Sea Surface Sound
Transcript of Sea Surface Sound
NATO ASI Series Advanced Science Institutes Series
A Series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NA TO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities.
The Series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with the NATO Scientific Affairs Division
A Life Sciences B Physics
C Mathematical and Physical Sciences
D Behavioural and Social Sciences E Applied Sciences
Plenum Publishing Corporation London and New York
Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht, Boston and London
F Computer and Systems Sciences Springer-Verlag G Ecological Sciences Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, H Cell Biology Paris and Tokyo
Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences - Vol. 238
Sea Surface Sound Natural Mechanisms of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean
edited by
B.R. Kerman Atmospheric Environment Service, Toronto, Canada
Kluwer Academic Publishers
Dordrecht / Boston / London
Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Sea Surface Sound Natural Mechanisms of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean Lerici, Italy 15-19 June 1987
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Natural MechanisMs of Surface
Generated Noise in the Ocean (1987 ; Lerici, Italy> Sea surface sound; natural lechanis.s of surface generated noise
in the ocean / edited by B.R. Kerlan. p. c •. -- (NATO ASI series. Series C, Mathematical and
physical sciences; 238> ·Proceedlngs of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Natural
MechanisNS of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean. held in Lerlcl, Italy, 15-19 June 1987°--T.p. verso.
Inc I udes Index. ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7856-6 1. Underwater acoustlcs--Congresses. 2. Ocean waves--Congresses.
3. Nolse--Congresses. 4. Hydrodynallcs--Congresses. I. Kerlan, B. R. (Bryan R.> II. Title. III. Series; NATO ASI series. Series C, MatheNatlcal and physical sciences; no. 238. CC242.N34 1987 534' .23--dc19 88-15570
CIP
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7856-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3017-9 001: 10.1007/978-94-009-3017-9
Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Oordrecht, The Netherlands.
Kluwer Academic Publishers incorporates the publishing programmes of D. Reidel, Martinus Nijhoff, Dr W. Junk, and MTP Press.
Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada by Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Norwell, MA 02061, U.S.A.
In all other countries, sold and distributed by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, P.O. Box 322,3300 AH Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
All Rights Reserved © 1988 by Kluwer Academic Publishers. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1988 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
CONTENTS
PREFACE ix
OCEAN WAVE DYNAMICS
Mechanisms of Wave Breaking in Deep Water 1 M.S. Longuet- Higgins
Equilibrium Range Characteristics of Breaking Waves 31 O.M. Phillips
Experiments on Breaking Waves 39 W.K. Melville and R.J. Rapp
Wind Waves as a Coupling Process Between Air and Water 51 Turbulent Boundary Layers
Y. Toba, H. Kawamura and I. Yoshikawa
On the Mechanics of Spilling Zones of Quasi-Steady Breaking 63 Waves
M.L. Banner
An Estimate of Wave Breaking Probability for Deep Water 71 Waves.
Y.A. Papadimitrakis, N.E. Huang, L.F. Bliven, and S.R. Long
Whitecap Coverage as a Remotely Monitorable Indication of 85 the Rate of Bubble Injection into the Oceanic Mixed Layer
E.C. Monahan
Wave and Bubble Characteristics in the Surf Zone 97 P. Papanicolaou and F. Raichlen
LOA as a New Tool to Detect Air-Sea Interaction Mechanisms 111 Ch. Werner and W.A. Krichbaumer
Feasibility study of At-Sea Measurement of Ocean-Air 123 Interface Parameters Needed to Evaluate Ocean Surface Generated Noise
J.H. Wilson
BUBBLE DYNAMICS AND OBSERVATIONS
Bubble Noise Creation Mechanisms P.A. Crowther
131
VI
Bubble Dynamics in Oceanic Ambient Noise 151 A. Prosperetti
The Horizontal structure and Distribution of Bubble Clouds 173 S.A. Thorpe
On the Distribution of Bubbles Near the Ocean Surface 185 B.R. Kerman
study of Micro-Bubbles in the North Sea 197 S.C. Ling and H.P. Pao
Optical Microbubble Measurements in the North Sea 211 M.-Y. SU, S.-C. Ling and J. Cartmill
Acoustical Estimates of SUbsurface Bubble Densities in 225 the Open Ocean and Coastal Waters.
