Science & Technology notes for GS - Civil Services Examination

7/28/2019 Science & Technology notes for GS - Civil Services Examination

1/68

Polygenicinheritanceisusedtorefertotheinheritanceofquantitativetraits,traitswhichareinfluencedbymultiple

genes,notjustone.Inadditiontoinvolvingmultiplegenes,polygenicinheritancealsolooksattheroleofenvironment

insomeone'sdevelopment.Oneeasilyunderstoodexampleofpolygenicinheritanceisheight.Peoplearenotjustshort

or tall; they have a variety of heights which run along a spectrum. Furthermore, height is also influenced by

environment; someonebornwith tall genes could become shortdue tomalnutrition or illness, for example,while

someonebornwithshortgenescouldbecometallthroughgenetictherapy

SolarPanels:basicelement puresilicon;Whensiliconisstrippedofallimpurities,itmakesaidealneutralplatformfor

thetransmissionofelectrons;Solarpanelsarecreatedbycombiningsiliconwithotherelementsthatdohavepositive

ornegativechargeseg:P;Whenthenegativeplatesofsolarcellsarepointedataproperangletothesun,photons

bombardthesilicon/phosphorusatoms.Eventually,the9thelectron,whichwantstobefreeanyway,isknockedoffthe

outerring.Thiselectrondoesn'tremainfreeforlong,sincethepositivesilicon/boronplatedrawsitintotheopenspot

onitsownouterband.Asthesun'sphotonsbreakoffmoreelectrons,electricityisgenerated.

Nitrile gloves are a type of disposable glove made of synthetic rubber. They contain no latex proteins and offer

excellentresistancetowearandtears.

Nitrileglovesaremorepunctureresistantthanmanyothertypesofrubberglovesandcanbeusedtooffersuperiorresistance

to

many

types

of

chemicals.

oftenconsideredtobeoneofthethestrongesttypesofdisposablegloveandaregenerallysafeforpeoplewhoareallergictolatex.

popularfortheirhighdegreeofflexibilityandsuperiorsolventresistance. resistanttomanyoils&someacids=>makesagoodchoiceformanymanufacturingenvironments. usedintheemergencymedicalservicefields,suchasbyparamedics.Cybernetictheoryhasfourcomponents:variety,circularity,processandobservation.

Varietyrelatestotheinformationandcommunication/controltheoriesandemphasizeschoices. Circularityignoresconceptsofhierarchyinsystems,favoringamorelevelplayingfield. Processlooksatfeedbackloopsandinvolvesregulationswithinsystems. Observationinvolvesdecisionmakingandhowwecomputeconclusions.DNAfingerprintingisawayofidentifyingaspecificindividual;alsoknownasgeneticfingerprintingorDNAprofiling

usedbothforidentifyingpaternityormaternityandforidentifyingcriminalsorvictims. discussionofusingitasasortofpersonalidentifieraswell,althoughviabilityofthisisdebatable. DNAfingerprintingusesaspecifictypeofDNAsequence,knownasamicrosatellite,tomake identificationmuch

easier.

Microsatellites are short pieces of DNA which repeat many times in a given person's DNA. In a given area,microsatellites

tend

to

be

highly

variable,

making

them

ideal

for

DNA

fingerprinting.

By

comparing

anumber

of

microsatellitesinagivenarea,onecanidentifyapersonrelativelyeasily.

sections of DNA used in DNA fingerprinting, although highly variable, are passed down from parents to theirchildren

usefulinthecaseofidentifyingvictimsbecauseevenincaseswherethebodymaybedisfiguredpastidentification,andteethorotheridentifyingfeaturesmaybedestroyed,allittakesisasinglecellforpositiveidentification

CSE GS Notes Science & Technology

(c) Divya Mittal , Not to be used for any commercial purpose 1


2/68

Stemcellresearch

is a relatively new technology that takes primitive human cells and develops them intomost any of the 220varietiesofcellsinthehumanbody,includingbloodcellsandbraincells.

Somescientistsandresearchershavegreathopeforthisresearchanditsabilitytouncovertreatmentsandpossiblyevencuresforsomeoftheworstdiseases includingheartdisease,diabetes,andneurodegenerativediseases like

Alzheimer'sandParkinson's.

givesrisetofearofhumancloningandseriousconcernsovertheethicsofconductingscientificresearchon,whichincludesthedestructionof,humanembryos.

Types:Humanstemcellsprimarilycomefromembryosoradulttissue.Embryonicstemcellscanbecreatedsolelyforthepurposeofstemcellresearchortheycanbetheleftoverfromotherprocesses,suchasfromIVF.

Adultstemcellscanbeharvested fromadult tissuewithminor, ifany,harm to theadult.Embryonicstemcells,however,aresaidtobegenerallyeasiertoextractthantheadultstemcells,andembryonicstemcellsaresaidto

havemoreusesthantheiradultcounterparts.

Plasmonics

Plasmons are density waves of electrons, created when light hits the surface of a metal under precisecircumstances.

These

density

waves

are

generated

at

optical

frequencies,

and

are

very

small

and

rapid.

They

can

theoretically encode a lot of information,more thanwhat's possible for conventional electronics. Plamonics is

thoughttoembodythestrongestpointsofbothopticalandelectronicdatatransfer,allowingthefasttransmission

ofinformationoververysmallwires.

Plasmonics,sometimescalled"lightonawire,"wouldallowthetransmissionofdataatopticalfrequenciesalongthesurfaceofatinymetalwire,despitethefactthatthedatatravelsintheformofelectrondensitydistributions

ratherthanphotons.

main limitationtoplasmonicstoday isthatplasmonstendtodissipateafteronlyafewmillimeters,makingthemtooshortlivedtoserveasabasisforcomputerchips

Forsendingdataoverlongerdistances,techneedsimprovement needmaterialwithalowrefractiveindex,ideallynegative.

no

natural

material

with

ve;

so

nanostructured

materials

must

be

used

to

fabricate

effective

plasmonic

devices.hence,plasmonicsisfrequentlyassociatedwithnanotech

Plasmonicwiresmayactashighbandwidthfreewaysacrossthebusiestareasofthesiliconchip used in biosensors: When a particular protein or DNA molecule rests on the surface of a plasmoncarrying

metallicmaterial,itleavesitscharacteristicsignatureintheangleatwhichitreflectstheenergy.

Carbonfiber

isthecommonnameusedtorefertoplastic(typicallyepoxy)reinforcedbyagraphitetextile. isknownalternativelyascarbonfiberreinforcedplasticorcarbonfibercomposite. Expensivebuthighweighttostrengthratio;verydifficulttobreak; Introducingcarbonnanotubes into the fiber iscurrently in researchstages,andmayoffer improved ratiosof10

timesorgreateraspaceagematerial

employedinhighqualitycars,boats,bicycles,andplanes,includingpopularFormulaOneracecars. oldbridgesmaybesparedfromdestructionandrebuildingthroughsimplecarbonfiberreinforcements,whichare

comparativelycheaper.

Gforcereferstoeithertheforceofgravityonaparticularcelestialbodyortheforceofaccelerationanywhere.Gforce

ismeasureding'swhere1g=9.8m/s2




3/68

Magnetron: Typicallyusedinmicrowaveovens,amagnetronisatubethatutilizeselectricalandmagneticcurrentsin

ordertocreateanintenseheatoutput.

Wormholeisahypotheticalspacetimetopology,a"shortcut"thatwouldallowtravelbetweentwopointsatapparently

fasterthanlightspeeds.Inreality,movementthroughawormholewouldnotbefasterthanlight,butrathermovingat

normalspeedthroughfoldedspace.

Kevlarisanextremelystrongmaterialthatderivesitsstrengthfromitsweave.Itiswovenliketinyspiderwebs.islight,

itis

the

premium

choice

for

bulletproof

vests.

use

in

shelters

for

protection

against

tornadoes.

can

deflect

large

materialsatspeedsofupto250mph

Compositematerials for construction, engineering, andother similar applications are formedby combining twoor

morematerials insuchawaythattheconstituentsofthecompositematerialsarestilldistinguishable,andnot fully

blended.Eg:concrete;usetwoconstituents:abinderormatrixandareinforcement

GenomicDNA

is the DNA that holds the complete set of genetic data for an organism. spans 46 chromosomes; providing acompletesetofgeneticinformationincludingcodingDNAwhichleadstotheexpressionofgenetictraits,andnon

codingDNA

which

does

not

have

this

function.

The genomic DNA of humans has been sequenced as part of the Human Genome Project, with the goal ofeventuallylearningaboutthespecificfunctionsofvariousareasofthegenome.

Beingabletolocatespecificgenesandotherinformationcouldbeusefulfordiagnosisandeventualtreatmentofgeneticconditions.

AgeostationaryorbitisoneinwhichthespeedatwhichasatelliteorbitstheEarthcoincideswiththespeedthatthe

Earthturnsandatthesamelatitude,specificallyzero,thelatitudeoftheequator.Geostationaryobjectsinorbitmust

beatacertaindistanceabovetheEarthtoremaininthesamepositionrelativetotheEarth'ssurface.

Since

the

only

geostationary

orbit

for

the

Earth

is

in

a

plane

with

the

equator

at

35,786

kilometers,

there

is

only

one

circlearoundtheworldwheretheseconditionsoccur.Thismeansthatgeostationary'realestate'isfinite.

Ageosynchronous orbitisoneinwhichthesatelliteissynchronizedwiththeEarth'srotation,buttheorbitistiltedwith

respecttotheplaneoftheequator.Asatelliteinageosynchronousorbitwillwanderupanddowninlatitude,although

itwillstayoverthesamelineoflongitude.geostationaryorbitisasubsetofallpossiblegeosynchronousorbits.

LowearthorbitisonlyslightlyabovetheEarth,byouterspacestandards,200 2000km(124 1240miles)inaltitude.

Below 124 miles, orbits rapidly degrade, causing surface impact, and above 1,240miles or even less, the Earth's

radiationbeltsdamageelectronicequipment,necessitatingspecialshielding.Theregion from1,243milesaltitudeto

geostationaryorbitisknownasMediumEarthOrbit.Lowearthorbit,mediumearthorbit,andgeostationaryorbitare

knownas

LEO,

MEO,

and

GSO

respectively.

Eg:

International

Space

Station,

fluctuates

between

320

km

and

347

km

abovethesurface.makingabout17orbitsperday;MostproposalsforspacehotelsareplacedinLEO

Humoralimmunityisatypeofimmunitywhichisconferredthroughthereleaseofantibodieswhichareusedtotarget

cells fordestructionby thebodywhen these cells are viewed aspotentiallydangerous.This typeof immunity is a

complementtocellularimmunity,inwhichcellsreleasetoxinstokillunwantedinvaders,orattacktheinvadersdirectly

tokillthem.




