science teacher - NZ China Friendship · Kew Gardens in London, and the Smithsonian Institution in...
Transcript of science teacher - NZ China Friendship · Kew Gardens in London, and the Smithsonian Institution in...
scienceteacher
ISSN 0110-7801Number 124
2010
Featuring: Iron
Weathering steel
Black sand
Iron in the stars
Iron and origin of life
Iron fertilisation
Dietary iron
Iron, oxygen, and life
Plus:
Ripping yarns
Science writing and the media
What is ‘Western’ about science
And more...
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ripping yarns: science in AsiaWritten by Miles Barker, Waikato University
InthreepreviousarticlesinNewZealandScienceTeacher1Ihavetoldanumberofstoriesfromthehistoryofscience–storiesthatareintendedtoilluminatethenatureofscienceitself.Unashamedlytocatchtheeye,Ichosetocallthemcollectively‘rippingyarns’,alabelthathasstrongconnotationsfromabygoneageofblissfulimperialism.Actually,bubblingthroughthethreenewsciencestoriesinthisarticlecanbefoundoneofthedominantfeaturesoftheageofimperialism:uneasyracerelations.Thescientistinthefirststory,Austrian-AmericanbotanistJosephRock(1884–1962),whoworkedinChina,hasbeendescribedas“anegomaniacatbest,aracistatworst.”2ThenthereisscienceandtechnologyhistorianJosephNeedham(1900–1995)who,initiallythroughhisresearchassistantandloveratCambridgeUniversity,LuGwei-djen,ultimatelycametobedescribedas“themanwholovedChina”3andwho,controversially,becameanapologistforthenewlyconstitutedPeople’sRepublicofChina.ThefinalstoryfeaturesIndianJ.C.Bose(1858–1937),physicistandbotanist,whofordecadescontendedheroicallywiththeloftyandpatronisingattitudesoftheBritishRajscienceestablishment.
However,eachstoryalsohasitsownparticularpurpose–toilluminateanimportantpropositionaboutthenatureofscience.Thesepropositionsfeatureintheclassiccatalogue4ofthefeaturesofscience(Table1)thatIusedinthethreeearlierarticles.SinceIwrotethosefourteenstories,however,theneedtoexploretheNatureofScienceinclassrooms,proclaimedinthebannerheadlineacrosseachpageofoursciencecurriculumof2007,hastakenonagreaterurgency.IaddressthisafterIhavetoldthesethreenewstories.
Rhododendrons, yak butter and brigandsBotanist-explorerJosephRock’sideaof‘dinnerinthefield’wasmoreelaborateandlesscommunalthanthatofmostscientists.Whereverhefoundhimselfinthegreatnorth-southcorridoroftheChina-Tibetborderlands–inasteamyjungle,aforestoffirtreesbesidearushingtorrent,onagrassyplainbeneathsnow-cladmountains–Rock’seveningexpectationswouldbethesame.Thecleanlinenclothwouldbespreadonthefoldingtable,thebottleofgoodwinewouldappear,andhiscook(fromtheNaxiethnicminoritypeople)wouldserve,onagolddinnerservice,dishessimilartothosethatRockrecalledfromhisboyhoodinthetwilightoftheHapsburgerainVienna.
Later,afterdiningalone,andwhilehispartyofuptotwohundredsettledinforthenight,Rockwouldrelaxhistravel-wearybodyinsteamywaterinhisAbercrombieandFitchcollapsiblebathtub.Meanwhile,intheshadowsaroundhim,theservantsattendedtoRock’spersonalcomfort;theportersunloadedtheplantpresses,cameras,andsoon,thusreleasingtheyaksormulesforfeedingandwateringbythemuleteers;andthemercenariestookuplookoutstations,guardingagainsttheever-presentpossibilityofbrigandsemergingfromtheanarchicalcountrysidetoattacktheexpedition.
Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,otherbotanists,eachwiththeircarefully-guardedterritory,workedontheresplendentand,atthattime,little-knownfloraoftheChina-Tibetborderlands.However,Rock’sflamboyantexpeditionsandhiscolourfulpersonalityhavebecomean
enduringpartofthehistoryofChina’ssouth-west.Muchofthisisduetotheenigmaticandeccentriccharacterofthisstocky,1.72mtall,habituallypith-helmetedscientist.Itwasnotjustthathistemperamentwasvolatile;itwasthathispersonalitywasdeeplycontradictory.