S.T. McDaniel
Acoustic Measurements of Bubble Densities at 15-50 kHz 237 S. O. McConnell
PROPAGATION EFFECTS
Propagation Effects Associated with Ambient Noise 253 W.A. Kuperman
Low Frequency Wind Generated Ambient Noise in Shallow Water 273 H. Schmidt, T. Akal and W.A. Kuperman
The Effect of Propagation Conditions on Wind-Generated Noise 281 at Real Shallow Water Sites
R.M. Hamson
Simultaneous Measurements of SUrface Generated Noise and 295 Attenuation at the Fixed Acoustic Shallow Water Range "NORDSEE"
P.C. Wille and D. Geyer
WIND AND WAVE NOISE
Mechanisms of Sound Generation at the Ocean Surface J.E. Ffowcs Williams and Y.P. Guo
Ambient Noise Radiation by "Soliton" SUrface Waves R.H. Mellen and D. Middleton
309
325
Ocean Noise Spectrum Below 10 hz - Mechanisms and Measurements
A.C. KibbleWhite
VII
337
Low Frequency Ocean Ambient Noise: Measurements and Theory 361 W.M. Carey and D. Browning
Estimation of Source Characteristics from Underwater 377 Noisefield Measurements
R.W. Bannister, A.S. Burgess and D.J. Kewley
Noise Generated by Motion of the Sea Surface - Theory and 391 Measurement
D.H. cato and I.S.F. Jones
Observations of High Frequency Ambient Sound Generated by 403 Wind
D.M. Farmer and S. Vagle
On the Spectra of Wind Generated Sound in the Ocean D. Shonting and N. Taylor
Physical Mechanisms of Noise Generation by Breaking Waves - a Laboratory Study
M.L. Banner and D.H. cato
Audio Signature of a Laboratory Breaking Wave B.R. Kerman
Noise Generation by Bubbles Formed in Breaking Waves R.D. Hollett and R.M. Heitmeyer
RAIN NOISE
417
429
437
449
Acoustic Emissions Associated with Drop Impacts 463 H.C. Pumphrey and L.A. Crum
The Sound Generated by Precipitation Striking the Ocean 485 Surface
J.A. Nystuen and D.M. Farmer
Studies of Mechanisms Influencing Rain Noise L. Bj~rtlP'
ICE NOISE
501
Speculations on the Origin of Low Frequency Arctic Ocean 513 Noise
I. Dyer
viii
Observation of the Sound Radiated by Individual Ice Fracturing Events
P.J. Stein
The Correlation of Hid-Frequency Pack Ice Noise with Environmental Parameters
R.E. Keenan
533
545
High Frequency Ambient Sound in the Arctic 555 D.H. Farmer and S.R. Waddell
Arctic Ocean Noise Generation Due to Pack Ice Kinematics 565 and Heat Fluxes
J.K. Lewis and W.W. Denner
Acoustic Ambient Noise in the Arctic Ocean Below the Harginal Ice Zone
H.J. Buckingham and C.-F. Chen
Ice Eddy Ambient Noise O.H. Johannessen. S.G. Payne. K.V. Starke, G.A. Gotthardt and I. Dyer
PANEL DISCUSSION REPORTS
Breaking Waves O.H. Phillips
Study of the Distribution of Bubbles and Turbulence In and Near a Breaking Wave
S.A. Thorpe
Sources of Sound at the Ocean Surface; Bubbles and Other Noise
J.E. Ffowcs Williams
Wave and Turbulence Noise A.C. Kibblewbite
Precipitation Noise L. BjllSrnllS
Ice Noise I. Dyer
SUBJECT INDEX
583
599
607
611
617
621
629
633
635
PREFACE
In its relentless pursuit of further knowledge, science tends to compartmentalize. Over the years the pursuit of What might be called geophysical acoustics of the sea-surface has languished. This has occured even through there are well-developed and active research programs in underwater acoustics, ocean hydrodynamics, cloud and precipitation physics, and ice mechanics - to name a few - as well as a history of engineering expertise built on these scientific fields. It remained to create a convergence, a dialogue across disciplines, of mutual benefit.
The central theme of the Lerici workshop, perhaps overly simplified, was 'What are the mechanisms causing ambient noise at the upper surface of the ocean?' What could hydrodynamicists contribute to a better understanding of breaking wave dynamics, bubble production, ocean wave dynamics, or near-surface turbulence for the benefit of the underwater acoustics community? What further insights could fluid dynamicists gain by including acoustic measurements in their repertoire of instrumentation? While every attendee will have his or her perceptions of details, it was universally agreed that a valuable step had been taken to bring together two mature disciplines and that significant co-operative studies would undoubtedly follow.
The scope of the workshop was enlarged beyond its original intent to also include the question of ice-noise generation. The success of this decision can be seen in high quality of the presentations. the contribution of its disciples in the other workshop discussions and the heightened awareness and interest of we other novices.
