Chapter 16 Sec 1 – Chapter 20 Sec 2 & 4

Scientific Revolution & the Enlightenment

Scientific Revolution

Medieval ViewsLittle difference between science and magic Truth based upon Greek & Roman thought and the

Bible.However, the Bible primary authority.

European scholars start to question ideas of ancient thinkers & the church by observing nature for themselves.Roger Bacon one of the first

Geocentric TheoryConcept that earth is the center of

the universeMoon, Sun and planets all moved in

perfect circular patterns around earth

Fixed stars with the Heaven beyondBased on common sense

observationsGod placed the earth in the center

for life to take place

New Way of ThoughtScientific Revolution: A new way of

thinking about the natural world.Based upon observations of the natural

world and willingness to question beliefs.

Observation and experimental data. Need better tools and techniques.

Barometer, telescope, thermometerUsed Mathematics and related

experiments to verify resultsBecomes Scientific Method

Reasons for…. New Way of thoughtImpact of the Crusades

Exposed Europe to Muslim advancesAstronomy, Physics, and Mathematics

Impact of ExplorationNew discoveries = possibility of new truths

Printing Press helps spread challenging ideas

Results….. Of New Way of thought

Need for better instrumentsNavigation and geographic measurements.Scientific instruments

Observations that did not agree with ancient beliefs

Desire to know more than what seemed to be the “limit”

Heliocentric TheorySun-centered theory - Heliocentric

Nicolaus Copernicus- AstronomerOld Greek theory – Sun is the center.After 25 years observation determines stars and

planets revolve around the sun.Contradicted religious views – So discovery was not

published until much later – 1543.

Heliocentric TheoryJohannes Kepler- Mathematician

Provided proof that Copernicus was correct. Mathematical laws govern the movements of the

planets in an elliptical orbit, not in circles.Not easily accepted, God created universe

Heliocentric TheoryGalileo : Made many significant

advances for scienceBuilt a better telescope

to better observe far off objectsDetermined that not all heavenly objects

revolved around the earth.Church asked him not to defend idea that

earth moves around the sun.Later brought before Roman Inquisition

‘vehemently’ suspect of heresyImprisoned, later changed to house arrest

Cleared by the Vatican in 1992Died 1642

Church ConflictContradicted the bible

Psalm 93:1, 96:10, & 1 Chronicles 16:30"the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved."

Psalm 104:5 "the LORD set the earth on its foundations; it can never

be moved." Ecclesiastes 1:5

"And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc.

If people believed the church could be wrong about the nature of the universe, they could question other church teachings as well.Could lose membersCould lose funds

GalileoAdvances of Galileo:

Law of pendulumeach swing takes same amount of time

Falling objects accelerate at a fixed & predictable rateTelescope

3x magnificationLater up to 32x magnification

Discovered moons orbiting JupiterRings around SaturnObserved sunspotsObserved mountains and craters on moonObserved the Milky Way

Scientific Method

Question – Based on observationHypothesis – Unproved assumptionTest Hypothesis – Experiment/DataAnalyze/Interpret –Draw ConclusionConfirm/Disprove Hypothesis

A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas

Scientific MethodFrancis Bacon

Used science to generate a practical knowledge to improve people’s lives

Empiricismuse experiments or observational data to find

conclusionsUrged other scientists to experiment as wellDied as a result of one of his experiments

Attempt to use snow to preserve meatCame down ill after stuffing a bird with snow

Scientific MethodRene Descartes

Relied on mathematics and logicUsed strict reasoning to arrive at other

basic truthsObservation, experimentation, with general

laws expressed mathematically will explain the natural world.

Everything should be doubted until proved by reasonI think, therefore I am.The only thing know for certain was self-existence

Developed analytical geometry.

Mathematics: The basis of understanding and explaining the natural world

Scientific AdvancementsScientific Instruments

New tools = precise observations and measurements

MicroscopeInvented by Zacharias Janssen

(Dutch, 1590)Bacteria observed in 1670

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek - DutchRed blood cells observedLife did not spawn spontaneously

(maggots, etc)

Scientific AdvancementsBarometer

Invented by Torricelli (1643)Galileo’s studentMeasures atmospheric pressureUsed to predict weather changes

ThermometerGabriel Fahrenheit (1714, Dutch)

made the first mercury thermometerWater freezes at 32*, boils at 212*

Anders Celsius (1742, Swede)created another scale for the mercury

thermometerWater freezes at 0*, boils at 100*

Scientific AdvancementsDissection:

Middle AgesHuman anatomy based upon Greek

physician GalenGalen based his thoughts upon the

anatomy of animals (pigs)Vesalius (Flemish) :

Pioneered the study of Anatomydissected human corpses, wrote seven

volume work ‘On the Fabric of the Human Body ‘

Detailed drawings of human organs, bones and muscle and how they work together in the body.

Proved that many of Galen’s assumptions were wrong.

Scientific AdvancementsWilliam Harvey :

showed that the heart acted as a pump to circulate blood

described the function of blood vessels.

Wrote “On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals.”

Edward Jenner : introduced vaccination for small-

pox using cow-poxPractice had previously existed in Asia

Cow Pock - 1802

Scientific AdvancementsElements:

AristotleFour elements: earth, air, fire, and water

Robert BoyleFounder of modern ChemistryUsed Scientific Method Challenged Aristotle’s ideaMatter made up of smaller particles joined together in

different ways.Boyle’s Law – Explains how the volume, temperature and

pressure of gas affect each otherMost important contribution to chemistry

Joseph Priestley and Antoine LavoisierSeparated gas from air – Gas named oxygen.