OftencharminginEuropeancompany,hewasprivatelyperpetuallylonely.Hewasbothself-aggrandisinganddeeplyinsecure.HewasfrequentlydismissiveofHanChinesecultureandsurprisinglyobtuseabouttheTibetanworld,buthewasneverthelessinvariablyaffectionate,ifsomewhatpatronising,towardstheNaximinoritypeoplewhoinhabittheareaofthesouth-westernprovinceofYunnanwhereRockmadehisbasenearthetownofLijiang.
Afterawearisometimeintheremotecountryoftheborderlands,hewouldlongtoberidofChina,butoncebackeveninShanghai(letaloneBostonorVienna)hewouldbedecrying‘civilisation’andlongingforthesolitudeandthegrandeuroftheChina-Tibetborderlands.Andalloftheseerraticfoiblesspilledoverintohisscience.Whilehismeticulousandpioneeringbotanywasinternationallygreatlyrespected,hiscontributionstoethnographyweregenerallyseenbyspecialistsasflawedbecauseofhisfascinationwiththemacabreandthesensational.ItwasimpossibletoidentifywhereRockthescientistandRocktheidiosyncraticcitizenoftheworldbeganandended.Indeed,hislifeisagoodexampleofthepropositionthatscientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens.
Rock,byacombinationofopportunismandbluff,suddenlybecameabotanistinhisearlytwenties.Bornintothelowerclassesinstatus-consciousVienna,hehadexperiencedanimpoverishedchildhood,mademorebitterbythecontrastwithhisfather’sworkplace–FranzRockwasastewardintheluxurioushomeofawealthyPolishcount.
Ateighteenyearsofage,JosephRockleftViennawithnoacademicqualificationsbuthavingdemonstratedaformidablememoryandagiftforlanguages.(Ultimately,hetaughthimselfeightlanguages,includingSanskrit;hebeganlearningChineseinViennaattheageofthirteen.)
DriftinghiswaytotheUnitedStatesand,outofworkinHonolulu,hesuccessfullypersuadedtheDivisionofForestrythathewasneededasanherbariumcollector.Thatdayheblusteredandcharmedhiswayintoasuccessfullifelongcareer,madepossiblebyhisorderly,systematicmind,hisprodigiousmemory,hisrelentlessenergyforwritingandexploring,hisloveofnaturalbeautyandsolitude,andhiswillingnesstogowherefewtrainedbotanistshadeverpenetrated.DuringhissubsequenttravelsinIndia,BurmaandmainlyChinaoverthenextthirtyyears,heshippedmorethan80,000plantspecimensbacktoinstitutionsasprestigiousastheArnoldArboretumatHarvardUniversity,KewGardensinLondon,andtheSmithsonianInstitutioninWashington.Hespecialisedinrhododendrons,hadtwonewspeciesnamedafterhim,andhisnumerousbutirregularjourneysbacktoLondon,Edinburgh,BerlinandBostonkepthimwellinformed,andalsoenhancedhisinternationalprestige.Curiously,however,RockneveractuallypublishedanyworksonthebotanyofChina.
EarlyinhistimeinChina,Rock’sattentionwasdivertedtowardsanotherdiscipline–ethnography.In1924Rock,
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nowanAmericancitizen,securedalucrativecontractwithNationalGeographicMagazineandoverthenexttenyears“ourmaninChina”5becameknowninternationallytomillionsofreadersthroughtheninearticleshewrote.Hisachievementsinthisareaareuneven.Thearticlescontainedstunningphotography;amazingly,Rockwastakinganddevelopinginthefieldthefirstcolourphotographicplatesinthe1920s.Forexample,suchphotosflamboyantlyillustratedRock’saccountoftheproductionanddisplayofthesculpturedandtintedyakbutterdeitieswhichformedthebackdroptothefestivedevildancingattheChonilamaseryupinGansuprovince.6However,hisfrequentclaimstobe“thefirstwhiteman”toviewaspectsofindigenouslife,ortoexploreasnowypeakorarivergorgebetray(certainlytoourearstoday)atbestaEurocentricbias.Withreadershipandfundingnodoubtinmind,hisattentionwasfrequentlytransfixedbymacabreandsensationaldetails;eventhetitlesofhisarticlesspokeof“weirdceremonies”,“strangekingdoms”,“brigand-infestedcentralChina”,“holymountainoftheoutlaws”.7Andhecanberightlyaccusedofdismissivelytreatingeverydaypeopleandcustomswithahigh-mindednessthatcontrastedwiththeavidattentionhepaidtheindigenous,so-called,kingsandprincesoftheregion.Approachingasettlement,Rockwouldoftenrequirehisentouragetocarryhimintothetowninasedanchair,inordertoimpressthepopulation,andespeciallyitsrulers,ofhisimportance.ItishardtoescapetheconclusionthathisattitudetowardspeopleinpowerwasanoutcomeofthewayheforeverbegrudgedhisownlowlybeginningsinVienna.