I wish to salute all the participants, not only for their presentations and manuscript contributions, but for the stimulating atmosphere of inquiry that characterized the meeting. Among those who assured an open, challenging discussion were the invited speakers and panel chairmen, OWen Phillips, Hichael Longuet-Higgins, Ira Dyer, John Ffowcs Williams. Larry Crum, Alex KibbleWhite, Bill Kuperman, David Farmer, Paul Crowther, Andrea Prosperetti, and panelists, Hike Banner, Norden Huang, Leif Bjorno, Doug Cato, Bob Hellen, Herman Hedwin, Peter Wille and Ken Helville.
Of utmost importance to the initiation, organization and execution of the workshop were my fellow committee members, Leif Bjorno, Dick Heitmeyer, Reg Hollett and Andrea Prosperetti. The experience of Leif Bjorno in guiding us through the process is warmly appreciated. Reg Hollett and Dick Heitmeyer handled all the local details effectively with a cheery aplomb Which we all appreciated.
I know that all others involved with the meeting would like to extend their heartfelt thanks to Ralph Goodman, Director, NATO ASW
ix
x
Research Centre, La Spezia, for his encouragement and support that brought an idea to reality. others Who have contributed significantly are the late M. Di Lullo of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Vincenzo Damiani and Mario Astraldi of our host, the Energy and Environment Research Centre of Santa Teresa in Lerici, Skip Lackie of the Office of Naval Research, and James Young of the Atmospheric Environment Service.
Without the support of Anna Bizzari and Adolf Legner in Lerici, and of Evonna Mathis and Marg Stasyshyn in Toronto Who handled all the myriad of important aspects that tied everything together, there would not have been a meeting and a book as an on-going record of everyone's efforts.
The financial support for the workshop was provided by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization through its Advanced Research Workshop program as well as by the United States Office of Naval Research and by the Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada.
The full transcript of the discussions of the panel discussions and of some individual papers is also available as an AES report at no cost. Those Who would like a copy, should contact the editor.
To the reader, from all those Whose work is bound up here, may you enjoy as much as we have.
Atmospheric Environment Service 4905 Dufferin Street Downsview, Ontario, M3H 5T4 Canada
December 31, 1987
Bryan R. Kerman
1 J.
Esp
era
nd
ieu
1
2
2 J.
Ro
y
13
3
P.
Ste
in
14
4
II.
lIeen
an
1
5
5 J.
Ffo
wcs-
Wil
liam
s 1
6
6 L
. C
rua
17
7
J.
Lew
is
18
8
B.
Pu
ap
hre
y
19
9
W.
IIri
ch
bau
aer
20
1
0
II.
Haaso
n
21
1
1
N.
Su
2
2
NA
TO
Ad
van
ced
R
ese
arc
h W
ork
sho
p
Natu
ral
Mec
han
ism
s o
f S
urf
ace G
en
era
ted
N
ois
e
in th
e
Oce
an
W.
Care
y
23
D
. C
ato
2
4
II.
Pu
rsh
ou
se
25
1'
:.
IIelv
ille
2
6
W.
I':u
per
man
2
7
T.
Osb
orn
e
28
I.
Dy
er
29
J.
Pap
ad
imit
rak
is
30
B
. V
an A
sselt
3
1
o.
Ph
illi
ps
32
F
. B
rajo
u
33
34
35
LE
RIC
I,
ITA
LY
1
5-1
9
Jun
e
19
87
II.
Ban
nis
ter
K.
Lo
ng
uet-
Hig
gin
s H
. K
edw
in
K.
Bu
ck
ing
ham
F
. ll
ei c
hle
n
J.
Ny
stu
en
A
. P
lais
an
t K
. B
an
ner
E.
No
nah
aa
E.
Yazg
an
D
. F
ara
er
J.
Ch
arl
es
P.
Cro
wth
er
36
R
. G
oo
dm
an
37
P
. W
ille
3
8
S.
Th
orp
e
39
E
. S
ull
ivan
4
0
II.
Hell
en
4
1
A.
Lezzi
42
S
. H
e C
on
nell
4
3
F.
Dia
s
44
B
. B
rum
ley
4
5
E.
De
flari
nis
4
6
R.
flara
sco
47
A
. B
izzarr
i 4
8
B.
lIerm
an
4
9
A.
Pro
sp
ere
tti
50
R
. H
eit
mey
er
51
R
. H
oll
ett
5
2
N.
Hu
ang
5
3
S.
Lin
g
54
B
. p
ao
5
5
A.
lIib
ble
wh
i te
56
J.
Wil
son
5
7
A.
Leg
ner