Sea Power and MaritimeSea Power and Maritime Affairs Affairs

Lesson 10: The U.S. Navy and American Imperialism, 1898-1914

Causes of the Spanish-American Causes of the Spanish-American WarWar

Decreased isolationism in U.S. public and Congress

Cuban Revolution (1895-1898):– U.S. investments threatened– Spanish authorities commit atrocities against Cuban

civilians

Yellow journalism– Highlighted Spanish atrocities and lack of

humanitarianism

USS Maine Explosion - February 1898:– Havana, Cuba.– Mission — protect U.S. citizens and property– Destroyed by “underwater mine” with 260 dead

Rickover later proved internal explosion

– U.S. public angered - blame placed on Spain“Free Cuba!”“Remember the Maine!”

President William McKinley– Congress declares war on Spain -- April 1898

Fighting the WarFighting the War

Geography– Spanish Empire - Cuba, Puerto Rico,

Philippines, Guam– U.S. strategic interests

Panama Canal, Hawaii

U.S forces– Atlantic: Sampson/Schley– Asiatic: Dewey (China/Japan)

Naval Orders of BattleNaval Orders of Battle United States

– North Atlantic SquadronSampson based in Key WestSchley’s “Flying Squadron” in NorfolkUSS Oregon sent from Pacific to Atlantic

– Asiatic SquadronCommanded by Commodore George Dewey at Hong Kong

– Sent by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt

Spain– Inferior naval forces.

Montojo - Manila BayCervera - Cape Verde Islands

Fighting the WarFighting the War

Cuba– Blockade of Santiago harbor (1 May)– Amphibious landing at Daiquiri (June 20)– Destruction of Cevera’s Fleet (July 3)

Sampson/Schley command controversy Naval Results

Fighting the War: PacificFighting the War: Pacific

Philippines: Phase I– Dewey was given command; met his

flagship Olympia in Japan– Prepped ships for war with overhauls and

drills in Hong Kong. – Received notice of war by cable

– Entered Manila Bay 1 May 1898 with the intentions of destroying or capturing the Spanish Fleet

Enroute constantly drilled crews

Admiral Dewey: – 4 cruisers, 2 gunboats & a revenue cutter– Gunnery and fire control drills on the way to

ManilaAdmiral Montojo

– 2 cruisers (1 modern & 1 immobile) & 5 other ships at Manila

– Spanish use shore guns to augment anchored fleet

Dewey: “You may fire when you are ready, Gridley”

Spanish Fleet sunk at anchor– Superior American gunnery

Americans 170 hits Spanish 15 hits

Dewey a national heroSiege of Manila

– follows with Army troops

Fighting the WarFighting the War

– Other islands - Wake seized, Guam seized, Hawaii annexed

Bases needed to reinforce SLOCs with Philippines

– Philippines: Phase II War against Philippine Nationalists

– Philippine Insurrection or Filipino-American War- 1899-1902.

– U.S. establishes control of entire Philippine Archipelago.

CommodoreCommodoreGeorgeGeorgeDeweyDewey

CommanderCommanderU.S. Asiatic U.S. Asiatic SquadronSquadron

Spanish-American Spanish-American WarWar

Fighting the War: Fighting the War: Atlantic/CaribbeanAtlantic/Caribbean

American– Sampson at Key West– Schley’s Flying Squadron at Norfolk– Trip of USS Oregon gave U.S. 5 BBs & 2

armored cruisers

Spanish – 4 Cruisers & 2 Destroyers under Cervera

Sampson planned to meet Cervera at San Juan, PR but Spanish refueled at Curcao– Mahan condemned Sampson’s advance on P.R. Cuba

was the strategic objective Sampson blockaded Havana & sent Schley to

Cienfuegoes but Spanish went to Santiago Cervera just getting to Cuba was an

accomplishment. American squadrons unorganized and outguessed

Schley ( 28 May), then Sampson (1 June) arrive and begins 1 month long blockade Santiago harbor

Sampson couldn’t enter the harbor due to mines & shore batteries

Americans needed command of the seas before operations could be waged elsewhere

Sampson requested troops to capture shore batteries so mines could be removed– No overall commander between Army/Navy

Sampson and Shafter have a meeting to agree on a course of action. Both leave satisfied– Shafter- Santiago, Sampson- Batteries

Marines seized Guantanamo for logistics base

Battle of SantiagoBattle of SantiagoAmphibious landing at Daiquiri

– Confusion between Army and Navy: Shafter and Sampson

Army went after town instead & got bogged down then asked Navy to force the harbor to relieve them through the mine field

