Beginning in the middle of the currentcentury, Western societies have observed arenewed interest in the diversity of expres-sions of religious phenomena. Such interestis due to:

• the rise or development of new religions,particularly in the United States of America(such as the International Society for KrishnaConsciousness, the Church of Scientology,the Mission of Divine Light);

• the extension to new geographical areasof religions already established in others (suchas some Eastern religions in America andEurope; Pentecostalism, the Church of JesusChrist of Latter-day Saints and the Jehovah’sWitnesses from the United States in SouthAmerica and Europe; the Santeria from Cubato the United States and countries of CentralAmerica; and the Umbanda from Brazil toUruguay, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile and to alesser extent the United States and Europe);

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A P P E N D I X S I X

Scientology■

And ContemporaryDefinitions of Religion

in the Social Sciences

Alejandro Frigerio, Ph.D.Associate Professor of Sociology

Catholic University of ArgentinaBuenos Aires, Argentina

• the “revivals” of the establishedreligions (as in the charismatic reforma-tions in evangelism and in Catholicism,the rise of spiritualist Catholic groups,etc.) and

• the rise of a diverse, uncentralizedspiritual subculture (comprised of whathas been given the name New Age).

The interest in religious diversityrevived old discussions within the socialsciences which resulted in more accuratedefinitions of religious phenomena.Distinct groups of social scientists haveopted for different types of definitionsoften responding to their immediate the-oretical interests.

These different types of definitionsinclude:

Substantive definitions of religion whichattempt to characterize “from within” orin terms of the intrinsic significance;

Comparative definitions of religionwhich approach it by distinction fromother systems of meanings;

Functional definitions of religion whichcharacterize it in terms of its conse-quences over other spheres of social andpersonal life;

Analytical definitions of religion whichcharacterize it by the distinct aspectswhich religious phenomena encompass;and

Emic definitions of religion which con-sider religious those phenomena whichthe members of its society or its institu-tions consider to be such.

From the viewpoint of the social sci-ences, the task of establishing whether abody of beliefs and practices constitutesa religion requires that one take heed ofthe diversity of definitions of religion inthe current discussion in these disci-plines.

In the following pages we propose toestablish if Scientology constitutes areligion, taking into account the diversedefinitions by which this term is cur-rently characterized by the social sci-ences.

i. SCIENTOLOGY ANDTHE SUBSTANTIVEDEFINITIONS OF RELIGION

The substantive definitions of religionintend to characterize it in accordancewith the intrinsic traits which the reli-gious experiences have for those whopractice it. Defined as religious from thisperspective are those experiences whichindividuals perceive as extraordinary, tran-scendent and clearly different from the quo-tidian reality which is perceived the majorityof the time. Those who have such experi-ences cannot explain them through theconcepts and theories which are normal-ly used to define and explain the eventsof their lives. Experience in these cir-cumstances, however, appears to them asundeniable, more real than that which isperceived in the everyday world. PeterBerger says:

“In the context of religious experi-ence, the reality of daily life loses in dra-matic form its status as supreme reality.It appears, to the contrary, as the ante-room of another reality, one of a drasti-cally different nature and nevertheless of

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immense importance for the individual.Through this change in this perceptionof reality all worldly activity of quotidi-an reality is seen as radically reduced inimportance, trivialized—in the words ofEcclesiastes, reduced to vanity.” (Berger1974, 130-131)

From this viewpoint, religion isdefined as the kingdom of the extraor-dinary, the sacred, “the other.” In otherwords, religion is the sphere of activityand human thought which draws inturn on experiences which put theindividual in contact with somethinginexplicable, marvelous, mysteriousand majestic which cannot beexplained through the rationality andtheories through which one is aware ofthe events of his life. Religious institu-tions are those which act to regularize,define and explain religious experi-ences.

To ask oneself if Scientology fits theexisting definitions of religions is theequivalent of investigating if itrevolves around, regulates or explainssome type of extraordinary experiencewhich puts the individual in contactwith a reality of another order, mar-velous and surprising. The answer is, according to my understanding, affirmative.

Beyond the resolution of problemsand the accomplishment of quotidianobjectives, the road of Scientologypromises, to one who applies himself tothe understanding of its practices, grad-ual advancement to a lasting happinessand new states of consciousness neverdreamed possible. The culmination ofsuch states of consciousness constitutesan experience of total freedom in which

the individual would have the capacityto control the physical universe, com-posed of matter, energy, space and time,and reach a total omniscience. Theawareness of life and death and aware-ness of the universe would therefore beclearly evident to one. The Church ofScientology states:

“Man consists of three parts: thebody, little more than a machine; themind divided into analytical and reac-tive, which computes and contains lit-tle more than a collection of pictures;and the thetan, life itself, the spiritwhich animates the body. ... The pointbeing, the thetan is superior to bothbody and mind. ... But what are his lim-its? How high can he ultimatelyascend?

“From the search for these answerscame the subject of Scientology, and thedoor opened to the full realization ofspiritual potential.

“That state is called OperatingThetan ... Although without mass,motion, wavelength or location in spaceor time, the thetan is nonetheless capa-ble of accomplishing anything. Thus, theOperating Thetan or OT may be definedas one who is at ‘knowing and willingcause over life, thought, matter, energy,space and time.’

“It is not for nothing, then, thatScientology has been described as real-izing man’s most basic hope for spiritu-al freedom—by stripping away theaccumulated impediments of the agesand returning to our native state, withall the abilities that are inherentlyours.” (The Scientology Handbook, page 23.)