Rock’stimeinChinafinallycametoanendin1949asMaoZedong’snewlyconstitutedPeople’sRepublicofChinarequiredWesternerstovacateYunnanprovince.Wornoutbyyearsoftravel,bytheperpetualthreatstohisphysicalsafety,andnowbyindifferenthealth,Rockfledfromhis
homeoftwenty-sevenyearsnearLijiang.Forthenextelevenyearshewasaperpetualemigrant,alwaystravelling,nowhereathome.Hegaveupethnographyandreturnedtohistwoearlyinterests,botanyandlanguages.RockdiedofaheartattackinHonoluluin1962,justpriortothepublishingofthesecondvolumeofamonumentalandstillwidelyrevereddictionaryofthelanguageoftheNaxipeople.
JosephRock’sstoryremindsusthatscientistsarecitizenstoo.Sometimesthisbecomesapparentwhenscientistsbecomeinvolvedinpublicaction-taking:NobelPrizewinnersBritishcrystallographerDorothyHodgkin,andNewZealanderMauriceWilkins,ofDNArenown,alsodevotedmuchoftheirenergiestowardsinternationalpeaceandunderstanding8;andmanyclimatescientists“aregoingoutoftheirwayasprivatecitizenstosay,‘Wakeup!Thisisnotagoodthingtobedoing.’”9Andsometimesscientists’livesasprivatecitizensspilloverand,unintended,influencetheirspecialistactivitiesinscience:thereisevidencethattheprivatereligiousviewsofscientistsaseminentasSirIsaacNewtonandCharlesDarwininevitablyaffectedtheirprofessionallives.10So,too,didJosephRock’sprivateinnerworldimpingedramaticallyanderraticallyonhispublicworkinscience.
Joseph Needham’s great labour of loveCambridgeUniversityhistorianJosephNeedham’slonglife(1900–1995)isremarkableforonetitanicenterprisethathecamepassionatelytoembrace:thedocumentingofChina’sentirehistoryofscienceandtechnology,anditscontributiontoworldcivilisationgenerally.Needham’sclearestpurposewastopromotecross-culturalunderstanding;inattackingWesterncomplacency,heaimedtoshowjusthowmanycrucialscientificadvances,infact,originatedinChina–theinventionofprinting,gunpowderandthemagneticcompassarethreeofhundredsofexamples.
Needham’smonumentallabouroflovecomprised18hefty
Propositions about the Nature of Science Stories from Science (and sources in NZST)
The Scientific World View•Theworldisunderstandable
•Scienceideasaresubjecttochange
•Scienceknowledgeisdurable
•Sciencecannotprovidecompleteanswerstoallquestions
‘Allknowledgeismyprovince’-FrancesBacon’sbigclaim
(#113)
Thespiralsoflife(#106)
JosephNeedham’sgreatlabouroflove(#124)
‘Aplantisananimalstandingonitshead’(#113)
HaroldWellman-honesttoafault(#113)
Scientific Enquiry•Sciencedemandsevidence
•Scienceisablendoflogicandimagination
•Scienceexplainsandpredicts
•Scientiststrytoidentifyandavoidbias
•Scienceisnotauthoritarian
Thecaseofthemidwifetoad(#113)
WhytheKaingaroaforestisn’tgrassland(#101)
Whattranspiresinheartlessvegetables?(#106)
Radiowavesandbrainwaves(#124)
Theshamefulcaseofsexinplants(#106)
Knowingourselves-biasinanthropology(#113)
JoanWiffen,dinosaurwoman(#101)
The Scientific Enterprise• Scienceisacomplexsocialactivity
• Scienceisorganizedintocontentdisciplinesandis conductedinvariousinstitutions
• Therearegenerallyacceptedethicalprinciplesinthe conductofscience
• Scientistsparticipateinpublicaffairsbothasspecialists andascitizens
Maize,mysticismandjumpinggenes(#113)
FacialeczemadayatRuakura(#106)
AndreasReischek-thecollector(#101)
RomanovDNA-fromSiberiatosainthood(#106)
Rhododenrons,yakbutterandbrigands(#124)
Table 1: Thirteen propositions about the nature of science (from Rutherford and Ahlgren, 1990), and seventeen stories from science that illuminate the propositions. The stories are either in the present article, or in three
earlier editions of New Zealand Science Teacher.