4/68

CentralDogmaofmolecularbiology

isthatinformationinbiologicalsystemsonlyflowsinonedirection:fromDNAtoRNAtoproteins

DNA istranscribedtoRNAwhich istranslatedtoprotein.Protein isneverbacktranslatedtoRNAorDNA;andexcept

forretroviruses,DNAisnevercreatedfromRNA.Furthermore,DNAisneverdirectlytranslatedtoprotein.

DNA isthe longtermhardcopyofthegeneticmaterial;bywayofanalogyitissimilartoinformationstoredonacomputer'sharddiskdrive.DNAisverystableandinert

RNA is a temporary intermediary betweenDNA and the proteinmaking factories, theribosomes.RNAcouldbecompared to informationstored inacache. It isunstableand

lackssecondarystructure.SomeRNAhasenzymaticactivity.

Proteinscouldbeviewedastheprogramsofthecell(tocompleteouranalogy).Theyarethephysicalrepresentationoftheabstractinformationcontainedwithinthegenome.Proteinsvarygreatlyintheir

activityandhalflife.proteinstheycome inallshapesandsizes.Forexample,collagen isaubiquitousproteinthat

makesupalmostallofyourbodiesmainstructuraltissue

Geneticdrift

isamechanismofevolutionthatoccursbyrandomchanceratherthannaturalselection. Ingeneticdrift,apopulationexperiencesachange in the frequencyofagivenallele,promptedby random luck

ratherthananeedforadaptation.Thisdiffersfromnaturalselection,inwhichallelicfrequencyisalteredbasedon

thefittestgenessurvivingtoreproduceandtheweakergenesdyingoff.

Geneticdrifttendstobeaphenomenonamongstsmallerpopulations,whilenaturalselectionholdsswayinlargerpopulations.

Bioavailability isa termusedby severalbranchesofscientificstudy todescribe thewaychemicalsareabsorbedby

humansand

other

animals.

A

bioavailability

measurement

of

amedication,

when

it

reaches

circulation

in

the

body,

describesaspectslikeabsorbencyandhalflife.Itcanevaluatemedicationdeliveryaswell.

Atransgenicorganismisanorganismwhichhasbeenmodifiedwithgeneticmaterialfromanotherspecies.Thegenetic

modificationisaccomplishedbyinsertingDNAintoanembryowiththeassistanceofavirus,aplasmid,oragenegun.

Theembryo isallowed todevelop,and thematureorganismwillexpress theDNAwhichhasbeen inserted into its

genome. Transgenic organisms can also pass the modification on to future generations by breeding with other

membersofthesamespecies.Uses:developmentofgeneticallymodifiedcrops;sometimesarerenderedsterilesothat

theycannotinterbreed,forthepurposeofprotectingpatentsandtopreventtransgenicorganismsfromcrossbreeding

withwild relatives;used in scientific research eg transgenicmice;Mice can bemodifiedwith humanDNA for the

purposeoftestingmedicaltreatmentsandseeinghowtheymightbehaveinahuman.

StringTheory,sometimescalledtheTheoryofEverything, isthoughtbysometobetheunifyingfieldtheoryEinstein

sought before his death. String theory is the first mathematically sound theory that reconciles the world of the

infinitesimallysmall,withtheworldweknowatlarge.ItunitesEinsteinsTheoryofRelativitywithquantumphysicsand

offersapotentialexplanationfortheBigBang.thestrengthofstringtheoryisthatitaccountsforallfourknownforces

in one elegant theory. These fundamental forces are gravity; the strong and weak nuclear forces; and

electromagnetism.




5/68

Bioleaching

usesbacterialmicroorganisms toextractpreciousmetals,suchasgold, fromore inwhich it isembedded.Asanalternativetosmeltingorroasting,minersusebioleachingwhentherearelowerconcentrationsofmetalinoreand

theyneedanefficient,environmentallyresponsiblemethod.Thebacteriafeedsonnutrients inminerals,thereby

separatingthemetalthatleavestheorganism'ssystem;thenthemetalcanbecollectedinasolution.

usedtorecovercopper,zinc,lead,arsenic,antimony,nickel,molybdenum,gold,silver,andcobalt. Bioleachingcaninvolvenumerousferrousironandsulfuroxidizingbacteria,includingAcidithiobacillusferrooxidans

andAcidithiobacillus(formerlyknownasThiobacillus).

Asageneralprinciple,Fe3+ionsareusedtooxidizetheore.Thisstepisentirelyindependentofmicrobes.Theroleof thebacteria is the furtheroxidationof theore,butmore importantly also the regenerationof the chemical

oxidantFe3+fromFe2+

Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum) were able tomobilizeCuandSnby65%,andAl,Ni,Pb,andZnbymorethan95%.

Ads:Economical (simplerand therefore cheaper tooperate),Envirofriendly > lessemissions andhencehigherprofitbydecreasingcostofabatement

Disads:process isveryslowcompared tosmelting> lessprofits;Toxicchemicalsaresometimesproduced in theprocess.

Sulfuric

acid

and

H+

ions

which

have

been

formed

can

leak

into

the

ground

turning

it

acidic

Magneticstorm,

alsoknownasageomagneticstorm,isadisturbanceintheEarth'smagneticfieldcausedbycoronalmassejections(CMEs)orsolarflaresfromtheSun.

Amagneticstormusuallybeginsbetween24and36hoursafterthesolarevent,whenashockwaveofsolarwindreachestheEarth'sionosphere.thentypicallylasts24to48hours,thoughsomemaylastaslongasdays.

Theeffectsofamagnetic storm includedisruptionof communicationsandnavigation systems, intenseauroras,damagetosatellites,andduringthemostextremestorms,inducedcurrentsinpowerlinesandpipelinesthatresult

inpoweroutagesandcorrosion.

RecombinantDNA(rDNA)

is a type ofDNA that is artificially created by inserting a strand ormore ofDNA into a different set of DNA.RecombinantDNA isused ingeneticmodificationtocreatecompletelyneworganismsbyaddingartificialbitsor

bitsofDNAfromotherorganismstoanexistingcreature.

usedtointroduceveryspecificfeaturesintocrops,bacteria,andanimals,usuallytomakethemmorebeneficialtohumans,althoughsometimessimplyasademonstrationofatechnique,orsometimesasanartisticstatement.

uses :tomakecropsdroughtresistant,tocreatenewvaccines,suchas thenewestHepatitisBvaccine,tomakecropsnaturallypestresistant,andtheinfamousGloFish,whichwerezebrafishthatweremadefluorescent.

DifferentTypesofRecombinantDNATechnology

1. bacterialtransformation it involvesencouragingaspeciallypreparedbacterialcellto take inapieceof foreignDNA and incorporate itdirectly into thebacterial genome.E. coli areoftenused as thehosts for thismethod,

becausetheyareeasytogrowandreproducequickly.

2. Nonbacterialtransformation almost identicaltobacterialtransformation,except thatbacteriaarenotusedashostcells.iscommonlyusedineukaryoticcells,likeyeastorplantcells.Thistypeoftransformationcanbedoneby

shootingDNAfragmentsattachedtotinypelletsdirectly intocellnuclei,orby injectingDNA intocellnucleiwith

microscopicneedles




6/68

3. phage introduction,which involvesusingspecific typesofviruses,calledphages, to inject foreignDNA intohostcells. Viruses can carry either singlestranded or doublestrandedDNA, so they can be used to replace single

strandedDNAatspecificlocations.

Nanorobotsaretheoreticalmicroscopicdevicesmeasuredonthescaleofnanometers.

Nanomedicine'snanorobotsaresotinythattheycaneasilytraversethehumanbody.Scientistsreporttheexteriorofananorobotwilllikelybeconstructedofcarbonatomsinadiamondoidstructurebecauseofitsinertproperties

andstrength.

Super

smooth

surfaces

will

lessen

the

likelihood

of

triggering

the

body's

immune

system,

allowing

the

nanorobotstogoabouttheirbusinessunimpeded.Glucoseornaturalbodysugarsandoxygenmightbeasource

forpropulsion,andthenanorobotwillhaveotherbiochemicalormolecularpartsdependingonitstask.

Molecularnanotechnology (MNT), theumbrellascienceofnanomedicine,envisionsnanorobotsmanufactured innanofactoriesnolargerthantheaveragedesktopprinter.Thenanofactorieswouldusenanoscaletoolscapableof

constructingnanorobotstoexactingspecifications.

Biological magnification, or biomagnifications/bioamplification, explains why a substance appears in higher

concentrations inorganismshigher inagiven foodchain than inorganisms lower ina foodchain.Thishappenscoz

creatureshighupinthefoodchainfeedoncreaturesthatarelowerinthefoodchainandabsorbthesubstancesfrom

theorganisms

they

consume

in

addition

to

the

substances

they

directly

absorb

from

the

environment.

Biomagnification

ofDDThasbeenstudiedcozofdetrimentaleffectontheenvironmentandonhumanandanimalhealth

Somaticmutationisageneticmutationwhichoccursinasomaticcellafterconception.Thesemutationscanleadtoa

varietyofmedicalissues.

canbeidentifiedbyexaminingthegeneticmaterialinaquestionablecellandcomparingittoacellfromelsewhereinthebody;theDNAinthetwocellswillbedifferent,despitethefactthatitisnotsupposedtobe

Therearetwotypesofcells:somaticcellsandgermcells.Germcellseventuallygiverisetogametes,whilesomaticcellsgiverisetoeverythingelse.Ifasomaticmutationoccursinutero,allofthecellsdescendedfromthesomatic

cellwill carry themutation. This results in a situation called geneticmosaicism, inwhich some of the cells in

someone'sbodyhaveDNAwhichisdifferentfromothercells.

Somaticmutationscannotbeinherited,becausetheydonotinvolvethegermcells.Parabensareagroupofchemicalcompoundswhicharewidelyusedaspreservatives,especiallyincosmetics.

arealsoutilizedbythepharmaceuticalindustry,andtheysometimesappearasfoodadditivesaswell. controversy,duetoconsumerconcernsabouttheirsafety, someproductsparabenfree areestersofparahydroxybenzoicacid concentrationofparabensincosmeticsisverylow,oftenlessthan1%; Healthconcerns primarilyfocusedontheirpotentialtoactlikeestrogencompoundsinthebody Butylparaben isusedasanantifungalpreservativeinvariouscosmeticproducts.Green engineering is the process and design of products that conserve natural resources, and impact the natural

environmentaslittleaspossible.Thetermisoftenappliedtohousing,butitcanbeusedforautomobiles,lightsorany

othersortofsystemordevicethatrequiresengineering,andincorporatessoundenvironmentalprinciples.

Biophotonsareweakemissionsoflightradiatedfromthecellsofalllivingthings.Plants,animalsandhumansgenerate

upto100photonspersecond,per1sq.centimeterofsurfacearea.Proponentsofalternativemedicineseeapossible

connectionbetweenbiophotonsandnaturalhealingtechniques.