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A publication of the Churchdescribes in the following manner theresults that can be obtained by reach-ing the ultimate level of OperatingThetan:

“These truths are essential for yoursurvival as an Operating Thetan andyour ability to reach total spiritual free-dom. Your concepts of time, future andpast, will change repeatedly and youwill experience an incomparable andnew level of stability and awarenessthat will stay with you this life and infuture lives.” (Source Magazine 99:21)

The difference between this experi-ence of freedom and omniscience onthe one hand and the common experi-ence of man is clear. Furthermore, thedoctrine of Scientology holds that hewho follows the road it has laid out canachieve the experience of “exterioriza-tion” in which the thetan (spirit) leavesthe body and exists in a form indepen-dent of the flesh. Upon exteriorizationthe person would be able to see withoutthe eyes of the body, hear without ears,and feel without hands, achieving thecertainty that he is himself (the thetan)and not his body. According toScientology, exteriorization of thethetan makes it obvious that the spiritis immortal and is endowed with abili-ties which exceed those which onecould predict through quotidian reasoning:

“The thetan is able to leave the bodyand exist independent of the flesh.Exteriorized, the person can see withoutthe body’s eyes, hear without the body’sears and feel without the body’s hands.Man previously had very little under-standing of this detachment from his

mind and body. With the act of exteri-orization attainable in Scientology aperson gains the certainty he is himselfand not his body.” (What Is Scientology?1993:147)

In summary, like the large number ofreligions which internationally consti-tute the “religious ferment” of the lastseveral decades (the religions of Easternorigin, Pentecostalism and the Afro-American religions, among others) reli-gious experiences which are not ordinaryand not quotidian have a central place inScientology. As in other religions, suchexperiences are on the one hand moti-vated, regulated and interpreted by doc-trine and on the other hand are taken asproof of the correctness of the cosmicvision held by the group. Therefore,Scientology fits the substantive defini-tions of religion in use in the social sci-ences at the present time.

ii. SCIENTOLOGY ANDTHE COMPARATIVEDEFINITIONS OF RELIGION

Some authors have approached a def-inition of religion distinguishing it fromother systems of meaning (understood tobe such bodies of thought or theoreticaltradition which give meaning to realityand to life experience). Thus, for exam-ple, Stark and Gluck (1965) distinguishbetween the “humanist perspectives”which constitute attempts to make sig-nificant the life of man from religionswhich, to the contrary, assert that theyhave discovered or established paths todiscover the true meaning of life. Thedifference between some and other sys-tems is that in the case of the humanistperspectives one looks intentionally to

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grant to life a meaning which is agreedupon and relatively free-willed: in thesecond it is presumed that the same has apre-existent meaning to that which theindividual man or social group wishes togive it and that it is possible to agree tothe stated meaning. On this subject,Reginald Bibby says:

“Religious perspectivesimply the possibility that ourexistence has a meaningwhich precedes that whichwe as human beings decideto give it. By contrast, thehumanist perspective leavesto one side the search for the meaning of existence infavor of a new preoccupa-tion with giving meaning toexistence.” (Bibby 1983,103)

From this perspective, toask if Scientology consti-tutes a religion is to investi-gate if it postulates a mean-ing for the life of man whichpre-exists and is consideredtrue and immutable. In rela-tion to this point we cannote that according toScientology, man is definedas a spiritual being. It isaffirmed that man does not have a spiritbut that a spirit is what the individualtruly is. This spirit is called a “thetan,” aname taken from the Greek letter theta.It is asserted that the individual exists ashimself as a spiritual being. The artisticcapacity, the fortitude of the person andhis individual character are all manifes-tations of the spiritual nature of theindividual. The thetan constitutes theperson himself.

According to Scientology, man iscomposed of a body, organized physicalsubstance or composition; a mind whichconsists of pictures, recordings ofthoughts, conclusions, decisions, obser-vations and perceptions; and the thetan.The thetan is conceived as the creator ofthings. He has animation and life even

without the mind and bodyand uses the mind as a sys-tem of control between him-self and the physical uni-verse. Scientologists main-tain that man is a thetan andthe thetan is the source of allcreation, is immortal and islife itself, with potentiallyinfinite creativity and, if notpart of the physical universe,having the potential capaci-ty to control this universecomposed of matter, energy,space and time.

On the other hand,Scientology explicitly assertsthat training in its doctrinefurnishes a comprehensionof man, his potentials andthe difficulties with whichhe is faced which goes muchfurther than what is taughtin the humanities or socialsciences. With the knowl-

edge of the principles of Scientologythe person would be able to understand,for example, why some people havesuccess while others fail, why one manis happy while another is not, and whysome relationships are stable and othersfall apart. Training in Scientologywould permit one who would applyhimself to know the mystery of life andto attain an absolute comprehension ofits immortal nature. Through the

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According toScientology,

man is composedof a body, organized

physical substanceor composition; a mind which

consists of pictures,

recordings of thoughts, conclusions, decisions,

observations and perceptions;and the thetan

[spirit].

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teachings of L. Ron Hubbard dissemi-nated by the Church, the individualcan achieve the development of all hisabilities across the “Eight dynamics”postulated in its cosmic vision. Thesedynamics, or areas through whichhuman activity is expressed, are:

1. The individual; 2. Family and sex;3. Groups; 4. Mankind; 5. All life forms;6. The physical universe; 7. Spirituality;and 8. The infinite or Supreme Being.(Scientology 0-8, The Book of Basics 1990:25-26)

The object of the teachings of theChurch is to increase the level ofawareness of the individual so that hecan control and influence all of thedynamics of life.