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chtomeswhenhedied,anditisproposedthathisappointeeswillconcludea25-volumeprogramme.Withsomedisagreement,thesevolumesarereveredasasupremelyimportantcontributiontohumankind.Needham’sstory,oneofpassionatesingle-mindedness,rigorousscholarship,andpoliticalactivism,tellsusmuchaboutthepropositionthatscience ideas are subject to change.
Yes,wecanallthinkofinstanceswherethegreatideasinsciencearesuccessivelyreplaced(forexample,NewtonianphysicsbyEinsteiniumphysics),butNeedham’sstorybringsanothermeaningtothispropositionaboutthenatureofscience–thatourconstructionsofsciencehistorythemselvesaresubjecttochangebyhindsight.
Historiansofsciencearequiteoftendrawnfromtheranksofscientiststhemselves,11andsoitwaswithNeedham.AfteranintellectuallystimulatingbutsolitaryboyhoodinLondon,heembarkedoncoursesatCambridgeUniversitythatledhimintobiochemistryandthenembryology.12By1935hewasworkingwiththefamousC.H.Waddingtonononeofthegreatestscientificpuzzlesofthetime:theidentityofthe‘organizer’responsibleforinducingembryologicaldifferentiation.Needham’sprivateinterestsweremany–thistall,rangy,bespectacled,tousle-hairedman,withawickedgrinandapiercinggaze,wasalsoanudist,amorrisdancer,anaccordionplayerandachain-smokingchurchgoerwithastrongbentforphilosophyandexploringtheoriginsofcultures.
ButNeedham’sworldwastotakeanewdirectionlateonesummerdayin1937,whenLuGwei-djenknockedsoftlyandunexpectedlyonhisofficedoor.Atalentedbiochemistherself,whowasfleeingfromtheJapaneseinvasionofChina,the33-year-oldwasofferingtoworkwithNeedhamandhisbiochemistwifeof13years,Dorothy.Soon,fascinatedbytheformsandmysteriesofChinesecharacters,NeedhamwasbeggingGwei-djentoteachhimthelanguage.Inlittletime,Needham’ssystematicandwide-rangingforayintoMandarinwascausinghimtofallinlove,notonlywiththelanguage,butalsowithChinaitself.And,inevitably,hefoundhisadmirationgrowingrapidlyforthepeoplewho,overthelast3,000years,hadmadethislanguagetheirculturalcontinuum.
Needham’snewfoundloveofChinawasnopassingphase,andWorldWarIIprovidedanopportunitytopursuethispassion–hewasseenastheidealpersontofulfiltheroleofDirectoroftheSino-BritishScienceCo-operationOffice,inChongqing.13SoitcameaboutthatNeedham’splanetoucheddowninJune1943,inwhatistodaytheworld’slargestcity,butwhatwasthenaplaceofwar-ravagedchaos.Locatedinwest-centralChina,Chongqinghadbeenbombedmorethan200timesinthepreviousthreeyears,astheinvadingJapanesesoughttodestroythecitytowhichChiangKai-shekhadmovedhisNationalistgovernmentfromNanjing,14fartotheeast.
Needhamsetabouthistaskwithvigour–rebuildingscientificlifeinChinabyboostingmoraleandprovidingequipmentand,morepolitically,wavingtheflagforBritainandestablishingrelationswiththeChinesecommunists.Bytheendofthewarhehadcarriedoutelevenexpeditions(fourofthemmajor)andhadcovered30,000miles;hehadvisitednearly300scientificinstitutionsandhehaddeliveredthousandsoftonsofequipment.
ButduringhistimeinChina,Needhamalsohadapersonalagenda.In1942inNewYork,hehadconfidedasuddenideatoGwei-djen:whynot,oneday,writeabookthatwouldexplaintotheWesternworldjusthowprofoundandenormouswasChina’scontributiontoscience?HismissioninChinawasanidealchancetopursuethatthoughtand,typicallysystematic,hehadcollectedthousandsof
documentsforthispurposebythetimetheWarwasover.