7/68

Molecularnanotechnology("MNT") isananticipatedmanufacturingtechnologythatwouldallowprecisecontroland

positionalassemblyofmoleculesizedbuildingblocksthroughtheuseofnanoscalemanipulatorarms.Ifwehadmany

millions or billions of suchmolecularscale arms,we could program them towork together to createmacroscale

productsbuiltfromindividualmoleculesa"bottomupmanufacturing"technique,asopposedtotheusualtechnique

ofcuttingawaymaterialuntilyouhaveacompletedcomponentorproduct"topdownmanufacturing".

Rigormortis isaconditionthatbeginstodevelop inthebodyafterdeathtakesplace.Essentially,theactionofrigor

mortisistobeginaprocesswherethemusclesinthebodybegintostiffen.Inmostsituations,thecorpsewillbeginto

undergotheprocessofrigormortisatroughlythreehoursafterdeathtakesplaceandwillcontinuetoexperiencethe

musclestiffeningforanywherefromthirtysixtoseventytwohours.

AfurlongisaunitofmeasureintheUKandtheUS, translatestoaneighthofamile,660feet,or220yards

Cryogenics isthestudyoftheproductionofextremelycoldtemperatures.Cryogenicshasawidenumberofpotential

andactualapplications, ranging from temperingmetals so that theywillbemoredurable to improving the toneof

musicalinstruments.

Whenmetalsare frozen cryogenically, the strengthof theirmolecular structure can increase, causing themetalitselftobestrongerandmoredurable.Manyhighendmetalproductsmaybesubjectedtocryogenicsaspartof

thetemperingprocess.

alsousedinthepreparationofspecializedmedications,andinpreservationofawiderangeofmaterials. Cryogenicfuelsarealsopopularforrocketsandshuttles. cryogenic preservation known as cryonics Humans and other animals can be deep frozen under controlled

conditionsinthehopesthatmedicaladvanceswillallowthemtoberesuscitatedatsomepointinthefuture

Coldfusionisablankettermforanynuclearfusionreactionthatoccurssubstantiallybelownormaltemperatures,but

ismostoftenusedtodescribea lowtemperaturereactionthatcanbeachievedusingrelativelynormalexperimental

conditions.Deuterium(ahydrogen isotope) ismostoften lookedatasthebestpotentialsourceofcoldfusionbased

energy.Itisreadilyavailable,haslittlewaste,andproducesgreatamountsofenergy

Neodymium magnets are the greatest of the rareearth magnets. Neodymium is the most powerful permanent

magneticmaterialofwhichwearecurrentlyaware.Affordable;usedquitefrequentlyinindustryandamonghobbyists

anddabblers.Forexample,everycomputerharddrivehasasmallneodymiummagnetwhichhelpsdirecttheneedle

thatreadsdata.Theycanalsobefound inhighendspeakersandscienceclassroomsaroundtheworld.downsides

magneticfieldlosessomeintensitywhentemperaturesaretoohigh;

LightDetection andRanging (LIDAR) is a technology that utilizes lasers todetermine the distance to an objector

surface. It isused inavarietyof industries, includingatmosphericphysics,geology, forestry,oceanography,and law

enforcement.LIDAR issimilartoradar,but it incorporates laserpulsesratherthanradiowaves.canalsobeused for

creatingthree

dimensional

topographical

maps

and

surveys

of

geographical

regions;

can

also

be

used

to

analyze

the

ocean floorand todeterminecanopyheightsandbiomassmeasurements. Italsohasapplications inseismologyand

hasbeenusedinstudiesofuplift,faultlines,andothergeologicalfeatures.

UsesofRadar

1. Detectionandsearchradar:suchasthe"earlywarningradar,"which isusedfor longrangedetectionofobjects,andTargetAcquisition (TA)RadarSystems,used to locatesurfacetoairmissiles (SAM).Thesetypesofradarare

frequentlyusedinthemilitaryandincoastalsurveillance,aswellasfordetectingcarspeedduringhighwaypatrol

2. Missileguidancesystemsareradarusedtolocatethetargetofamissile.Thisisoftenpresentinmilitaryaircraft.




8/68

3. Radarforbiologicalresearch:birdandinsectradarareusedfrequentlybyscientiststotrackthemigrationpatternsofanimals.totrackthepresenceofbirds,especiallyvultures,nearlaunchingpads.

4. Airtrafficcontrolandnavigationradar:usedbyairportstoensurethesafetyofplanes,thistypeofradardetectstheproximityofanaircraftandidentifiestheidentityandaltitudeoftheplane.

5. Weathersensingradarsystems:mostlyusedtomeasureandlocateprecipitation;measurewinddirection&speedELISAmethodisatestwhichisusedinimmunologyandotherscientificfieldstodetectantibodiesandantigens.ELISA

standsforenzymelinkedimmunosorbentassay,whichreferstothefactthatantibodiescoupledtoenzymesareused

todetermine the resultsof the test.ELISAusesenzymeswhich reactwithantibodies to formcoloredproducts.The

developmentofcolor inanELISAtest indicatesapositiveresult.test isusedtodetectthepresenceofantibodiesto

infectiousdiseasessuchasHIV,hepatitis,andothers.

Smartgridisanelectricalgridwhichhasbeendigitizedsothatavarietyofdigitalmeasurescanbeusedtocontroland

operate the grid. The goal of installing a smart grid is to meet energy demands intelligently, promoting energy

efficiencyinadditiontocreatingamorereliablesourceofenergywhichisalsolessexpensive.

Seafloorspreading isaconstantgeologicphenomenonandaprimarydriverofcontinentaldrift.Theprocessbegins

whenthecrustisheatedfrombeneathbyupwellinginthemantle,sometimescalledamantleplume.Thecrustalong

thelength

of

the

rift

is

heated

by

the

underlying

mantle,

becoming

more

plastic

and

less

dense.

The

crust

rises,

creating

abroaddomeandwideningtherift.

LODscore(standsforlogarithmoftheodds)isarepresentationofthe likelihoodofa linkagebetweentwogenetic

traits.IftheLODscoreishigh,itmeansthatthetraitsarecloselylinked,andthereforeusuallyinheritedtogether.Asa

generalrule,iftheLODscoreis3orhigher,itmeansthatthereisahighprobabilityofgeneticlinkage

Opticalcamouflageisahypotheticaltypeofactivecamouflagecurrentlyonlyinaveryprimitivestageofdevelopment.

The idea is relatively straightforward: to create the illusionof invisibilityby covering anobjectwith something that

projectsthescenedirectlybehindthatobject.Creatingcompleteopticalcamouflageacrossthevisible lightspectrum

would require a coating or suit covered in tiny cameras and projectors,programmed to gather visual data from a

multitudeof

different

angles

and

project

the

gathered

images

outwards

in

an

equally

large

number

of

different

directionstogivetheillusionofinvisibilityfromallangles.

Ariftvalleyisageographicfeaturecausedwhenonearmofatriplejunctionbetweentectonicplates"fails"(i.e.,stops

spreading)and leavesa remnantcanyonlikestructure. largest riftvalley in theworld is theGreatRiftValley inEast

Africa.Alloftheworld's largestfreshwater lakesare inriftvalleys, includingLakeBaikal inRussia(theworld's largest

lakebyvolume,holding20%oftheworld'sfreshwater),LakeTanganyikainAfrica(secondlargestlake),LakeSuperior

intheUnitedStates(thirdlargest),andanumberofothers.Someriftvalleysarestillgeologicallyactive,butmostare

dormant.

Quantum

dot

is

a

particle

having

an

approximate

size

of

one

nanometer

which

has

the

display

properties

of

a

semiconductor.

Working:keytothequantumdotisintheelectrons.Electronsoccupyoneoftwobandsinamaterialscrystal.Byprovidingtheproperstimuli,anelectron,orperhapsmorethanone,canbeencouragedtomovefromonebandto

theother.Asitmovesfromonebandtotheother,itcreatesahole,whichispositivelycharged.Together,thehole

andtheelectronarereferredtoasanexciton.Normally,electronandthehole intheexcitonkeeptheirdistance

fromeachother.However, ifthecrystal isreduced insize, itcrowdsthisgap.Oncethathappens, itchangesthe

crystals ability to absorb and emit energy. At this point, the quantum dot is created. Different colors can be

obtainedbyreducingorincreasingthesizeofthequantumdot.




9/68

Applications:MultiplequantumdotscanbeusedasLEDsinsigndisplays,cellstainingforlifescienceobservation,even inks that can aid in spotting counterfeits. Another security application that could soon be realized is

luminescentdust,whichcouldbeusedtotracktrespassersinrestrictedareas.mayalsobeusedtotransmitdata

DifferentTypesofWastewaterTreatmentTechnology

1. Aerobic wastewater treatment technology involves the use of good bacteria. The bacteria destroy harmfulmicroorganismsandintheprocessgiveoffbothcarbondioxideandwateraswasteproducts.

2. Microfiltrationorsyntheticmembranesbased: essentiallyfilterswhicharedesignedsmallenoughtocatchevenminusculemicroorganisms,thusremovingthem fromthewater.Multipletimesdonetoensureproper filtration.

generallyusedincombinationwithdecontaminatingchemicalslikeClwhichareremovedlater

3. Denitrificationusesmethanoltopurifywaterbyencouragingthegrowthofcertainbacteriawhichgiveoffcarbon.Thecarbonthenneutralizesorremovesnitratesfromthewater.Nitratescanbeharmfulforhumanconsumption

andhavebeenlinkedtoahostofhealthproblems,likecancer.

4. Ozone based: A generator produces ozone containing bubbles that are percolated throughout the watercontinuouslyoverasetperiodoftime,thusneutralizinganddecontaminatingit.

Bioprinting isanewareaof researchandengineering that involvesprintingdevices thatdepositbiologicalmaterial.

Thelong

term

goal

is

that

the

technology

could

be

used

to

create

replacement

organs

or

even

entire

organisms

from

rawbiologicalmaterials.

GeothermaldrillingisaprocesswherebyheatistakenfromtheEarthandusedinaproductivewayforenergyneeds.

Theheatcanbeuseddirectly forsomeneedssuchasspaceheating,butthe truevalue forthemassmarketcomes

fromthatheat'sabilitytobeconvertedtoother forms.Electricalgeneration isoneofthemostcommonreasons for

geothermaldrillingonanindustrialscale.

Forebayisahumanmadepoolofwaterinfrontofalargerbodyofwaterwhichmaybenaturalorengineered.

actasabufferzoneduringfloodingandstormsurges; trapsedimentanddebris.Thiskeepsthelargerbodyofwatercleanerandclearer; actasanaturalhabitattofish,waterfowl,aquaticplants,andothermembersofthenaturalworld; canalsobeusedinwetlandsmanagementandrestoration,inwhichcasethegoalisusuallytomaintainorrestorea

wetlandforfloodcontrolandenvironmentalreasonswiththeassistanceoftheforebay.