In summary, like most religions,Scientology claims to have revealedthe mystery of life. It does not pro-pound an arbitrary meaning for thelife of man, but claims to have discovered the true meaning. In doingso, it differentiates from humanist perspectives: It does not propound orsuggest ethical norms and values tomake human life meaningful. On the contrary, it claims to truly knowwhat is man and what is the meaning of his life. At the same time, and in spite of using a vocabu-lary similar to the sciences, it can beclearly differentiated from these,given that it does not intend todescribe how things happen, it doesnot formulate questions, nor present ahypothesis for its opposition andeventual modification. Rather, itclaims to have discovered the truecauses and invites one to share in saidknowledge.

iii. SCIENTOLOGY ANDTHE FUNCTIONALDEFINITIONS OF RELIGION

Another class of definitions character-izes religion by the consequences that itholds in other areas of life. The first func-tional definitions of religion came out ofthe work of Emile Durkheim and put thestress on the feelings of solidarity whichreligious ceremonies evoked and itseffects on social cohesion and communityunity. These definitions have been criti-cized on the basis that, on the one hand,there frequently exist multiple religions inthe same society putting in doubt thecohesive function of religion for the com-munity as a whole and, on the otherhand, other non-religious symbols and rit-uals, such as those which belong to thenation, the state or ethnic group, canserve the same function of creating ties ofsolidarity and community sentiment.

Actually a certain number of socialscientists now define religion by its con-sequences not in social life but in the per-sonal life of individuals. These authorsdefine religion as “a combination of formsand symbolic acts which relate the individualto the ultimate conditions of his existence”(Bellah 1964:358) or as “a system of beliefsand practices through which a group of peo-ple faces the fundamental problems of life.”(Yinger 1970:7) Such fundamental prob-lems would include: the perception ofinjustice, the experience of suffering andthe awareness of what life lacks in mean-ing and purpose. Religions propound twotypes of answers to such problems ofhumanity. On one side, they would offerexplanations for them giving them mean-ing. On the other, they would propoundmethods and programs of action directedto overcome these problems.

From the current functionalist per-spective a religion is therefore a combina-tion of beliefs giving meaning to funda-mental problems such as injustice, suffer-ing and the search for the meaning of lifeand a combination of practices throughwhich such problems are faced with theintent to overcome them. To ask ifScientology fits this definition is thereforeto investigate if it presents a combinationof practices designed to overcome thesefundamental problems of life and a systemof beliefs that serve to explain them.

In this respect it is possible toobserve, in the first place, that the centralpractice of Scientology, auditing, is present-ed in effect as a way to overcome suffering.It affirms that through active and volun-tary participation in auditing one’s abili-ty to face the problems of existence,resolve them and achieve each timehigher levels of consciousness and spiri-tual well-being, will be improved.

Scientology services strive to raise theindividual to a point in which he is capa-ble of putting the factors of his own life inorder and resolving his problems.According to Scientology the tensions oflife cause the individual to fix his atten-tion on the material world reducing hisawareness of himself as a spiritual beingand of his environment. This reduction ofawareness would have as a consequencethat problems would arise, such as diffi-culty in relations with others, suffering,illness and unhappiness. The objective ofScientology is to revert the reduction ofawareness, awakening the individual. Ittherefore propounds solutions to the fun-damental problems of life through proce-dures which cause the individual toincrease his awareness and freedom andto rehabilitate his decency, power and

basic abilities. Individuals who are moreaware and alert would be capable of bettercomprehension and greater capacity tohandle their lives. Through auditing andtraining in Scientology, people wouldcome to know that life is something valu-able and that they could live satisfactorylives in harmony with others.

Scientology postulates that throughits practice and training persons will freethemselves from suffering such as irra-tional fears and psychosomatic illnesses,become more calm, more in a state ofequilibrium, more energetic and commu-nicative, will repair and revitalize theirrelations with others, achieve their per-sonal goals, discard their doubts and inhi-bitions and acquire certainty and confi-dence in themselves, feel joy and clearlyunderstand how to achieve happiness. Insummary, Scientology presents itself as ameans of overcoming suffering and theinequalities of individual ability.

Another of the elements which isincluded in the current functional defin-itions of religion is the giving of a mean-ing or explanation for the fundamentalproblems of life. Through the explana-tion of the reasons for human suffering,most religions alleviate in an indirectmanner the tensions which such suffer-ing produces. For those who are followersof such religions the problems of lifebecome less perceived as senseless, unjustand inexplicable through acquiring ameaning. The doctrinal explanations forsuffering give a foundation at the sametime for the justification of religiouspractices designed to overcome such suf-fering: the postulating of the causes ofthe problems of life may be regarded asthe basis for the development of pro-grams of actions to overcome them.

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In this respect it can be observedthat Scientology also propoundsanswers to human suffering by giving anexplanation. The doctrine of Scientologyexpounds particularly in describing thereasons for suffering. According to thisdoctrine the individual is basicallygood and happy and the reasons forsuffering are found in the “reactivemind” which is clearly differentiatedfrom the analytical mind and is madeup of “engrams.” In The Dynamics ofLife, the founder L. Ron Hubbardstates:

“Man is not a reactive animal. He iscapable of self-determinism. He haswillpower. He ordinarily has high ana-lytical ability. He is rational and he ishappy and integrated only when he ishis own basic personality. The mostdesirable state in an individual is com-plete self-determinism. ...