Notable ScientistsGottfried Liebnitz

Developed calculus – but independently of Newton.Invented the Binary System

Basis for all computer architecturesPhilosophy

Optimism – Idea that God created the best possible world and always chooses the best

Notable Scientists Isaac Newton:

Explained laws of motion All physical objects were affected equally by the same forces Disproved Aristotle’s idea that one set of physical laws

governed the earth and another set governed the rest of the universe

Law of universal gravitation Every object in the universe attracts every other object The degree of attraction depends on the mass/distance of the

objects Wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

(Principia) one of the most important scientific books ever written Gravitation and laws of motion

Universe is a giant clock All the parts work together perfected in a way that could be

expressed mathematically Believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe and

the clock-maker that set everything into motion

The Enlightenment

Two Views on GovernmentEnlightenment: Age of Reason (mid-1700s)

People looking for laws which govern human behavior Hoped to apply reason and the scientific method to all

aspects of societygovernment, religion, economics, and education

•Thomas Hobbes: English Civil War• Wrote ‘Leviathan’• Human Nature: all humans are

naturally selfish and wicked

• Government kept order and prevented war• Social contract: people exchanged their

rights for law and order

• Absolute monarch imposed order and demanded obedience

• Best form of government

Two Views on GovernmentJohn Locke: Glorious Revolution

Wrote ‘Two Treatises of Government’ Human Nature: people could learn

from experience and improve themselves

Ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society

Believed in separation of Church and State

Social ContractPeople and government are bound to

each other by consentContrasts ‘divine right’

Man is born free and equalNatural Rights – life, liberty, property

Government’s purpose is to protect these rights Failure to do so = citizens’ right to overthrow itConsent of the people is the foundation of

modern democracy

Notable Philosophes & IdeasVoltaire: French writer

Fought for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech

Was arrested several times for criticism of the govt.

Used the pen as a deadly weapon vs. intolerance, prejudice, and superstition

“I disprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Notable Philosophes & IdeasMontesquieu: French writer

Studied political libertyWrote “On the Spirit of Laws”.Ancient Rome: collapse directly

related to its loss of political liberties

Separation of powers: Based upon British governmentExecutive power=king and his

ministersLegislative=Parliament, law-making

powerJudicial=English courts/judgesPower should be a check to power

Checks and balances: Each branch of government would serve as a check on the other two

Serves as the basis of the Constitution of the United States

Notable Philosophes & Ideas

Jean Jacques Rousseau (Swiss): Committed to individual freedom Argued that civilization corrupted

people’s natural goodnessMan is born free, and everywhere he is

in chainsPeople had lived as free and equal

individualsStrongest forced them to obey unjust

lawsFreedom and equality were destroyed

The only good government was one that was formed by the peopleGuided by the general will of society –

direct democracyLegitimate government came from the

consent of the governedAll people were equal

Notable Philosophes & IdeasCesare Bonesana Beccaria : Italian

Wrote “On Crimes and Punishments.” Railed against common abuses of justice

torture of witnesses and suspectsirregular proceedings in trialscruel and arbitrary punishment

Person should receive a speedy trialtorture should never be usedpunishment should be based on the

seriousness of crimecapital punishment should be abolished

Justice should be based on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Notable Philosophes & Ideas

Mary Wollstonecraft :

Wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”.

argued that women like men, need education to become virtuous and useful and bring equality between the sexes

Argued women should have the same political rights as men including right to vote.

Her two novels (Mary: A Fiction and Maria, or, The Wrongs of Woman) criticize traditional women's roles.

Education will make them better mothers

Impact of the EnlightenmentImpact of the Enlightenment

Challenged the principle of the Divine Right of Monarchs (Absolutism)The union of church and stateUnequal social classesEncouraged Monarchs to make reforms

Inspired the American, Latin and French RevolutionsHelped shape Western civilization

Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problemsPeople began to openly question their religious beliefs

and the teachings of the church Religious toleration was promoted Individualism – people looked to themselves instead of

the church and royalty for guidancePeople used their own ability to reason in order to judge

what is right and wrong

Spread of IdeasSalons:

Social gatherings Philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas and enjoy artistic performances

•Encyclopedia: Edited by Diderot (1741)

• Leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays

• The most current and enlightened thinking • Science, technology, art, government

• Helped educate people all over Europe• Opposed by the Catholic Church:

undermined royal authority• encouraged the spirit of revolt• fostered moral corruption, irreligion, and

unbelief•Ideas available to a majority of the population

• Enlightenment ideas reached middle-class people through newspapers, pamphlets, and songs

Enlightened DespotsEnlightenment Despots:

Enlightened – Embraced new ideas and reformsDespot -- absolute ruler

Frederick the Great (Prussia. 1740-1786)Friend of VoltaireGranted many religious freedoms, reduced

censorship, and improved education, reformed governmentSaid “every man must go to heaven his own way.”

Reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture

Built canals, drained swamps, introduced new crops, such as the potato and turnip, to support peasants

Goal: to serve and strengthen his country

Enlightened DespotsJoseph II (Austria, 1780-1790)

Legal reforms and freedom of press Freedom of worship – even for Protestants, Orthodox

Christians, and Jews Abolished serfdom, required peasants be paid a wage for

labor. Changes reversed after his death

Enlightened Despots

Catherine the Great (Russia, 1762-1796) Took steps to modernize and reform Russia Corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot Formed a Commission to review Russia’s laws

Recommended religious toleration, abolishment of torture, and capital punishment

Commission took none of her suggestions By end of reign

Suppressed peasant revolts, enforced serfdom, practiced religious intolerance

Sought trade access to Black Sea from Ottoman Turks

Divided Poland with Prussia and Austria

The End!