Genomics is the study of the collective genetic material in an organism. This scientific discipline is focused on

sequencingtheDNA inanorganismtoformacompletepicture,andthen identifyingspecificgenes inthatsequence

whichcouldbeofinterest.

Proteomics is the study of all the proteins thatmake up an organism. Proteomics doesn'tjust study the proteins

themselves,butalsothewaythey interact,thechangesthattheyundergo,andtheeffectsthattheyhavewithinthe

organism.Thesizeandcomplexityofthehumanproteome ispartofwhatmakesproteomicsaverycomplexscience.

there a huge number of proteins in the human proteome, about 400,000; these proteins also occur in different

locationswithinthebodyatdifferentstagesinaperson'slife,andcanchangewithinasinglecell

Opticalcomputingisacomputingtechnologyintheresearchandtheorystage.Theideawouldbetomakeacomputer

thatreliesentirelyonlight(photons)insteadofelectricity(electrons)todocomputing.

Theappealofopticalcomputersislimited,becausewithshortdistances,theyrequiremorepowerthanelectroniccomputerstodothesamecomputation.primarilyuseslaserstosendsignals.




10/68

couldproducecomputerstensofthousandsoftimesfasterthantoday'scomputers,because lightcantravelthatmuch faster than electric current; could be used in large supercomputers to send data more efficiently than

electronics.

Planet X is a hypothetical planet that has been searched for throughout the years by many astronomers. While

searchingforPlanetX,astronomersfoundPluto,andXenaorEris,allclassifiednowasdwarfplanets

Smartdust isa termused todescribegroupsofverysmall robotswhichmaybeused formonitoringanddetection.

Currently,the

scale

of

smartdust

is

rather

small,

with

single

sensors

the

size

of

adeck

of

playing

cards,

but

the

hope

is

toeventuallyhaverobotsassmallasaspeckofdust. Individualsensorsofsmartdustareoftenreferredtoasmotes

becauseoftheirsmallsize.ThesedevicesarealsoknownasMEMS,whichstandsformicroelectromechanicalsensors.

mayeventuallybeusedtomonitortrafficandbetterdirectit,toaccompanysoldiersandalertthemtoanypoisonsor

dangerous biological substances in the air, to follow people around and track their activities, to track defects in

productsastheycomeoffofanassemblyline,andeventoenterhumanbodiesandcheckforphysiologicalproblems.

DNAelectrophoresis isamethodusedtosortDNAmoleculesbylength.PiecesofDNAaresuspendedinatrayofgel

andsubjectedtoanelectric field,whichcausesthemtomigratetowardoneendofthetray.TheDNAseparatesout

intobands,withthedistancefromtheelectrodecorrespondingto lengthofthestrand.Thetechniqueplaysarole in

identifyinggenesfordiagnosingdiseaseandforotherformsofgeneticresearch.

Carbonsequestrationreferstoeffortstocaptureexcesscarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere,condenseit,andstoreit

insomebenignway.

Carboncaptureandstorage(CCSD)technologiesare implemented insome limitedway inmanyfossil fuelpowerplants.technologyforcapturingisaheadofthetechnologyforstoring,whichisjuststartingtobeexplored

mostprimitiveformwouldbetosimplyplantmoretrees.moresophisticatedversion artificialphotosynthesis; AfterCO2isgathered,ithastobedisposedof.Currentapproachesinvolveinjectingitintothegroundorpumping

itto1000mdeepwatersatthebottomofthesea,whereitformslarge"lakes"thattaketimetodissipate

cyborgisanorganismwithbothartificialandorganiccomponents.

Althoughtheaverageprosthesisdoesnotfallwithinthedefinitionofcyborgtechnology,aprostheticdevicewhichemployssensorsto replicateapersonsnaturalgait,suchasaCLegsystem, isconsideredamoderndaycyborg

application.

development of RFID tag prolific cyborg application microchip implanted in a human being or animal topotentiallystoreinformation.

controversial application involves the utilization of insects and animals in the military for tactical combatpurposes.Eg: DARPA, has begun to explore the possibility of implanting insects with pupal data sensors for

surveillancepurposes,aswellasimplantingsharkswithsimilarcyborgsensorstodetectexplosivesunderwater.

Biopolymerisanyorganicpolymer.Biopolymershavebeenaroundforbillionsofyearslongerthansyntheticpolymers

likeplastics.Wellknownbiopolymersincludestarch,proteinsandpeptides,DNA,andRNA.

Bioinformaticsisafieldwhichusescomputerstostoreandanalyzemolecularbiologicalinformation.

Using this information in adigital format,bioinformatics can then solveproblemsofmolecularbiology,predictstructures,andevensimulatemacromolecules.

MainbranchesincludeGenomics,Proteomics,Computeraideddrugdesigning,biodatabase,dataminingetc




11/68

most wellknown application of bioinformatics is sequence analysis. In sequence analysis, DNA sequences ofvariousorganismsarestored indatabases foreasy retrievalandcomparison.ThewellreportedHumanGenome

Projectisanexampleofsequenceanalysisbioinformatics.

otherapplications:predictingentireproteinstrands,learninghowgenesexpressthemselvesinvariousspecies,andbuildingcomplexmodelsofentirecells.

Positronemissionisabyproductofatypeofradioactivedecayknownasbetaplusdecay.

positronemissiontomography(PET): isotopesknowntoproducepositronemissionsare introducedtothebodyand followedastheymovethroughthebodyandproducegammarays. Isotopeswithshorthalf liveswhichwill

notcausedamagetothebodyareselectedsothatthePETscanwillnotbedangerous,andtheimagingstudymay

becombinedwithotherimagingtechniquessuchasMRItogetacompletepicture

PETscansallowdoctorstoimagefunctionsofthebody,perhapsmostnotablyinthebrain. Thescanisnotinvasive,providinganappealingalternativetosurgeryBiomimetics,sometimesknownasbionicsorbiomimicry,istheartoftakingnaturaladaptivestrategiesusedbyplants

or animals and translating them into engineering designs that can be used to implement products or tools. Some

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) simulate variousaspectsof insectsused in flying and clinging towalls.Radar and

sonarallegedly

imitate

the

echolocation

faculties

of

bats.

An

artificial

pacemaker

mimics

acollection

of

organic

pacemakercellslocatednexttotheheart.

Xeroxcopier,genericallyknownasaphotocopier,essentiallyworkson theprinciplesof staticelectricity.Document

viewedasnothingmorethanblackorwhitespaces.Beneaththetransparentglasstray liesaflatbeltorrounddrum

calledaphotoreceptor.Thesurfaceofthisphotoreceptorismadefromspecialmaterialswhichcanbenegativelyand

positivelycharged indifferentareasatthesametime;"paints"thephotoreceptordrumorbeltwithstaticelectricity,

creatingapatchofpositivelychargedimagesofletterssurroundedbynegativelychargedareasthatwillremainwhite.

Nanobesarebizarre filamentary structures found in some rocks.Nanobesmustnotbeconfusedwithnanobacteria,

anothertypeofsupersmallcontroversialpossibleclassoflife.Thedifferenceisthatnanobacteriaaresaidtohavecell

walls,whereasnanobesarewalllessfilamentarystructures.

Trihalomethanesareagroupofchemicalsthatincludechloroformandstructurallyrelatedcompounds.Someareused

industriallyasrefrigerantsandsolvents.Thetermisgenerallyappliedtoasubsetofthesecompoundsthatarepossible

carcinogenicbyproductsofthechlorinationofwater.

Electronicmicroscope isa scientific instrument thatusesabeamofhighly chargedelectrons toexamineobjectsat

closerange.worksthesamewayastheopticalmicroscope.Theonlydifferenceistheelectronmicroscopedoesn'tuse

light; instead abeamof focused electrons areused to create the imageof the specimen.This also gives scientists

informationabouttheobject'sstructureandcomposition.

ArtificialPhotosynthesis: Researchers reliedontheHondaFujishimaeffect,whichwasdiscovered in1953anduses

titaniumdioxideasaphotocatalyst.Aphotocatalystacceleratesprocessesrelatingtolightand,inthiscase,energy.

producedtwodifferentresults:photoelectrochemicalcellsanddyesensitizedsolarcells. Photoelectrochemical cells, also referred to as PECs, use the electric currentofwater to createhydrogen and

oxygeninaprocesscalledelectrolysis.Electricitycanthenbestoredinthehydrogen,whichisanenergycarrier,

andtheenergycanbeusedlater,suchasinbatteries.




12/68

dyesensitizedsolarcell,alsocalledaGraetzelcell.cellsuseasemiconductortocollectenergy,usuallysilicon.Indyesensitizedcells,thesemiconductorisusedtotransportthecollectedenergy,andthephotoelectrons,orenergy

particles,areseparatedandharnessedusingspecialdyes.

nootropic coinedtodescribeasubstancethatpositivelyaffectedbrainfunction.Althoughnootropicsarefrequently

referredtoassmartdrugs,notallofthesesubstancesaresynthesizedchemicaldrugs.Somenootropicsarevitamins,

minerals,orherbsthatenhancecognition.

Heliostatsare

scientific

instruments

that

use

amirror

to

reflect

the

light

of

the

sun

in

aspecific

direction.

Since

the

positionofthesuninrelationtotheEarthchangesthroughouttheday,mostheliostatshavesomesortofmechanism

builtintotrackthismovement.

Scramjet(SupersonicCombustionRamjet)usesatmosphericoxygenasanoxidizer,bypassingtheneedforanonboard

oxidizercompletely.Alargescoopatthefrontofthecrafttakesinair,whileonboardsystemsisolateoxygenfromthe

air,compressit,andintroduceittoastreamoffuelwhichthenusestheoxygentocombustandproducethrust.Fora

scramjetto intakesufficientoxygenforselfsustainingflight, itmustalreadybemovingatsupersonicspeeds.Forthis

reason,ascramjetmustbecoupledtoaconventionalrocketatthebeginningofitsflight.

Heat islandeffect,alsoreferredtoastheurbanheat islandeffect, isaneffectwheretheaveragetemperatureofan

area ishigherthannearbyruralareas.Theprimarycauseoftheheat islandeffect istheconversionofspace intoan

urbanenvironment thatabsorbsmoresunlightandstores it in large thermalmasses.Asecondarycauseoftheheat

islandeffect iswasteheatgeneratedbymassiveusesofenergy.Theheat islandeffecthasan impactnotonlyonthe

city itself,butalsoonnearbyareasdownwind,whichgenerallyseebetween10%and30%moreannualrainfallthan

areasupwind.

leastcompressiblematerialknown,withabulkmodulusof491gigapascals(GPa)isaggregateddiamondnanorods.get

theirstrengthfromthefamoussp2bond;areevendenserthanpurediamond;

Epigenetics isatermwhichisusedtodescribesituations inwhichgenesexpressthemselvesdifferently,althoughthe

underlyingDNA

is

the

same.