“The reactive mind consists of acollection of experiences received dur-ing an unanalytical moment whichcontain pain and actual or conceivedantagonism to the survival of the indi-vidual. ... When injury or illness sup-plants the analytical mind producingwhat is commonly known as ‘uncon-sciousness,’ and when physical painand antagonisms to the survival of theorganism are present, an engram isreceived by the individual. ... By strip-ping the reactive mind of its pastpainful content the analytical mindmay be placed in complete commandof the organism. The moment a manor a group becomes possessed of thisability, it becomes possessed of self-determinism. So long as these possessreactive minds, irrationalities will per-sist.” (Hubbard 1990:31-32)

In Scientology, therefore, the humanbeing is basically good, happy and inte-grated and the root of his unhappiness isfound in engrams. Thus, the practice ofauditing is propounded as the only suit-able means of removing the individual’sengrams and enabling him to become a“Clear,” which is to say, returning him tohis state as “basic individual.” Both termsmean: “the unaberrated self in completeintegration and in a state of highest possi-ble rationality; a Clear is one who hasbecome the basic individual throughauditing. ... The basic individual is invari-ably responsive in all the dynamics and isessentially ‘good.’ ...The virtues of thebasic individual are innumerable. Hisintentional vices and destructive dramati-zations are non-existent. He is coopera-tive, constructive and possessed of pur-pose. In short he is in close alignmentwith that ideal which mankind recognizesas an ideal. This is a necessary part of anauditor’s working knowledge, since devia-tions from it denote the existence of aber-ration, and such departures are unnaturaland enforced and are no part of the self-determinism of the individual.” (Hubbard1990:31-32)

In summary, Scientology furnishes ananswer to human suffering giving it, likethe majority of religious traditions, anexplanation and postulating, from thisexplanation, a means of solution. Theexplanation of human suffering lies in“engrams.” Engrams are described asunknown, powerful and influential men-tal image pictures which have mass andenergy. The main solution proposed toovercome suffering consists of the prac-tice of auditing which permits the loca-tion and conquest of engrams. Auditingis presented as a way to overcome suffer-ing since it postulates that through the

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active and voluntary participation of theindividual he will succeed in bettering hisability to face the problems of his exis-tence, resolve them and achieve continu-ally higher levels of awareness and spiri-tual well-being.

Scientology also gives an answer to theexperience of injustice when perceived as anunequal distribution of abilities amongmen, postulating that the loss of abilities isdue, at least in part to transgressions andirresponsibilities of the past. At the sametime it gives a solution to this loss pre-senting itself as a way to regain these abil-ities. Additionally, Scientology provides ananswer to the experience of life lacking mean-ing and the experience of death postulatingthat man is an immortal spiritual beingwhose experiences extend beyond one lifeand affirming that death is a transitionthrough which the individual makes hispassage while continuing to be aware. Asstated by the Church of Scientology:

“Needless to say, ethics is a subject thatScientology takes very seriously. As hemoves up the Bridge (The Bridge to TotalFreedom, the path of Scientology) andbecomes more and more himself, he like-wise grows more ethical, but he also viewsit as a matter of personal responsibilitythat extends well beyond this life. Forunlike the materialist who believes deathto be an end to life, conscience andaccountability, the Scientologist sees it asa transition through which one carries hispast—a past for which one continues to beaccountable. He also knows that the abil-ities he is regaining were, in part, lostbecause of transgressions and irresponsi-bilities. Thus, honesty, integrity, trust andconcern for his fellows are more than justwords. They are principles to live by.”(The Scientology Handbook, 1994: xxvi)

Consequently, Scientology fits theconcept of religion as it is currentlydefined from a functionalist perspectiveconstituting a body of beliefs by means ofwhich a group of people gives meaning tofundamental problems such as injustice,suffering and the search for the meaningof life and a body of practices throughwhich they confront such problems andintend to overcome them.

iv. SCIENTOLOGY ANDTHE ANALYTICALDEFINITIONS OF RELIGION

Another of the forms in which religionis currently defined in the social sciencesis in the analytic manner, that is, charac-terizing it by the different ways in whichthe religion manifests itself. From this per-spective there is considered to exist con-siderable consensus among all religionsregarding the forms through which thereligious person expresses his religiosity, bywhich it becomes possible to establishthose aspects which constitute such reli-giosity. These aspects include:

a) Sharing the beliefs which consti-tute the body of doctrine of the group;

b) Participating in rituals and acts ofdevotion;

c) Experiencing direct contact withultimate reality;

d) Acquiring religious information; and

e) Experiencing changes or results inquotidian life derived from the otheraspects of religiosity. (Stark and Gluck1985)

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From this point of view to ask ifScientology constitutes a religion is theequivalent of investigating if the Churchof Scientology as an institution expectsthat its adherents will be religious, whichis to say that they manifest religiosity inthe different ways which are considereduniversal.

iv.i. Sharing a Body of Doctrine

It has been maintained that religiousinstitutions expect their adherents toshare their doctrinal principles. (Starkand Gluck 1985:256) In this respect itcan be observed that the Church ofScientology propounds an interrelatedwhole clearly structured so that its adher-ents acquire its body of doctrine. Ineffect, the practice of Scientology iscomposed in equal parts of auditing andtraining in its principles. The Churchaffirms that while auditing permits oneto see how something happens, trainingteaches why.

