethermoclinebutmayextendintothezoneofwaveactioniftheTfactoryisweak.Belowthezoneofwaveaction,accumulationsusuallyaremounds,inthezoneofwaveactiontheybecomeflat-topped(afterSchlager2005).



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ExampleI:

DevonianKess-KessMounds,Morocco



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DevonianMoundsinMoroccoSprachwissenschaftliches


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DrapingofsedimentsacrossmoundsSprachwissenschaftliches


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DevonianMoundsinMoroccoSprachwissenschaftliches


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ExampleII:

Frasnian(UpperDevonian)moundsfromBelgium


Sedimentological modelofLateFrasnian(UpperDevonian,~375Ma)carbonatemounds(Petit-MontMember)


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Source:FrdricBoulvain&Anne-ChristinedaSilva;http://www.ulg.ac.be/geolsed/excuFr/excu_Fr.htm



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TheTailferoutcrop,Frasnian(UpperDevonian,~375Ma)moundsfromBelgium

Source:FrdricBoulvain&Anne-ChristinedaSilva;http://www.ulg.ac.be/geolsed/excuFr/excu_Fr.htm



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ExamplesoffaciesfromPetit-MontMembermounds.A:redlimestonewithstromatactis(Pm1);B:pinklimestonewithcorals,brachiopods,stromatoporoids,stromatactis(Pm3);C:greymicrobiallimestonewithcorals,stromatoporoids(Pm5)

Hematite-richmicroaerophilicironbacteria,responsiblefortheredcolor.

Source:FrdricBoulvain &Anne-ChristinedaSilva;http://www.ulg.ac.be/geolsed/excuFr/excu_Fr.htm


BeauchateauMound


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BasalmoundfacieswithstromatactisSource:ImagescourtesyofFredericBoulvain


BeauchateauMound


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Faciesformingthemajorpartofthemound,withcorals,bryozoans,andcyanobacteria


BeauchateauMound


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Grayalgal-microbialfaciesformingthetop-centralpartofthemoundsSource:ImagescourtesyofFrederic Boulvain


BeauchateauMound


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Stromatactisfaciesthinsectionview.Source:ImagescourtesyofFrederic Boulvain



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ExampleIII:

UpperCarboniferous(Pennsylvanian)moundsfrom

NorthernSpain


UpperCarboniferousmoundsfromNorthernSpain


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Stromatactisfabricofmounds


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Themoundfaciesconsistsofmicrobialcarbonates,crinoids,brachiopodsetc.


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Moundfacies


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UpperCarboniferousmoundsfromNorthernSpain


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ExampleIV

ModernHydrateRidgeMound,Pacific



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A.TectonicsettingofHydrateRidgeintheaccretionarycomplexoftheCascadiasubductionzone.Theboxshowsregionof(B).B.BathymetricmapoftheHydrateRidgevicinity.

http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/204_IR/chap_01/c1_f4.htm



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ModernMoundBuildups-HydrateRidge


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A.CarbonatesamplefromthetopofthePinnacleshowingtheporousnatureofcarbonatesfromthisenvironment.B.SampleofsedimentfromneartheseaflooratsouthernHydrateRidgeshowinghydratelensesparalleltobeddingconnectedtohydrateveinsperpendiculartobedding(Suessetal.,2002).




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D.Illustrationofthecomplexbiogeochemical relationshipsexpectednearthesouthernsummitofHydrateRidge(Bohrmannetal.,2002).BSR=bottomsimulatingreflector.




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Keywords


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bindstonebiodetrituscarbonatebuildupscarbonatemoundcyanobacteriaDevonianmoundsofBelgiumHydrateridgemoundsmetazoanM-factorymounddrapingmudmoundreefmoundstromatactisthermoclinethrombolithic

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