For

example,

ifacalico

cat

is

cloned,

the

clone

will

not

look

physically

identical,

despite

the

factthattheirgeneticcodeisthesame.Thisisbecausetheexpressionofgenesisinfluencedbyepigenetics.

SupercontinentcycleisageologiccyclewheretheEarth'scontinentsalternativelymergeintoasinglesupercontinent,

split intonumerouscontinents,thenmergeagain.Thecycle isestimatedtobe300 500millionyears long.Previous

supercontinentshaveincludedPangaea,whichformed250millionyearsago,Gondwanaland,whichformedabout600

millionyearsagoetc

Krmn line is the internationaldefinition for theedgeof space. It is located100 km (62miles) above theEarth's

surface,aroundwheretheAuroraBorealisforms.

GulfStream

is

an

ocean

current

that

runs

through

the

Atlantic

Ocean.

Although

it

starts

out

extremely

warm

in

its

southernreaches,temperaturedropsandsalinity increasesas itflowsnorth.Evenwiththedrop intemperature,the

GulfStreamisbelievedtoincreasethetemperaturesofthecoastalregionsofScotland,Ireland,England,andNorway.

Renownedforitssizeandwarmingcapabilities,theGulfStreamisalsonotableforitsincrediblespeed.

Genegunisadeviceusedinbiolistictransfection,aprocessusedtointroducegeneticmaterialtocellsthroughtheuse

oftinyDNAcoatedparticles firedathighvelocity intoaclusterofcells.Genegunsareused in laboratorysettingsto

conductresearch,developnewproducts,andtagsamplesofmaterials.




13/68

genegunorabiolisticparticledeliverysystem,isadeviceforinjectingcellswithgeneticinformation.ThepayloadisanelementalparticleofaheavymetalcoatedwithplasmidDNA.Thistechniqueisoftensimplyreferredtoas

bioballisticsorbiolistics.

Usingagenegun,aresearchercanintroducenewDNAtoforceacelltoproduceproteinsitwasn'tmakingbefore.Genegunshavebeenusedextensively inthegeneticmodificationofcropsto introducegeneswhichmakecrops

more resistant todrought, increase thenutritionalvalueof crops,orallowherbicides tobeused safelyaround

crops.Genegunshavealsobeenusedexperimentallytodelivergeneticvaccines,andtointroduceDNAintoanimal

cellsfor

the

purpose

of

tagging

them

for

microscopy

or

for

genetic

engineering

of

such

cells.

Flywheelsareawayofstoringenergyintherotationalmomentum(kineticenergy)oflargewheelssealedinavacuum.

They areused as awayof storing and releasing large amountsof electrical energy, and although theirmethodof

storageisnonchemical,arraysofflywheelsaresometimescalledbatteries.

Yellowcake,knownasU3O8 tochemists, isaproductobtainedby treatinguraniumore.Rawuraniumoredoesnot

usuallycontainveryhighconcentrationsofthisusefulmineral,so itmustberefinedtopurify itandconcentratethe

uranium.Theproductionofyellowcakeisonestepintherefineryprocess.

Orogeny is amountainbuilding event caused by extreme volcanism (as in theDeccan Traps) ormovement of the

tectonicplates,

large

slabs

of

rock

that

make

up

the

Earth's

crust.

The

plates

float

on

top

of

aplastic,

superheated

mantle,madeofpartiallymeltedrock.Asthematerialinthemantlecirculates,thetectonicplatesslowlymovearound

ontop,creatingdifferentcontinentalarrangementsovertensorhundredsofmillionsofyears.

OneofthemostfamousandrecognizableistheHimalayanorogeny,whichoccurredaround55millionyearsago,when

the subcontinentof India collidedwith the Eurasian Platewhilemovingnorth. These twoplates pressing together

causedthecreationofgreatmountainrangesattheboundary,knowntodayastheHimalayas

Proteinengineering isamethodthatcanbeusedtodevelopnewtypesofproteins.Thisfieldofscience isrelatively

new,andoriginalwaysofcombiningproteinelementscontinuetobestudiedanddiscoveredbyresearchers.Thistype

ofengineeringallowsmaterialswithspecificstrengthsorfeaturestobedeveloped.

Geneflow isthetransferofalleles,variousformsofagenecodingforspecifictraits,betweendistinctpopulationsof

individuals. This can increase genetic diversity in some cases, and decrease it in others, depending on the

circumstances. Itoccursbothwithinpopulationsof the same species andpopulationsofdifferent species, in some

cases.

radiativeforcing: Inthecontextofclimatechange,amorespecificdefinitionofradiativeforcingagreeduponby

theIPCCistheextenttowhichafactoralterstheenergybalanceinthetroposphere.

Earth receivesenergy from theSun,mostly in the formof light, someofwhich isabsorbedandwarms theplanet,

causingittoradiateenergyintheformofheat,orinfraredradiation,andresultinginabalancebetweenincomingand

outgoingenergy.Variousfactorsaffecttheamountofsunlightabsorbedandtherateatwhichenergyisradiatedbythe

Earth.Whenthesefactorsremainconstantoveraperiod,theenergyflowscanbeexpectedtosettleintoequilibriumat

aparticular average annual temperature,with the same amountofenergy goingout as coming in. If anyof these

factorschange,itmightresultinamismatchbetweenincomingandoutgoingenergy,leadingtoanoverallincreaseor

decrease inglobalaveragetemperatures.Ageneraldefinitionofradiativeforcing isthedegreeofchange,positiveor

negative,tothisbalance,anditisnormallyexpressedinWattspersquaremeter(W/m2).

Conjugated antibodies are laboratorymanufactured compounds made up of antibodies combined with dyes,

chemicals,orproteins.Theseantibodycombinationsareusedforresearch,testing,andmedicaltreatment.




14/68

Asynoptic chartprovides informationabout climate conditionsacrossa largearea,bigenough toencompassmost

majorweathersystems.SuchchartsareusefulnotjustformeteorologyonEarth,butalsofordepictionsofmagnetic

fieldsandotherphenomenaontheSunandothercelestialbodies.

Stemcelldifferentiation isaprocesswhereanunspecializedstemcelldevelops intoaparticulartypeoftissue, likea

matureredbloodcell.Thisoccursatallstagesof life,fromveryearlyembryonicdevelopment intoadulthood,asthe

bodyneedsaconstantsupplyofnewspecializedcellstofunction.

Severalfactorsareinvolvedincellulardifferentiation,incenvironmental&biologicaltriggersforvariouscelltypes Thenumberofdifferentkindsofcellsastemcellcanmatureintoarereflectedbyitspotency. totipotentcellcandevelop intoanykindofcellatmaturity.Suchcellsarefound intheearlyblastocystphasesof

embryonicdevelopment,wheneverycellneedstobeabletogiverisetoavarietyofcellsforanembryotodevelop

Asembryonicdevelopmentprogresses,thestemcellsbecomepluripotentinnature,withtheabilitytodivergeintoavarietyofcelltypes,butnotall.

Agenomemap isavisualdiagram that representsanorganismscompletegenetic structure.Manypeopleconfuse

genomewithgenes,butthedifferenceisthatthegenesarejustonepartofthegenome,whichistheentirestructure

consistingofothercomponentssuchasthedeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)andribonucleicacid(RNA).

Gene targeting is theuseof genetic recombination technology to alter genetic sequences inembryonic stem cells.

Afterascientistaltersthegenome, it ispossibleto introducethecellstoadevelopingembryo inaprocedurecalled

embryonicinjection.

Aflooddamoperatesaspartofafloodcontrolsystemtoprotectcommunitiesfromuncontrolledfloodwaters.Such

damsdonotcreatereservoirstostorewaterforuseinthefuture,nordotheygeneratehydroelectricpower.Theycan

beinstalledbygovernmentagenciesandcommunities,andaresubjecttoregulationforsafety.

In genetics, certaingenemutationsare capableof causingdisease.Sometimes,everybodywith amutationdisplays

symptomsof that disease, and sometimes,only some of the people carrying themutation display symptoms. The

proportionof

people

who

show

symptoms

from

the

mutation

is

called

the

penetrance

of

the

gene.

Gneissisacommontypeofsurfacerockcomposedofdifferentmineralsandisclassifiedasmetamorphic.Oneofthe

mostcommonfeaturesofgneissrockisthatithasabandedorstripedinternalstructure,whichisusuallytheresultof

alternatinglayersofdarkandlightsilicatecompoundsthatmakeitup.

Dimethylol dimethyl hydantoin (DMDM hydantoin), is a common preservative ingredient found in cosmetics

production,constructionmaterials,andhouseholdproducts.Thechemicalcompoundistypicallyaddedtoproductsin

minute quantities as an antimicrobial agent. Certain consumer advocates fear that when combined with other

chemicals,thesubstancemaycausecancer.

Genesilencing

is

the

process

of

"turning

off"

agene,

thereby

preventing

it

from

expressing

in

the

form

of

protein

productionorotherformsofexpression.Thisprocesshappensnaturallyinmanycasesforthepurposeofregulatingthe

expression of genes and preventing potential damage from viruses.Gene silencing is also an important laboratory

technique,asdisablingageneisahighlyeffectivewayofdeterminingthepurposeofthatgene.

Geneexpressionoccurswhendeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)isconvertedtoribonucleicacid(RNA)throughaprocesscalledtranscription.TheRNAisthenconvertedtoproteins,theprimaryfunctionalunitsincellsthatareinvolvedin

almostallcellularprocesses,throughaprocesscalledtranslation.




15/68

Genesilencingcanoccuratatranscriptionaloraposttranscriptional level,meaningthat itcan interferewiththeprocessoftranscriptionorwithsome laterprocessthat leadstogeneexpression.Thegene itself isnotaffected,

butthevariousstepsthatleaduptoexpressionarenotallowedtoruntocompletion.

One transcriptional gene silencingprocess is referred to asDNAmethylation.Methylation involves attaching amethylgroup to certainpointson anucleicacid strandand can,basedon the circumstances,have avarietyof

differenteffects,someofwhichpreventtranscription.

RNA interference, or RNAi, is a common method of posttranscriptional gene silencing. In RNAi, small RNAmolecules

enter

into

aprotein

complex

that

cleaves

specific

RNA

strands,

preventing

them

from

being

translated

to

protein,therebypreventinggeneexpression.

Red biotechnology is a branch of biotechnology that deals specifically with human health care and methods of

treatment through the development ofmedicines such as antibiotics. The field can also involve research into the

manipulationofgenesthroughgermlineengineeringattheembryonicstageorgenetherapyinadultpatients.