The material used in the courses oftraining consists of books, publications,films and recorded lectures of thefounder of the Church which are studiedin a pre-arranged order. This material hasthe equivalent status of scriptures of tra-ditional religions: It is not interpreted orexplained. On the contrary, considerableattention is placed on the disciple receiv-ing the word of the founder in its “pureform.” Scientologists believe that Mr.Hubbard found an exact and workablepath to spiritual salvation: If followingone of the procedures of the founder ofScientology does not achieve the expect-ed results it is because it was not under-stood or applied correctly. Thus, the pos-sibility that there could exist an error inthe original version of the word of Mr.

Hubbard is not considered. Those who direct training in

Scientology are called “supervisors” andare recognized as experts in the technol-ogy of study and skilled at finding andresolving the obstacles that the studentsmay encounter. The role of the supervi-sor is also defined as ensuring that thedoctrine is properly imparted and doesnot produce different versions or diver-gent interpretations. The supervisordoes not give lectures and does not pro-pound to the students his own versionof the subject. It is scrupulously forbid-den that the supervisor propound anytype of verbal interpretation of thematerials to prevent any alterations ofthe original.

iv.ii. Participation in Rituals and Acts of Devotion

Another of the forms through whichreligions seem to expect that their adher-ents demonstrate their religiosity isthrough participation in rituals and actsof devotion. In this respect, it is possibleto observe in the first place that theChurch of Scientology celebrates thesame rituals as other religious institutionssuch as Sunday services, weddings, funer-als and naming ceremonies for newbornchildren.

However, these are not the onlyactivities which are ritually structured inScientology. Auditing, the central prac-tice of Scientology, is a ritual activity inthe sense that an anthropologist gives tothis term: a highly structured procedurewhich fits rigorous rules and is repeatedmeticulously. In effect, auditing isaccomplished through a series of careful-ly established steps developed by thefounder of the Church which are to be

followed without variation. For theChurch of Scientology, auditing demandsa precise path, an exact route to reachhigher states of awareness. Auditing isdefined as a precise activity, preciselycodified and which follows exact proce-dures:

“Auditing uses processes—exact setsof questions asked or directions given byan auditor to help a person find outthings about himself and improve hiscondition. There are many, many differ-ent auditing processes, and each oneimproves the individual’s ability to con-front and handle part of his existence.When the specific objective of any oneprocess is attained, the process is endedand another can then be run to addressa different part of the person’s life.

“An unlimited number of questionscould, of course, be asked—which mightor might not help a person. The accom-plishment in Dianetics and Scientologyis that L. Ron Hubbard isolated the exactquestions and directions to invariablybring about improvement.” (What IsScientology? 1993:156)

It can thus be observed that auditingis an exact ritual and the repeated participation in this rite is a conditionfor an individual to be considered aScientologist.

iv.iii. Direct Experienceof Ultimate Reality

It has been suggested that most tra-ditional religions expect that theiradherents will reach at some moment amore or less direct experience of ulti-mate reality. This dimension of religios-

ity relates to the substantive definitionsof religion and we have expounded onthis in reviewing the substantive defin-itions of religion. We therefore men-tioned that religious experiences whichare not ordinary or quotidian have acentral place in Scientology. As withother religions such experiences areencouraged in accordance with andinterpreted under the doctrines of thereligion and are also taken as evidenceof the correctness of the group’s cosmicvision.

Scientology presents itself as a grad-ual, clearly defined and certain route toimprove awareness guiding individualsfrom a condition of spiritual blindnessto the happiness of spiritual existence. Itpromises to its adherents that suchincreased awareness will enable themultimately to become aware of their ownimmortality, achieve total freedom,omniscience and understand directlythe meaning of life, death and the uni-verse.

The stated aim of Scientology is toachieve the complete and total rehabili-tation of the innate capabilities of theindividual as an immortal spiritualbeing. Such capabilities would put himat cause, with full knowledge, over mat-ter, energy, space, time, thought and life.By reaching this state, the individualwould be capable of a direct understand-ing of the infinite:

“At the level of Operating Thetanone deals with the individual’s ownimmortality as a spiritual being. One dealswith the thetan himself in relationship toeternity; not to the eternity that liesbehind him, but to the eternity which liesahead.” (What Is Scientology? 1993:222)

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We can note therefore that theChurch of Scientology expects thatits adherents, through their participa-tion in its practices and training in its doctrine, attain a gradual improve-ment of awareness resulting ultimate-ly in a direct experience of ultimatereality.

iv.iv. Religious Knowledge

The analytical defini-tions of religion hold thatreligious institutions expectthat their adherents have amodicum of informationabout the basic postulatesof their faith, its rites, itsscriptures and traditions. Inrelation to this expectationwe note that the practice ofScientology consists ofequal parts of auditing andtraining. The commitmentexpected of its adherentsincludes that they acquireknowledge of its principaldoctrines. In this respectthe Church states:

“Through auditing one becomesfree. This freedom must be augmentedby knowledge of how to stay free.Scientology contains the anatomy ofthe reactive mind in its axioms and thediscipline and know-how necessary tohandle and control the laws of life.The practice of Scientology, then, iscomposed in equal parts of auditingand training in Scientology principleswhich includes the technology of theirapplication. Knowing the mechanismsby which spiritual freedom can be lostis itself a freedom and places one out-

side their influence. Auditing lets onesee how something happened, trainingteaches one why.” (What Is Scientology?1993:164)