Rough Riders’ Teddy Roosevelt– Leads charge at the Battle of San Juan Hill

Spanish governor orders fleet to flee harbor - 1 July 1898– Sampson / Schley command controversy

Battle of SantiagoBattle of Santiago 3 July 18983 July 1898

Battle of SantiagoBattle of Santiago

On 3 July 1898, Spanish make their run Inferior Spanish fleet annihilated by superior,

better managed U.S. fleet– Colon interesting incentive to outrun the US Fleet– Spanish losses 160 killed, 1800 captured– American losses 1 killed, 1 wounded

Peace treaty signed 10 Dec 1898 Spanish home fleet recalled while en route to the

Philippines fearing North Atlantic Fleet

Results and lessonsResults and lessons

Spanish home fleet recalled while en route to the Philippines

U.S. technological superiority overwhelms Spanish

U.S. becomes dominant power in the Caribbean Sea

Improvement needed in fire control and amphibious doctrine

U.S. EmpireFrom Spain: Possession of Puerto Rico,

Guam, Philippines. Naval base in CubaFormerly independent: Wake, Hawaii,

Samoa (Harbor of Pago Pago)U.S. in undisputed control of the

Caribbean

American Pacific TerritoriesAmerican Pacific TerritoriesCoaling Stations for ShipsCoaling Stations for Ships

Sampson/Schley command controversy U.S. technological superiority proves

overwhelming (battleships and big guns) Battleships enshrined as principal warship New construction programs to be completed by

1905; 10 first-rate battleships, 4 armored cruisers & 17 other types

Recognized need for improvement in fire control and amphibious doctrine

Dewey to head new General Board; first peace time U.S. strategic planning– Devise war plans– Assess of foreign navies– Influence President & Secretary of State

Mahan's advocacy of fleet engagements vindicated (commerce raiding discredited)

Global empire yields bases and expanded obligations

Oregon’s dash renewed desire for isthmian canal to link Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, construction begun under Theodore Roosevelt, 1904-1914

Progressive Era Politics Progressive Era Politics (1901-1914)(1901-1914)

Strong Presidents:– Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson.

Republican Congress funds battleships and canal construction.– Large increases in federal budget.– Large increase in percentage of federal budget for Department of

the Navy.

Dewey and General Board– Access to Secretary of the Navy and / or the President on a regular

basis due to increased importance of the Navy.

Prewar International ConcernsPrewar International Concerns(1900-1914)(1900-1914)

Expanding Interests of Germany, U.S. attention to Caribbean

Expanding Interests of Japan, U.S. attention in Pacific

The CaribbeanThe Caribbean

Threat: Germany– U.S. has stake in Caribbean

Annexation of Puerto Rico Naval base in Cuba

– Germany has strong interest in Latin America– Venezuela Crisis (1902)

Germany wants base there Germany (plus Britain, Italy) blockades to recover

from default on 12.5 million loan

Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe DoctrineDoctrine

Caribbean Sea– Vital defense of the U.S. - Navy protects access to

Panama Canal European relations with Latin America

– Venezuela Crisis (1902) demonstrates need for U.S. to ensure European powers need not intervene in Western Hemisphere

Theodore Roosevelt (December 1904):– U.S. obligated “in flagrant cases of wrong-doing or

impotence (in Latin America) to the exercise of an international police power.”

Roosevelt CorollaryRoosevelt Corollary

Constant interventions by Navy and Marines:– Haiti, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic– Cuba - Platt Amendment– Vera Cruz, Mexico

“Yankee Imperialism” despised by many Latin Americans

Panama CanalPanama Canal Renewed U.S. desire for canal in Central America

– Link between Atlantic and Pacific FleetsNeed for the canal is highlighted by USS Oregon’s long transit to

the Battle of Santiago

Strong support from President Theodore Roosevelt Panamanian Revolution against Colombia - 1903

– Engineered and influenced by U.S.– Panama Canal Zone ceded to U.S.

Construction of the canal begins in 1904– Completed in 1914

Increased importance of U.S. control of Caribbean Sea– Protection of Panama Canal is vital to defense of the U.S.