Blue biotechnology is confined to the marine environment, while green biotechnology is focused on agricultural

applications.Whitebiotechnologyhasan industrialbase that involvesorganicenzymesand theprocesses that they

facilitate,andgraybiotechnologyhasasimilarbasis,wherecellsandnaturalorganismsareusedtocreatesynthetic

compounds.

Longshoredrift istheanaturalprocessdescribingacurrentthatoftenmovesmostlyparalleltoabeach'sshoreline.

mainproblemwith longshoredriftrelatestotheremovalofsandfromoneplaceandthedepositionof it inanother.

oneofthemostcommonpractices istobuildawallthatextendsfromtheshorelineintotheoceanatanangleof90

degreesinrelationtotheshoreline.Thishelpsbreakupthecurrentandstopsthedriftfromtakingplace.

Geosyntheticsaremanufacturedpolymericproductsusedwithmaterials suchas stoneor soilaspartofmanmade

projects, such as buildings or roads. These products or materials can be used, often in conjunction with natural

materials, for a vast variety of purposes. Geotextiles, for instance, can be used to separate or filter soil, and

geomembranesareoftenusedasimpermeablelinersforpondsorothermanmadebodiesofwater.

Adeepspaceprobe isaspacecraftdronethatmakesaonewaytrip intodeepspacetocollectscientific information

and broadcast it back to Earth. examples include the Pioneer and Voyager spacecrafts. Lithiumthionyl chloride

batteriesarecommonlyusedindeepspacemissionsaswellasroverslikethoselandedonMars.Thebatterieshavea

verylargestoragecapacity.

Probiotic bacteria, often called friendly bacteria, are livingmicroorganisms similar to those found in the human

digestive tract. Theynaturally occur in some foods andbeverages, such as fermented cheese and certain typesof

yogurt,andcanbeproducedseparatelyasdietarysupplements.Probioticbacteriaarealsousedincomplementaryand

alternativemedicinetoaidwithdigestivedisorders.B.acidophilus,lacticacidbacteriatypicallyfoundindairyproducts,

couldprolonglifebypreventingfoulinginthelargeintestine.

Western blot antibodies are large Yshaped proteins, or immunoglobulins, produced to use in the Western blot

immunoassay,atesttodetectanassociatedproteininatissueculture.

Aquantumwell isused to confine electrons at specific energy levels.Quantumwells consistof an extremely thin

semiconductorwith a smallband gap, restingbetweenmaterialwith a largerband gap.They are extremely small,

usuallybetween1and20nanometers.Theyaremostoftenusedinlaserdiodesandinfraredimaging.

Transmissionelectronmicroscopy (TEM) isan imaging technology inwhichelectronbeamspass throughverythinly

sectionedspecimens.Astheelectronsaretransmittedthroughthespecimenandinteractwithitsstructure,animage




16/68

resolvesthatismagnifiedandfocusedontoanimagingmedium,suchasphotographicfilmorafluorescentscreen,or

capturedbyaspecialCCDcamera.

Aquantumwire isacableorawire,oftensimilar infunctiontocopperwire,butmadewithnanotubesofaspecific

element,usuallycarbon.Quantumwiresareusuallyconductors,butmayalsobemadeasinsulatorsorsemiconductors.

Thesewiresareidealforelectricalwiringfunctionsandforuseonspacecraftsbecausetheyaresmallerandlighterthan

theirmetalcounterparts.

Biometricstechnology

is

used

to

take

measurements

of

the

human

body,

generally

focusing

on

things

that

can

serve

to

uniquelyidentify individuals.usedinthefieldsoflawenforcementandsecurity.fingerprints,geneticsignatureoreye

structure.Othertypesmeasurelessphysiologicallyunique,butstillverydistinctive,aspects,suchasvoiceorgait.

Nanocomposite is amanmadematerialdesigned forenhancedperformance in anynumberofunique applications:

structural, functionalorcosmetic.Aswithothercomposites, thenanocomposite includesabasemedium,ormatrix,

composedofplastic,metalorceramiccombinedwithnanoparticlesinsuspension.

Fingerprintdusting isaprocedureusedbypoliceofficersatcrimescenes inanattemptto identifysuspects.Dusting

powder over commonly touched surfaces, or surfaces that are particularly relevant to the crime, in order to find

fingerprintsmighthelpofficersfigureoutwhoisresponsibleforacrime.

Powdersusedinfingerprintdustingcanvarybutaregenerallymineralbasedwithalowreactivity. Ridgesinhumanskinareresponsiblefortheexistenceoffingerprints.Naturaloilsintheskinmakethefingerpads

act somewhat like a stamp when they touch a surface. These oils create an outline of the unique ridges on

whatever surface a person touches, resulting in a fingerprint. Fingerprint dusting powder sticks to the oils,

highlightingthepatternoftheridgesandrevealingthefingerprint.

Fingerprintliftingistheprocessofsecuringcopiesoffingerprintsthatareleftatacrimescene. Acommonlyusedstrategyinliftinglatentprintsinvolvesusingcyanoacrylateester placingtheobject intoacontrolledenvironment.Asthecyanoacrylateesterisheated, itbeginstoreleasefumes.

Overaperiodof severalhours,exposure to the fumeswillcause theprints tobecome readilyvisible,making it

easiertophotographtheprintsbeforeanyattemptstocopytheprintsontoanothermediumaremade.

Powdersworkwellonsmoothsurfaces,whiletheuseofcyanoacrylateesterorevenproductslikesilvernitratearemoreeffectivewithsurfacesthatareribbedorotherwisenotsmooth.

Tectonicplates

arelarge,disconnectedchunksoftheEarth'scrust,floatingonthemantlebelow,composedofsoftmagma. varygreatlyinthicknessdependingonwhethertheyareoceanic(about5km)orcontinental(about50km). Continental crust generally consists of lighter rocks,while oceanic crust consists of heavier rocks. =>when an

oceanictectonicplatecollideswithcontinental,itcertaintoslipunder,orbesubductedby,thecontinentalplate.

3maintypesofplateboundaries,describedintermsofthewaythattectonicplatesmoverelativetoeachother1. transformboundaries,whereplatesgrindparalleltoeachother,2. divergentboundaries,whereplatesaremovingapart,and3. convergentboundaries,whereplatespressintoandsometimesundereachother.

These plate boundaries result in faults, rift valleys, oceanic ridges, oceanic trenches, mountains, island arcs,subductionzones,volcanoes,andothergeologicphenomena.

"Nanofabrication" refers to the fabricationof structureswith feature sizesmeasured in thenanometers,especially

below20nanometersonaside.Currenttechnologymostlypermitsnanofabricationonlyinatwodimensionalsense.




17/68

Amajor subsetof currentnanofabrication are the technologies that fallunder thepurviewofnanolithography,whichbasicallyjustmeans"nanoscalewriting"andimpliesa2dimensionalresult.

In anticipation of running up against physical limitswith photolithography, computer companieshave investedbillionsofdollars inresearchfornextgeneration lithographytechniques.These includexray lithography(feature

sizes of 15 nm),double patterning (using a lowerresolution approach but patterning the same surface twice),

electronbeamdirectwritelithography(EBDW),extremeultravioletlithography,nanoimprintlithography,scanning

probelithography(whichcanmanipulateindividualatoms),andatomicforcemicroscopenanolithography.

Moreadvancedapproachestonanofabricationaremolecularselfassembly,whichhasbeendemonstratedinthelabhundredsoftimes,orpositionalmechanosynthesis,whichisattheearliestresearchstages.Bothareattempts

totakenanofabricationintothe3Drealm,whichwouldtrulyunlockitstechnologicalpower.

Reversegeneticsisanapproachtogeneticsresearchwhichtakesanunknowngeneticsequenceandattemptstofigure

out thephenotypewithwhich it isassociated.This is incontrastwithclassicalgenetics, inwhich researchers takea

knownphenotype,suchasstripesonacat,andtrytodeterminewhichgeneorgenescausethephenotypetoappear.

Labonachipdevices

more formallyknownas"MicroTotalAnalysisSystems" (TAS)aremicrofluidicsbasedsystemswhich integratemultiple

laboratory

type

capabilities

on

asingle

chip

only

afew

centimeters

in

size.

usesarerealtimepolymerasechainreactions(usedtoamplifysmallDNAstrandsintomoremanageablesamples),immunoassays,whichdiagnosediseasesbasedon antigen/antibodypresence,dielectrophoresis,used todetect

certaincelltypes,andbloodsamplepreparation,suchastheextractionofDNAfromredbloodcells.

LabonachipresearchcanbeconsideredasubsetofMEMS(microelectromechanicalsystems)Genetherapyisawayofinsertinggenesintoapatient'scellsandreplacingthepreexistingalleles,orgenevariants,to

performsometherapeuticfunction. Ithasbeenusedthus farprimarilytoreplacemutantdefectivegenes,oralleles,

withnormalalleles,butcouldintheorybeusedtoeditthehumangenomearbitrarily.Ifgenetherapywereappliedto

reproductivecellsinthegonads(thegermline),thesegeneticchangeswouldbeheritable.Thisprocesshasneverbeen

performed,but

it

has

aname:

germline

genetic

engineering.

RareEarthhypothesis claims that theEarth is rare,and that fewplanets can support complex life.TheRareEarth

hypothesisstandsincontrasttotheprincipleofmediocrity,whichassumesthattheEarthmustbeatypicalplanet,as

thereshouldbenothingspecialabouthumanityortheEarth.

Nanopaperisacuttingedgevarietyofpaperwithastrengthof214megapascals(MPa),greaterthan130MPaofcast

ironandapproachingthatofstructuralsteel(250MPa).Typicalpaperhasastrengthof1MPa.Thecellulosefibersin

nanopaperwereproducedbymakingasludgeofcellulose,similartothewaynormalpaperismade,butthenfurther

breaking itdownusingenzymes,mechanicalgrinding,andchemicaltreatmentwithcarboxymethanol.Theresultare

fibers1000timessmallerthanthefibersintypicalpaper.

JunkDNAisDNAwhichdoesnotappeartohaveanydiscerniblefunction.However,thetermjunkisabitmisleading,

asresearchonjunkDNAhassuggestedthatitmayactuallyplayanimportantroleintheevolutionaryhistoryandlives

ofmanyorganisms.Ratherthanjunk,thisDNAmayinfactbestoredforacriticalreason,andresearchershavestarted

exploring it. Some people refer it as noncodingDNA, referencing the fact that it does not code proteinswhich

express in thehostorganism'sphenotype.Whateveryoucall it, thepercentageofjunkDNA in thegenome isoften

quitehigh.Inhumans eg:95%ofthegenomeiscomposedofnoncodingDNA.