It can be noted therefore that, likemost religious traditions, imparting theteachings of the movement is viewed

favorably by the Church ofScientology. The acquisitionof religious information isassured by the same doctrinethrough the symbolic rewardfor those who grasp for it:Whoever acquires knowledgeof its principles can controlthe laws of life and be free ofthe dangers which threatenhis spiritual freedom.

iv.v. Consequences in Quotidian Life

It has been noted thatmost religious institutionsexpect that their religiousbeliefs, the participation inrituals, religious experienceand knowledge of the princi-

pal doctrines will have consequences inthe daily lives of their adherents. As dis-cussed in referring to the functional defi-nitions of religion, Scientology postulatesthat through its practice and trainingpeople free themselves from irrationalfears, psychosomatic illnesses, becomemore calm, achieve a better state of equi-librium, energy, communicate better,repair and revitalize their relationshipswith others, achieve personal goals, dis-card their doubts and inhibitions acquir-ing confidence in themselves, feel joyand clearly understand how to achievehappiness.

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Scientology presents itself as a gradual, clearly defined

and certain routeto improveawareness

guiding individuals

from a conditionof spiritual

blindness to thehappiness of

spiritual existence.

Another change which the Churchof Scientology expects of its adherents isthat they will help others to change con-ditions that they wish to improve, urgingthem to become auditors:

“The need for auditors is great since itis plain that individuals can be salvagedonly one at a time. Unlike congregation-al religions, this salvation ultimatelyoccurs in Scientology in the one-on-onerelationship between auditor and pre-clear. Many Scientologists train tobecome auditors, and anyone who wish-es to help his fellow man can do thesame. But of no less importance, one cangain greater skill in handling life than heever thought possible. There is no moreworthwhile purpose than helping one’sfellows and no better way to accomplishthis purpose than by becoming an audi-tor. Auditors apply what they havelearned to help others with auditing andto change conditions wherever they findthat conditions need improving.

“This is the mission of the trainedScientologist, and it is in his understand-ing, his compassion and his skill that thedreams of a better world reside.” (Churchof Scientology 1993:169)

It can be observed therefore that likemost religious institutions, the Churchof Scientology expects that sharing itsbeliefs, participating in its rituals,directly experiencing ultimate realityand knowledge of its principal doctrineswill have consequences in the dailylives of its adherents. These conse-quences include improvement of theability to handle their own lives,improvement of their own abilities andan improved disposition and ability tohelp others.

In summary, it can be observed that theChurch of Scientology expects that itsadherents will be religious persons, in thesense that the analytic definitions of reli-gion give to this term. In effect: It providesa framework so that its adherents may sharein its principal doctrines and expects thatthose who participate achieve a directexperience of ultimate reality, acquiringinformation on the principles of their faithand experiencing consequences in theirdaily lives. Therefore, per the analyticaldefinitions of religion, the Church ofScientology constitutes a religious institu-tion, since its expectations in relation to itsadherents correspond to what such institu-tions expect of religious individuals.

v. SCIENTOLOGY ANDTHE EMIC DEFINITIONSOF RELIGION

The “emic” point of view in anthro-pology is that which gives attention tothe classification of ideas of those whoparticipate in a given culture. This isopposed to the “etic” point of view whichis that derived from the conceptual classi-fications of one of the theories of thesocial sciences. Until this point we haveemployed definitions of religion takenfrom the theoretical viewpoint, which isto say from the viewpoint of social scien-tists who participate in current discussionregarding what constitutes a religion andwhat are its characteristics. In this sectionwe will consider the emic point of view ofthe participants in society.

To ask if Scientology is a religion fromthe emic point of view is to ask if it is con-sidered as such in the specific culturalcontexts in which it conducts its activi-ties. As the Church of Scientology is an

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international institution, these contextsare found in many countries. Becausethese are complex societies this includesnumerous subgroups: The Scientologiststhemselves, governmental institutionsand students of religious subjects areincluded among those who have madepublic pronouncements on this subject.

In the first place it is possible toobserve that Scientologists themselves pre-sent Scientology as a religion in theirwriting and public documents. (See forexample, What Is Scientology? 1993: 1, 7,141, 147; LRH Book Compilations ofWhat Is Scientology? 1994:iii).

With regard to governmental institu-tions, Scientology has been found to be,for legal purposes and tax exemption, areligion in the countries in which it hascarried out its activities. The govern-mental organizations which have explic-itly declared that Scientology is a reli-gion include:

Organizations of the Executive Branch:

Ministry of Education and Culture ofBavaria, 1973; Department of State ofthe United States, 1974; Social SecurityAgency of Angers, France, 1985;National Office of the Immigration andNaturalization Service, United States,1986; District of Shoneberg, Berlin,Germany, 1989.

Tax Organizations:

Department of Administration andFinance of Zurich, Switzerland, 1974;Tax Department of Florida, UnitedStates, 1974; Australian Tax Office,1978; California Franchise Tax Board,

1981; Department of Taxes andCustoms of Canada, 1982; Tax Serviceof Pau, France, 1987; Corporate TaxInspector of Amsterdam, Holland,1988; Utah Tax Commission, UnitedStates, 1988; New York City TaxCommission, United States, 1988;Federal Office of Finances, Germany,1990; Tax Commission of Monza, Italy,1990; Tax Commission of Lecco, Italy,1991; Internal Revenue Service of theUnited States, 1993; CaliforniaEmployment Development Depart-ment, United States, 1994.