U.S. Interests in the Far EastU.S. Interests in the Far EastWar Plan Orange

– U.S. Navy plan for war with Japan– Defense of the Philippines and defeat of the

Japanese Navy

U.S. “Open Door” policy in China:– Policy has two aspects

(1) Ensure territorial integrity of China

(2) Ensure free trade in China for all countries.– China’s Boxer Rebellion - 1900

U.S. Marine Regiment attached to U.S. Army force protecting Westerners

– Counter European and Japanese attempts at “spheres of influence”

Yangtze River Patrol - U.S. gunboats protect American commerce

Western Western Relief Relief

Expedition Expedition to to PekingPeking

Boxer Boxer RebellionRebellion

19001900

The Rise of Japanese Sea The Rise of Japanese Sea PowerPower

Opening and ModernizationOpening and Modernization Commodore M.C. Perry - 1854

– Treaty of Kanagawa– European powers quickly follow U.S. lead

Meiji Restoration - 1868– End of Tokugawa Shogunate’s feudal system– Emperor restored to power

Increased trade with the West Rapid modernization of industry and armed forces Colonial expansion begins on Pacific Islands Japanese Navy

– From the Age of Galleys directly to the Modern Age– Skips entirely the Age of Sail

Sino-Japanese WarSino-Japanese War(1894-95)(1894-95)

Conflict with China– Ryukus– Taiwan– Korea

Japanese make a surprise first strike– Prior to declaration of war

Battle of the Yalu:– Chinese fleet takes “V” formation– Japanese divide fleet into two squadrons

Outcome: Expansion of Japanese Empire in East Asia– Korea– Taiwan (Formosa) and Pescadores– Port Arthur

Russo-Japanese WarRusso-Japanese War(1904-05)(1904-05)

Japan forced to withdraw from Korea and Port Arthur Russian Expansion into the Far East

– Trans-Siberian Railway Chinese allow Russian construction through Manchuria.

– Russian Naval Base at Vladivostok Port Arthur and Manchuria

– Occupied by Russian forces Korea threatened Anglo-Japanese Alliance - 1902

– Attempt by Japan to keep European powers out of the war Japanese strike first again Battle of the Yellow Sea

Balance of PowerBalance of PowerJapan Disadvantages

– Number of Troops– Fleet Strength– Natural Resources

Advantages– Strategic Center

– Multiple Naval Bases

– First Strike

Russia Advantages

– Number of Troops– Fleet Strength– Natural Resources

Disadvantages– Division of Forces

Three Fleets– Lines of Communication

Trans-Siberian RR– Initial Defensive Strategy

Battle of Tsushima StraitBattle of Tsushima Strait Baltic Fleet commanded by Admiral Zinovi Rozhestvenski

– Transit to Vladivostok– Protection of supply ships

Vice Admiral Heihachiro Togo– Togo “Crosses the T” -- Decisive Japanese victory

Lessons learned:– Rear Admiral Nebogatov - Surrender not an option– Heavy armor and guns– Semi-independent divisions– Dividing the fleet

Treaty of Portsmouth - President Theodore Roosevelt:– Port Arthur and Southern Sakhalin ceded to Japan– Japan becomes the dominant power in the Far East

Increases in U.S. Naval PowerIncreases in U.S. Naval Power

By 1898– 4 1st Class Battleships: Indiana, Massachusetts, Oregon, and

Iowa– 2 2nd Class Battleships: Texas and Maine– 2 Armored Cruisers– 10 Protected Cruisers– Gunboats, Monitors, Torpedo Boats

Modern technology in the fleet:– Steam, armor, and rifled breech-loading guns

PresidentPresidentTheodore Theodore RooseveltRoosevelt

andand

Rear AdmiralRear AdmiralRobley D. “Fighting Robley D. “Fighting

Bob” Bob” EvansEvans

Prior to the sailing Prior to the sailing of the Great White of the Great White

Fleet - 1907Fleet - 1907

The Great White The Great White FleetFleet

Route of the Great White Fleet: (1907-08)Route of the Great White Fleet: (1907-08)

HMS HMS DreadnoughtDreadnought

First all “big gun” BattleshipFirst all “big gun” Battleship- Eight 12-inch guns- Eight 12-inch guns

HMSHMS Dreadnought Dreadnought

Dawn of Naval AviationDawn of Naval Aviation

Wright Brothers -- Kitty Hawk, North Carolina: 1903

Eugene Ely– First flight of an aircraft from a ship in 1910– First landing of an aircraft on a ship in 1911

Glenn Curtiss - First seaplane landing - 1911 Lieutenant “Spuds” Ellyson: Naval Aviator #1

Birthday of Naval Aviation: 8 May 1911– U.S. Navy purchases two Curtiss biplanes

Office of Naval Aeronautics established in 1914 Early naval aviation missions:

– Scouting location of the enemy fleet– Directing naval gunfire

Royal Navy in a similar stage of development of aviation

Discussion

Next time: The U.S. Navy and the World at War, 1914-1918