18/68

InternationalSpaceStation(ISS)

isaresearchfacilityinlowEarthorbit,orbitingatanaltitudebetween320km(199mi)to345km(214mi). When completed in late 2011, the ISS will consist of sixteen pressurised modules (like small rooms) with a

combinedvolumeofaround1,000cubicmetres

hasbeencontinuouslystaffedsince2November2000;expectedtoremaininoperationuntilatleast2020 serves as a research laboratory that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments in

biology,

human

biology,

physics,

astronomy

and

meteorology

Operated as ajointprojectbetween the fiveparticipant space agenciesNASA,Russian Federal SpaceAgency(RKA),theJapanAerospaceExplorationAgency(JAXA),theCanadianSpaceAgency(CSA),andESA

Somemodulesare:Zarya(1st),Kibo,Destiny,Unity,Harmony,Tranquility,Columbus,Leonardo(latest,2011) largestroboticarmontheISS,Canadarm2weighs1,800kilogramsandisusedtodockandmanipulatespacecraft

andmodulesontheUSOS,andholdcrewmembersandequipmentduringEVA's.

Photovoltaic(PV)arrayspowertheISS;stationusesrechargeablenickelhydrogenbatteries(NiH2)forcontinuouspowerduringthe35minutesofevery90minuteorbitthatitiseclipsedbytheEarth.

ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provides or controls atmospheric pressure, firedetectionandsuppression,oxygenlevels,wastemanagementandwatersupply.

Spacedebrisobjectsaretrackedremotelyfromtheground,andthestationcrewcanbenotifiedofmanyobjectswith sufficient size to cause damage on impact. This allows for a Debris AvoidanceManoeuvre (DAM) to be

conducted,whichusesthrusterstoalterthestation'sorbitalaltitude,avoidingdebris

HorizontalGeneTransfer

or lateral gene transfer; genetic material is transmitted between organisms that arenotparent and offspring.Instead,thetwoorganismsareusuallyunrelated,andareoftenofdifferentspecies.

most commonway inwhich singlecelledorganisms,bacteria inparticular,acquirenewgeneticmaterial.allowsbacterialspeciestomaintaindiversity.threewaysinwhichbacteriacanexchangegeneticmaterialhorizontally.

TransformationisaprocessinwhichbacteriaingestnakedDNAorRNAmoleculesandexpressthemwithinthecell. Intransduction,geneticmaterialistransferredbybacteriophages,whicharevirusesthatinfectbacteria. bacterialconjugation,inwhichgeneticmaterial,oftenplasmids,istransferredviaintercellularcontact.Islandgigantismisabiologicalphenomenonwhereanimalsthatliveonisolatedislandstendtogrowlargerbecauseof

alackofpredatorsandcompetitionwhichwouldotherwisebepresentonthemainland.Ratherthanbeingcausedbya

novelselectionpressure,asisthoughttobethecasewiththecomplementaryphenomenonofislanddwarfism,island

gigantismiscausedbytheremovalofconstraints.Theresultareorganismsthatswelltoponderoussizes.Therearethe

famousGiantTortoises,foundontheSeychellesandGalpagosIslands.

Petroleumispredominantlycomprisedofvarioushydrocarbonsingas,liquid,orsolidstates.Crudeoilandnaturalgas

aremembers

of

this

group.

One

hydrocarbon

in

crude

oil

is

paraffin,

which

is

commonly

known

in

food

preservation.

During the refining process, various temperatures yield different products, and the temperature atwhich thewax

beginstoemergeinthefueloroilisknownasthecloudpoint.

SuperEarthisatypeofextrasolarplanet(exoplanet)moremassivethantheEarthbutlessmassivethanagasgiantlike

Jupiteror Saturn.The concept is relativelynew (2003). Scientificpapers variouslydefine a SuperEarth as aplanet

betweenoneandtenEarthmasses,orasaplanetbetween5and10Earthmasses




19/68

SETI,or theSearch forExtraTerrestrial Intelligence, isaprojectwhichaims todetectextraterrestrial intelligent life.

SETI primarily uses radio telescopes to search for extraterrestrial signals, although optical telescopes and other

methodshavebeenproposed.

Casimireffectreferstothetinyattractiveforcethatappearsbetweentwounchargedplatesinavacuum.ThisCasimir

forceisonlymeasurablewhentheplatesareextremelyclosetogether.Casimireffectreferstothetinyattractiveforce

thatappearsbetweentwounchargedplates inavacuum.ThisCasimir force isonlymeasurablewhentheplatesare

extremelyclosetogether

fumaroleisaholeintheEarth'scrustwhichventsgases.Fumarolesareusuallyfoundaroundareasofvolcanicactivity,

althoughtheycanappearanywhere.Ifenoughgroundwaterispresent,theventmayturnintoahotspring,creatinga

supplyofbubblingnaturallyhotwaterwhichisheatedbytheescapinggases.

Swarmrobotics isanapproachtoroboticsthatemphasizesmanysimplerobots insteadofasinglecomplexrobot.A

robotswarmhasmuchincommonwithanantcolonyorswarmofbees.Noindividualinthegroupisveryintelligentor

complex,butcombined, they canperformdifficult tasks.Swarm roboticshasbeenanexperimental field,butmany

practicalapplicationshavebeenproposed.

humiditymap isamapwhichprovideshumidityvaluesforaregion,usuallyexpressed intermsofrelativehumidity.

Suchmapscanbeusefulinawidevarietyofapplications.Theyareoftengeneratedbygovernmentagencies,although

weatherforecastingcompaniesandprivateorganizationsmayalsogeneratetheirownhumiditymaps.

Anarcticfrontisaboundarybetweenanarcticairmassandapolarairmass.Thisboundarytendstoexistmoreorless

continuallyinnorthernlatitudes,althoughitwillchangelocationasseasonalweatherpatternsareexpressed.

Molecularmedicine involvesapplyingknowledgeaboutthemolecularbasisofdiseaseandhownewclinicalpractices

canbebroughttobear.It includespractices,suchas interventionsonthecellularand/orDNA level includinggenetic

and cellular therapies, and incorporating new understanding, such as those that have grown out of studying the

posttranslationalmodificationofproteins. Itoftenmakesreferencetosuchspecialtiesasgenomics,proteomics,and

bioinformatics.

transgene is a section of genetic material from one organism which appears in the DNA of another organism.

Depending on a number of factors, the transgenemay fail to express, may express in away different from that

observed intheoriginalorganism,ormayexpress intheneworganism inexactlythesameway itdid intheoriginal

one.Ageneisidentifiedasatransgenewhenithasbeensequencedinonespeciesandlateridentifiedinanother.

Siderealtimereferstothe lengthofdaysandothermeasurementsoftimewithrespecttostarsotherthanoursun.

Whereasasolarday lasts24hours,asiderealday isaboutfourminutesshorter.Ineveryday life,solartime isalways

used,butastronomersoftenfinditusefultousesiderealtimewhenexpressingtheapparentmovementofstarsinthe

sky,asobservedfromearth

Inthenucleus,genesaresectionsofDNAthatcodeforspecificproteins inthecell.This isreferredtoasthegenetic

code.AlloftheDNAisnotincludedaspartofthegeneticcode.TherearelengthsofDNA,calledintrons,whichdonot

codeforproteins.ThepartsoftheDNAformthegeneticcodearecalledexons.

Jatropha is a genus of plants, trees, and shrubs native to South America and the Caribbean uses: ranging from

compoundswhichcanbeusedasvegetabledyestooilswhichcanbeutilizedintheproductionofbiofuelsespbiodiesel

Tribology,a science that studieshow frictionand lubricationwork together,hasbeenused sinceancient times.By

understandingfrictionand lubrication,atribologist isbetterabletoreducethecorrosionofnumerousmachinesand




20/68

products.Therearefourthingsthatatribologistmuststudytopreventwearandtear:abrasion,erosion,corrosionand

adhesion.

MEMS stands for Micro ElectroMechanical Systems, referring to functional machine systems with components

measuredinmicrometers.MEMSisoftenviewedasasteppingstonebetweenconventionalmacroscalemachineryand

futuristicnanomachinery.

modernMEMSfabricationtechniquesarelargelybaseduponthesametechnologyusedtomanufactureintegratedcircuits,

that

is,

film

deposition

techniques

which

employ

photolithography.

Mostoftenmentioned in conjunctionwithMEMS is the ideaof a "labonachip," adevice thatprocesses tinysamplesofachemicalandreturnsusefulresults.

MEMSare fabricated inoneof twoways:either throughsurfacemicromachining, inwhich successive layersofmaterial are deposited on a surface and then etched to shape, or through bulk micromachining, where the

substrateitselfisetchedtoproduceafinalproduct.

Surface micromachining is most common because it builds on the advances of integrated circuits.Variousmicroscalegears,pumps,sensors,pipes,andactuatorshavebeenfabricated

ExamplesofmoderndayMEMSuseincludeinkjetprinters,accelerometersinautomobiles,pressuresensors,highprecisionoptics,microfluidics,monitoringofindividualneurons,controlsystems,andmicroscopy.

Eugenicsisasocialmovementwhichinvolvesmanipulatinghumangeneticinheritancetobringoutthetraitswhichare

believedtobebest.Eugenicshasbeenusedhistoricallyasanargumentformandatorysterilizationandavarietyof

other policieswhich have been targeted at the lessermembers of the societywith the goal of eliminating their

geneticheritagefromthegenepool.

Activegalacticnucleusisasmallregion,betweenabout1and100lightyearsindiameter,atthecenterofagalaxythat

emitsprodigiousamountsofradiationoversomeoralloftheelectromagneticspectrum,fromtheshortestgammarays

tothe longestradiowaves.Activegalacticnucleiareamongthemostenergeticphenomena intheuniverse,beating

outevensupernovaeintermsofluminosity.

Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) is a method of achieving nuclear fusion by quickly compressing and heating a

material.Thisprocessisusuallydonewithhighpoweredlasers,whichareallfocusedontoasmallpellettorapidlyheat

itup.Theintenseheatingvaporizesthematerialinsidethepellet,creatingashockwavewhichishotanddenseenough

to cause thematerial to fuse.Thebasic ingredientsof an ICFpelletaredeuteriumand tritium.The fusion reaction

between deuterium and tritium is much easier to achieve than any other reaction, and so a powerproducing

deuterium/tritiumreactoristheprimarygoalofmodernfusionresearch.

Cosmic dust is a substance which is found throughout the Universe. It consists of small grains of material and

aggregatesofsuchgrains,withacompositionwhichcanvaryradically,dependingonthecircumstances inwhichthe

dustisformed.

Nutrigenomics isacombinationofnutritionandgenomics.describesafieldwhich isconcernedwiththerelationship

betweendietandgeneexpression.Nutrigenomic research investigatesquestions suchashow food influencesgene

expression,andhowgenesinfluencethewayindividualsabsorbandmetabolizedifferenttypesofnutrients.

Lagrangepointsarestablegravitationalpointsinspacewhereanobjectcouldbeplacedanditwouldremainatafixed

positionwith respect toabodyorbiting theSun, suchas theEarth.Everyorbitingplanethas five Lagrangepoints.