Judicial Bodies:

Appeals Court of Washington, D.C.,United States, 1969; Court of the Districtof Columbia, United States, 1971; Courtof St. Louis, Missouri, United States, 1972;Australian Court of Perth, Australia,1970; Court of District of Stuttgart, 1976;Court of Munich, Germany, 1979;Appeals Court of Paris, 1980; AppealsCourt of the State of Oregon, 1982;District Court of the United States inWashington, 1983; Superior Court ofMassachusetts, 1983; Attorney General’sOffice of Australia, 1973; High Court ofAustralia, 1983; District Court of CentralCalifornia, United States, 1984; AppealsCourt of Vancouver, 1984; Court of theDistrict of Stuttgart, Germany, 1985;Appeals Court of Munich, Germany,1985; Court of Padua, Italy, 1985; Court ofBolonia, Italy, 1986; Regional Court ofHamburg, Germany, 1988; Court of Berlin,Germany, 1988; Court of Frankfurt,Germany, 1989; Court of Munich, Germany,1989; Court of Hanover, Germany, 1990;Court of Milan, Italy, 1991; Admini-strative Court of Hamburg, Germany,1992; Superior Court of Germany, 1992;Court of New York, 1994; Tax Court of

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Italy, 1994; District Court of Zurich,Switzerland, 1994; Supreme Court of Italy,1995.

Finally, studies carried out by social scien-tists usually refer to Scientology as a reli-gion, considering it part of the growinggroup of new religious movements.

One of the first studieson Scientology, an article byHarriet Whitehead in thebook Religious Movementsin Contemporary America,places it within the “growingcollection of religious move-ments totally outside of theJudeo-Christian tradition.”(1974:547)

In a similar manner, themonograph by Roy Wallis,“The Road to Total Freedom:a Sociological Analysis ofScientology” (1977) which analyzes thehistorical development and doctrinal andorganizational transformations whichoccurred during the transition fromDianetics into Scientology, clearly placesthe object of the study within the newreligious groups. Wallis considersScientology to be a religion particularlyadapted for the religious market of con-temporary Western society — as Wilsonwould state years later. The emphasis onthe benefits which the members willreceive from their religious practice inthis world, the utilization of distinctiverhetoric and a bureaucratic and rational-ly constructed organization reflect con-temporary Western values, since “therationalization of life in the world hasbrought the institutions through whichsalvation is obtained to rationalism.”(1976:246)

Frank Flinn, in his paper “Scientologyas Technological Buddhism” included inthe volume Alternatives to AmericanMainline Churches, affirms that Scientologyis “the most interesting of the new religiousmovements” (1983:89) and because it“bears many close resemblances toBuddhism.” (93)

In a chapter of his 1990book The Social Dimensions ofSectarianism, Bryan Wilsonaffirms that Scientologywould be a “secularized reli-gion” and then shows that itfits a list of 20 items usuallycharacteristic of religions,suggesting that “Scientologymust indeed be regarded as areligion, and this in respect ofthe metaphysical teachings itcanvasses (and not because itdescribes its organization as achurch), but it is a religion

which mirrors many of the preoccupa-tions of contemporary society.”(1990:288) He completes his analysisasking: “If one had to propose whatwould be a modern religion, perhapsScientology would not appear as fittingin the secularized world in which it oper-ates, and from which it takes the greaterpart of its organized structure and thera-peutic preoccupations.” (1990:288)

Scientology is included as one of thegroups reviewed in some of the most impor-tant books studying new religious move-ments: New Religious Movements: a PracticalIntroduction by Professor Eileen Barker(1992) as well as in both the Encyclopediaof American Religions and EncyclopedicHandbook of Cults in America by J. GordonMelton. (1992) It is also discussed, togeth-er with other new religious groups, in Cult

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[W]e can conclude thatSacientology

is a religion fromall perspectiveswhich exist in

the current discussion of the definitionof this term.

Controversies: Societal Responses to the NewReligious Movements by James Beckford(1985); in Cults, Converts and Charisma:the Sociology of New Religious Movements byThomas Robbins (1991) and in L’Europedelle Nuove Religioni by Massimo Introvigneand Jean Francois Mayer, (1993).

In summary, adopting an experientialpoint of view, we can observe thatScientology has been considered a reli-gion in the cultural contexts in which ithas carried out its activities, includingthe pronouncements of governmentagencies, by members of the Church andby social scientists conducting studies ofnew religious movements.

vi. CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the analysis undertakenhere, we can conclude that Scientologyis a religion from all perspectives whichexist in the current discussion of the def-inition of this term in the social sciencesand which we have reviewed in the pre-sent work.

Like most religions which interna-tionally constitute the “religious fer-ment” of the last several decades (the religions of Eastern origin,Pentecostalism, and the Afro-Americanreligions among others) religious experi-ences which are not ordinary and notquotidian have a central place inScientology. Just as with the other reli-gions such experiences occur in partmotivated, regulated and interpreted bydoctrine and in part taken as proof of thecorrectness of the cosmic vision held bythe group. Consequently, Scientologyfits the substantive definitions of religioncurrently in use in the social sciences.

Scientology also fits the concept ofreligions as it is currently defined fromthe functionalist perspective, constitutinga body of beliefs through which a groupof people give meaning to fundamentalproblems such as injustice, suffering andthe search for the meaning of life andtogether with practices through whichthey face these problems and intend tosurmount them.

