Scientific Method
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Transcript of Scientific Method
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Scientific Method• Steps
•Observation•Hypothesis•Experiment•Analysis and Conclusion
If wrong form new hypothesis
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Scientific MethodControlled experiment
•Tests effect of a single variable while keeping all other variables the same•Any observed differences should be caused only by the single changed variable
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Scientific Method• Observations
(qualitative and quantitative)•Quantitative– involve numbers, counting, measuring objects.•Qualitative– involve characteristics that cannot be easily measured or counted such as color or texture
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Scientific MethodHypothesis– a possible explanation, a
preliminary conclusion, or even an “educated” guess about some event in nature
Theory– As evidence builds up, a particular hypothesis may become so well supported that scientists consider it a theory.
Atomic theory
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ChemistryOrganic Compounds
•Carbohydrate- main source of energy for animals
•Monomer = monosaccharide (single suger)•Polymer = Starch, Cellulose
•Protein- functional or structural
•Monomer = Amino Acid•Polymer = Protein
•Nucleic Acid-controls inheritance
•Monomer = Nucleotide•Polymer = DNA, RNA
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ChemistryEnzymes
•Biological Catalyst•Speeds up chemical reactions•Lowers Activation energy (energy needed to get reaction started
•Not used up during reaction
•A specialized protein •functional protein
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ChemistrypH
•Measured on a scale of 1-14
•Below 7 acid
•Above 7 base
•pH of 7 = neutral•Speeds up chemical reactions•Lowers Activation energy (energy needed to get reaction started
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ChemistryReactants and Products
water Hydroxide ion
Hydrogen ion
+
H+ H2O OH-
+
Reactants Products
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ChemistrySolutions•Solute- “stuff” that is dissolved
•Solvent –the liquid that does the dissolvin
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ChemistryChemical bonds– links that hold atoms together. Two main types
Covalent bonds– formed by sharing electrons between two atoms
•Bond found in organic compounds
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ChemistryIonic bonds- formed by transfer of 1 more electrons from 1 atom to another
•Ion– (+) or (-) charged atom that results from gaining or losing electron
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Cells• Organelles
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Nucleus- control center of cell. Contains DNA (genetic material). Found in eukaryotic cells.
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Ribosome- organelle where proteins are made. Free-floating and some on Endoplasmic reticulum
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Golgi apparatus- Cells “post office”. Packages proteins
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Endoplasmic reticulum- Cells transport system. Help make proteins (rough E.R.)
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Lysosome- “clean-up” crew of cell. Contains enzymes to break down old cell parts, digest food, etc.
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Cell membrane- flexible, and semi-permeable membrane surrounding cell.
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Cells• Cell membrane- composed of lipid bi-
layer (2 layers of lipids)Lipid layer also called phospholipids
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Cells• Semi-permeable- allows some things to
pass through but not others
Diffusion- movement from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentrations
Osmosis- diffusion of water
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Cells• Active transport- takes energy
(endocytosis and exocytosis)
• Passive transport- no energy required (diffusion and osmosis)
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CellsProkaryotes and Eukaryotes- Scientists divide cells Into two groups depending on whether they have a nucleus or not.
1. Prokaryotes-no
nucleus
• Smaller and simpler than cells of eukaryotes
• Do have cytoplasm and cell membrane
• Example: Bacteria
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CellsEukaryotes- do contain nucleus and membrane bound organelles (includes plants, animals, fungi)
•Contain cytoplasm and cell membrane
•Contains organelles
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CellsHomeostasis- maintain constant internal conditions (example: blood sugar levels, blood pressure, shivering/sweating)
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Photosynthesis• Equation
• Energy from sunlight converts carbon dioxide and water into high energy sugar (glucose)
• Takes place in chloroplast (organelle)• Affected by:
1. Light intensity2. Amount of water3. Temperature
• Autotroph- Can make their own food (plants)
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
light
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Cellular Respiration• Heterotroph- can not make their own food.
Need to eat something else to obtain energy (fungi, animals, most bacteria
• Equation
• Fermentation- still make energy when no oxygen present. Two types: alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation
• Mitochondria- where respiration takes place
6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
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Cellular RespirationSeries of events: Glycolysis → krebs cycle → electron transport
ENERGY
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Cellular RespirationCompared to
Photosynthesis
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Cell DivisionCell cycle- series of event cell goes through
as it grows and eventually divides.
Interphase- When cell grows and develops, getting ready to divide again
Mitosis- Division of cell nucleus (forms diploid (2N) cells)
Cytokinesis- cell splits in twoPMAT
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Cell DivisionMeiosis- cell division forming sex cells (gametes)
•Results in 4 genetically different cells•Gametes are N (haploid-half the number of chromosomes)
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Cell DivisionCell growth (cell gets bigger, volume increases
faster than surface area) so has to divide
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DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
• Replication- DNA making DNA• Transcription- DNA making RNA• Translation- RNA making Proteins
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DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
DNA RNASugar- deoxyribose Sugar-ribose
Two stranded Single strand
ATCG AUCG
3 kinds of RNA
DNA-double helix
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DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Complementary bases• DNA: C-G A-T• RNA: C-G A-U
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DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
Codon- three letter “word” on mRNA specifying a particular amino acid
codon
anticodon
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Geneticshomozygous same letters (TT or tt)
heterozygous different letters (Tt)
Genotype- the alleles (letters) i.e. Tt, TT, tt
Phenotype- physical characteristics (Tall, short)
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Genetics• Gamete- sex cell (N)
haploid.
• Zygote- fertilized egg
• Fertilization- process when sperm and egg join
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GeneticsDominant / Recessive cross- one allele is
dominant over another. I.e. T-tall (dominant) over t-short (recessive)
Tt Tt
Tt Tt
T T
t
t
TT X tt
gametesAll tall offspring
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GeneticsIncomplete dominance- one allele is not
completely dominant over another (RR-red crossed with WW-white yields all RW-pink flowers)
RW RW
RW RW
R R
W
W
RR X WW
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GeneticsCo-dominance- both alleles are dominant.
RR-red hair, WW-white hair, RW-roan
RW RW
RW RW
R R
W
W
RR X WW
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GeneticsDihybrid cross- Mendel’s two-factor
experimental results were very close to 9:3:3:1 ratio predicted by punnett square. Proved that genes that segregate independently do not influence each other’s inheritance.
9:3:3:1
Principle of Independent Assortment
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GeneticsMultiple Alleles- ABO blood type is an
example. A and B or co-dominant.
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GeneticsCrossing over- when “legs”
of chromosomes cross over each other during meiosis and exchange parts of themselves.
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GeneticsNon-disjunction- when chromosomes fail
to separate during meiosis. Resulting in missing or extra chromosomes in gametes
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Genetics“Code of Life”- Reading codons and the
amino acids they code for
Example:
CGA UGC AAU
Arg – Cys - Asn
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Genetics
CloningCloning- a member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell
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Human ChromosomesHuman Chromosomes- body cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 from sperm, 23 from egg. Join in diploid zygote)
Genetics
•KaryotypeKaryotype- picture of chromosomes cut out from photographs and grouped together in pairs•Sex chromosomesSex chromosomes- two of 46- these determine sex of individual XX=female and XY=male
•autosomesautosomes- remaining 44 chromosomes
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Egg cells contain a single X chromosome. Sperm cells contain either one X chromosome or one Y chromosome. Approximately half of the zygotes are XX (female) and half XY (male)
Genetics