Earth'sLagrangepointsarecalledL1,L2,L3,L4,andL5.Lagrangepointsoften feature indiscussionsaboutspaceor

sciencefictionbecausetheywouldbeideallocationstobuildspacestations.




21/68

Photonicsisabroadfieldofstudythatinvolvestheresearchandapplicationoflightinallofitsmanyforms.Thefieldis

notonlyinterestedinthevisiblelightspectrum;ultravioletlightandinfraredlightareveryimportantaswell.Thefield

ofphotonicswasoriginallyaimedatapplying light to tasks thatcouldpreviouslyonlybesolved throughelectronics,

suchastelecommunications.Themodernfieldseekstocontinuethisendeavorandtoexpanduponitbysearchingfor

any and all applications for light. Photonics draws from and contributes to several other fields, such as quantum

electronicsandmodernoptics.

usedinmanydifferentindustries,rangingfromconsumerelectronicstorobotics. BarcodescannersandDVDreadersarebothlightbasedtechnologies. Inmedicine,lightintheformoflasersisusedforeyesightcorrectionandtattooremovalaswell. Militaryapplicationsincludethedetectionofinfraredlighttoexposeheatsourcesinthedark.Someapplicationsof

photonicsareusedentirelyforentertainment;theseincludelasershowsandholographicart.

XSeed4000isthelargestbuildingeverfullyenvisionedanddesigned.Itis4kmtall(13,123feet),witha6kmbase.X

Seed4000wasdesignedbyTaiseiConstructionCorporation

W54NuclearWarhead:isthesmallestnuclearwarheadtobedeployedbytheUnitedStatesandthesmallestknown

nuclearwarhead ingeneral. It is similar in size toacomputerprinter,withadiameterof27cm,about40cm ,and

weighingslightly

over

23

kg

Atokamakisatoroidal(doughnutshaped)magneticplasmaconfinementdevice,theleadingcandidateforproducing

magneticfusionenergy.

tokamakischaracterizedbytheuseoftheplasmacurrenttogeneratethehelicalcomponentofthemagneticfieldnecessary for stable equilibria. This can be compared to another toroidal magnetic confinement device, the

stellarator, inwhich allof the confiningmagnetic fields areproducedbyexternal coilsand there isanegligible

currentflowingthroughtheplasma.

Whydoughnutshaped?Thedistinctiveshapeofthefusionreactorisnecessarybecauseofaparticularpropertyofadoughnutthatasphere(forexample)doesnothave.Essentialytheproblemisthehairyballtheorem.Ifasphere

hashairgrowingoutofitthenitisimpossibletocombitsothatnohairsticksup.Howeverahairydoughnutcanbe

socombed.This is importantbecausea fusionreactor isahairydoughnutwiththehairbeingthemagnetic field

lines.Astrandofhairthatisstandingonendwouldbeaninstabilityinthereactor.

FarnsworthHirsch fusor is a device for generating nuclear fusion reactions. FarnsworthHirsch fusors use strong

electric fields to contain the fusionplasma,unlike themore common tokamak design,whichusesmagnetic fields.

Farnsworthfusorsaregenerallyquitesimpletobuild,andnumerousamateurshavebuilttheirown,oftenfromspare

parts.basicprinciplebehindtheFarnsworthfusor,inertialelectrostaticconfinement(IEC),wasfirstnoticedintelevision

vacuumtubes.

Higgsparticles,

also

known

as

the

Higgs

Boson,

are

units

that

have

been

theorized

in

particle

physics

but,

as

of

yet,

havenotbeenproventoexist.TheyaresometimesreferredtoastheGodParticlebecausetheyarethoughttobeall

aroundus,yetnearlyundetectable.ThesearesomeofthesametraitspeopleassociatewithGod,thusthereasonfor

thename.Higgsparticles are thought to exist in a field known as theHiggs field. In general,Higgsparticles could

explainwhatgivesmattertomass,andthuscomposestheuniverse.

Oneofthechallengesofcancertreatmentishowtodestroymalignanttumorswithoutdamaginghealthycells.Anew

methodthatshowsgreatpromiseforaccomplishingthisemploystheuseofasuicidegene.Asuicidegene isagene

whichwillcauseacelltokillitselfthroughapoptosis,orprogrammedcelldeath(PCD).PCDisaseriesofbiochemical




22/68

eventswhich cause the cellmembrane to dissolve, the cell to shrink, and the nucleus andDNA to fragment. The

processalsoprovidesforthebodyscleanupofthecellulardebris.

2methodsofsuicidegenetherapy: Genedirectedenzymeprodrugtherapy,virusdirectedenzymeprodrug Genedirectedenzymeprodrug therapy (GDEPT)usesagene taken from thecancercelland thenmodifiedwith

othergenestoformenzymesthatareharmlesstohealthycells.Thisforeignenzymeisinsertedintothetumorcells

whereitreleasesaprodrug,whichisasmallmoleculeharmlesstohealthycells,butdestructivetocancerouscells.

Themodifiedsuicidegeneconvertsthenontoxicprodrugintoacytotoxicsubstance.

virusdirectedenzymeprodrugtherapy:usesavirus,suchaherpessimplexorcoldvirus,asthecarrier,orvector,todeliverthemodifiedgenestothecancercells.AstudybeingconductedbyMethodistNeurological Institute in

Texaswillbeusingherpesvirustodeliverthesuicidegenestobraintumors.ThepatientswillbegivenValtrex,a

drugusedtotreattheherpesvirus.Thesuicidegenesareexpectedtobreakdownthetumorcellstosuchadegree,

thanwhenthedrugtreatstheherpescarrier,thecellshouldbedestroyed.

Suicidegenetherapyisnotnecessarilyexpectedtocompletelyeliminatetheneedforchemotherapyandradiationtreatment for all cancerous tumors. The damage inflicted upon the tumor cells, however, makes them more

susceptible to the chemoor radiation.Thisapproachhasalreadyproveneffectiveagainstprostateandbladder

cancers.Theapplicationofsuicidegenetherapyisbeingexpandedtoseveralotherformsofcanceraswell.

"Mitochondrial Eve" is the name given by scientists to the woman who is the matrilineal most recent common

ancestor of all living humans. That means that all living humans have mitochondrial DNA derived from hers.

MitochondrialEveisthoughttobeawomanthatlivedineasternAfricaabout140,000yearsago.

gravitationallensisanastronomicalphenomenonobservedwhenamassiveobject,likeaclusterofgalaxiesorablack

hole,bends light fromaverydistant lightsource,suchasaquasar (youngandbrightgalaxy).Thisoccursdue tothe

gravitationalwarpingofspacetime firstdescribedbyAlbertEinstein inhisgeneral theoryof relativity.Gravitational

lensingcancausedistantquasarstoappearinlocationswheretheydon'treallyexist.

Tacticalnuclearweaponsarerelativelylowyieldnuclearweaponsintendedtobeusedonthebattlefieldinwar.Thisis

incontrast

to

strategic

nuclear

weapons,

which

are

designed

to

target

large

cities

and

military

facilities.

AugmentedReality(AR)referstocomputerresearchthataimstoproduceinformationsystemsthatmergerealworld

informationseamlesslywithdigitalinformation.

The science of genetics focuseson genes as the units of heredity, andhow that information is transmitted.At an

entirely different level, genomics focuses on the entire genomeof an organism,which comprises allof its genetic

information.The fieldofgenomics isdivided intoseveralcategories, including functionalandcomparativegenomics.

While functional genomics is concerned mainly with how genes and the genome function in a given organism,

comparativegenomicsfocusesoncomparinggenomesfromdifferentspecies.

Atsunami,

or

tidal

wave,

is

created

when

asubstantial

volume

of

water

in

the

oceans

is

displaced,

resulting

in

awave

front which eventually reaches human coastal settlements. A tsunami can be caused by an earthquake, volcanic

eruption, landslide ormeteorite impact, though earthquakes are by far themost common cause.While a normal

tsunamitakenaloneisaquiteimpressive,uniqueevents(massivelandslidesorasteroidimpacts)cantriggertsunamis

solargeanddifferentfromtheirsmallercounterpartsthattheyhavebeencalledsupertsunamis,ormegatsunamis,for

thepurposeofclassifyingthemseparately.

Wastevegetableoil (WVO) isvegetableoilwhich is leftover fromotheruses,most typicallyuses in the restaurant

industry,suchasdeepfryers.ThereareanumberofapplicationsforWVO,rangingfromrenderingitforuseinanimal




23/68

feedtoprocessing itsothat itcanbeused inalternativefuelvehicles.processthevegetableoilforuse incosmetics,

animalfood,andotherproducts.

Ocean thermalenergy conversion, sometimes referred toasOTEC, isa formof renewableenergy thatutilizes the

differenceinoceantemperatureatvariousdepthsandconvertsittoaheatengine.Theheatengineconvertsthisheat

energytoamechanicaloutput.

3typesofOTECsystemsincludeclosed,open,andhybrid. Theclosedcyclesystemusesaliquidthathasaverylowboilingpointtomoveaturbinetocreateelectricity.Thisis

accomplishedbysendingwarmoceansurfacewaterthroughaheatexchangerwherethefluidisvaporized.When

the vaporexpands, itmoves the generator.Coldoceanwater,drawn atmuchdeeperdepth, is sent through a

differentheatexchanger,whichthenreducesthevaporbacktoliquidform.

Anopencyclesystemuseswaterfromtheoceanthatistheclosesttotheequator,sinceitistypicallythewarmest.Warmoceanwaterthat isplaced insideofa lowpressurecontainerwillbegintoboil.Asthesteamexpandsand

leavesthelowpressurecontainer,thesaltremains.Thesteampowersalowpressureenginethatisattachedtoa

devicethatcreateselectricity.Itisturnedbacktoliquidformbyexposingittocoldtemperaturescreatedbyocean

waterfromalowerdepth.

Thehybridsystemcombinescomponentsofthe firsttwomethods.Warmoceanwater ispulled intoacontainerwhereitisturnedintosteam.Thesteamthenturnsalowboilingpointliquidintovapor,whichpowersaturbineto

createelectricity.

Scanningtunnelingmicroscope(STM) isan innovativetypeofmicroscopewhich, insteadofusingreflecting light like

conventionalopticalmicroscopes,usesquantumtunnelingbetweenasampleandaprobetiptoimagethesurface.The

resolutionsachievedbyanSTMcanbeashighas0.1nmlateralresolutionand0.01nmdepthresolution.Thisisafew

timeshigherthantheresolutionsachievableusingthebestelectronmicroscopes.

SpaceShipTwo isa spaceplanedeveloped inajointventurebetween theVirginGrou

Science & Technology notes for GS - Civil Services Examination

Documents

Transcript of Science & Technology notes for GS - Civil Services Examination