Like most religions, Scientology claimsto have revealed the mystery of life. Itdoes not propound an avowedly arbitrarymeaning for the life of man; it claims tohave discovered the true meaning. Indoing so, it differentiates itself from thehumanist perspectives: It does not proposeor suggest values and ethical norms to givemeaning to human life; on the contrary itclaims to know what man truly is and whatis the meaning of his life. At the sametime, and because of using a similar vocab-ulary to the sciences, it is clearly differentfrom them, given that it does not intendexclusively to describe how things hap-pen, does not formulate questions nor pre-sent hypotheses for their opposition andeventual modification but asserts to have discovered the true causes and offersto share its knowledge. Therefore,Scientology fits the comparative definitionswhich characterize religion, distinguishingit from the humanist perspectives.

The Church of Scientology expectsthat its adherents become religious per-sons, in the sense which the analyticaldefinitions of religion give to this term.In effect: It provides an inter-related sys-tem of beliefs so that its adherents mayshare its principal doctrines and expectsthat they will participate in ritual activi-ties, achieving a direct experience ofultimate reality, acquire information

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about the principles of their faith andexperience results in their everyday lives.Therefore per the analytical definitionsof religion, the Church of Scientologyconstitutes a religious institution, sinceits expectations with respect to its adher-ents correspond to what such institutionsexpect of religious people.

Finally, adopting an emic point of view,it is observed that Scientology is consid-ered a religion in most of the cultural con-texts where it has carried out its activities,including the pronouncements of govern-mental institutions, of the members of theChurch and of social scientists who havestudied new religious movements.

In this paper we have considered thecorrespondence between Scientology andthe modern definitions of religionemployed in the field of the social sci-ences. However, Scientology also seems tofit the definitions of religion considered“classical” in both anthropology and soci-ology. In the field of sociology, MaxWeber, considered the “father” of the soci-ology of religion, preferred not to definethe term. (Weber 1964:1) Rather, heminutely classified the known religionsinto a large number of different typesdivided according to a large number of cri-teria. Scientology seems to correspond to acertain type of the “salvation religions”which are presented as a path to the free-dom of the spirit from reincarnation or thecycle of birth and death. (Weber 1964:146) Among salvation religionsScientology would be classified accordingto Weberian criteria among those which:

• have been founded by a prophetwho instituted a doctrine directed tomaking possible the salvation ofmankind (Weber 1964:46);

• possess systemized rituals in a bodyof comprehensive laws the knowledge ofwhich requires special training (Weber1964:154);

• affirm that salvation can bereached through a religious endeavordirected at self-perfection (Weber 1964:156);

• have developed a procedureintended to reach the religious consecra-tion of the personality (Weber 1964:156) and

• assert that the consecration of thepersonality implies the acquisition ofsuperhuman powers and the possibility ofaccomplishing superhuman actions.(Weber 1964:157)

The correspondence betweenScientology and this type of salvationreligion specified in accordance with thecategories of Weber is clearly expressedin the following paragraph of What IsScientology?:

“Contrary to those who teach thatman cannot improve and that some sev-enty years in a body are all one canexpect, there are states higher than thatof mortal man. The state of OT doesexist and people do attain it. Like anyother gain in Scientology it is attainedgradiently. ... Some of the miracles oflife have been exposed to full view forthe first time ever on the OT levels. Notthe least of these miracles is knowingimmortality and freedom from the cycleof birth and death. The way is true andplainly marked. All one needs to do isplace his feet upon the first rung of theladder and ascend to Clear and thenwalk upward to the level of Operating

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Thetan. Auditing enables the individ-ual to span the distance from HomoSapiens with his drugs, his pains, hisproblems, upsets and fears to higherstates and freedom as a spiritual being.Such states are obtainable only throughauditing. But they do exist and they areattainable and they fully restore a beingto his native potential. (What IsScientology? 1993:222-223)

In the field of anthropology the defin-ition of religion considered most classicalis that of Sir Edward Tylor who character-izes it as “the belief in spiritual beings.”(Evans-Pritchard 1976:14-15) In relationto this definition and as already stated,

the central belief of Scientology is thatman is a thetan, that is to say, a spiritualbeing. In this respect the Manual ofScientology says to its readers:

“You are a thetan, a spiritual being.Not your eyes, your brain, but you. You donot have a thetan, something you keepapart from yourself, you are a thetan. Youwould not speak of my thetan; you wouldspeak of me. Although much of whatScientology holds true may be echoed inmany great philosophic teachings, what itoffers is entirely new: An exact routethrough which anyone can regain thetruth and simplicity of his spiritual self. ...”(The Scientology Handbook, 1994:iii)

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Alejandro Frigerio

About the Author

Alejandro Frigerio, Associate Professor of GraduateStudies in the Sociology Department of the CatholicUniversity of Argentina and Associate Researcher at theNational Council for Scientific Research, received aLicenciatura en Sociologia from the University ofArgentina in 1980 and a Ph.D. in Anthropology from theUniversity of California in Los Angeles in 1989.

Currently Associate Editor of the journal Sociedad yReligión, since 1982 Professor Frigerio has published

extensively on the topic of religion in scientific journals ofArgentina, Brazil and the United States. He has editedfour volumes on the scientific study of new religiousmovements and has co-authored Gimenez, el Pastor:El fenómeno religioso de la década, a book which providesan analysis of the work of Argentina’s most famousPentecostal pastor.

Professor Frigerio regularly helps to organize the“Conferences on Religious Alternatives in Latinamerica,”which is attended annually by religious scholars from coun-tries throughout Latin America.