Oneveryearly,massivelydifficultexpeditiontypifieshisgoal.InAugust1943,NeedhamandapartysetoutfromChongqinginaconvertedChevroletambulanceforthefarnorthernprovinceofGansu.Needham’sobjectivewastovisitCave17,oneofthe400man-madeMogaoGrottosnearthefarwesterntownofDunhuangonthefamousdryanddustySilkRoad.Itwasherein1907,thatanimmenseancientChineselibraryhadbeendiscovered,includingaprintedscrollthatwasnowrecognisedastheoldestdatedprintedbookinhistory.Itisthe‘DiamondSutra’,printedinAD868.Inotherwords,printershadbeenatworkinChinasixcenturiesbeforeeitherGutenburgorCaxtonsettheirownfirstbooksintypeinEurope.AsNeedham’sbiographerSimonWinchesterputsit,15“IfanyonethinginallcreationgavethelietotheWesternnotionthatChinawasabackwardcountry,thiswasit”.
ReturningtoEurope,NeedhamwascalledontoassistinthesettingupoftheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization–itissaid16that“hewasfamouslyinstrumentalinputtingtheSinUNESCO”–butby1948itwastimeforhisbooktobeborn.InstalledbackinroomK-IatCambridgeUniversity(aroomheoccupiedforsixdecades),NeedhambeganwritingScienceandCivilisationinChina.
Oncestartedeachday,hewouldworknon-stopuntillongafterdark,typingeverythinghimself.Thetaskwasmassive,anditscompletionever-receding.VolumeIappearedin1954.Bythetimehediedin1995therewere18volumes;andby2008thefaithfulinheritorsofthetaskhadcompleted24volumes,comprising15,000pagesandthreemillionwords.17Itcoverseverythingfromtheevolutionofthemosttheoreticalofmentalmodelsinastronomyandthenatureofmaterials,acrosstothingsaspragmaticastheinventionofthetoothbrush(9thcenturyAD)andtoiletpaper(AD589).Beginningwithwhattodaywouldbecalledthepuresciences,itrangesintoengineering,papermaking,ceramics,navigation,mining,metallurgy,architectureandpainting.Itventuresintoareaswheretheverytitlesmaytousseem“lostintranslation”:‘glyphomancy’,‘ataraxy’and‘scapulamancyandmilfoillots’.
ScienceandCivilisationinChinahashaditscritics,bothintermsofitsscholarshipanditspolitics.SometimesNeedhamhasbeenaccusedofmistranslation;ambiguouswritingsintheancientChinesemanuscripts,itissuggested,havebeenmassagedintoexaggeratedclaimsforinnovationinChina.Othercriticismshavebeenmadeaboutdeep-seatedassumptions:is‘science’universal,asNeedhamsuggests,andcancomparisonsbemeaningfullymade,atall,betweenEasternandWesternscience?Needhamhasbeenaccusedofbeingpoliticallynaïve–helenthisvoicetocallsforaninternationalinvestigationintocommunistaccusationsthatAmericanforceswereusingbiologicalweaponsintheKoreanWar,andhewasconsequentlydenouncedintheBritishpressasatraitorandastooge.18ThishasspilledoverintohostilitytowardstheMarxistframeworkheadoptedinScienceandCivilisationinChina.
Needham’sfinalyearsweremarkedbyhugeworldwideacclaimwhich,however,didnothingtodistracthimfromthetask.WhenDorothydied,in1987,hewasbrieflymarriedtoLuGwei-djen,whomheoncetenderlydescribedas“theexplainer,theantithesis,themanifestation,theassuranceofalinknoseparationcanbreak.”19Continuingtowritetotheend,NeedhampassedawayinMarch1995.
Thenotionof“re-writinghistory”isinteresting.Ifsomeonetellsyouthatyouare“re-writinghistory”,itisusuallynotacompliment.Instead,itisoftenanaccusationthatyouaretryingtopersuadepeople(probablyforyourowndubious
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education researchpurposes)thatpasteventstookadifferentcoursefromwhatisgenerallyaccepted.But,actually,thereisasenseinwhichallhistoryisperpetuallyandproperlybeingre-written;theeventsofthepastareforeverbeingre-interpreted,notonlyasnewevidencecomestohand,butalsointhelightofthesetofideasandtheorieswhichweholdprecioustoday.InRussia,theysumthisupwiththepithysaying,“Russianhistoryisunpredictable”.Soitalsoiswiththehistoryofscience.
Toexpandthepointmadeatthebeginningofthisstory:scienceideasareundoubtedlysubjecttochange;manypeoplecancitesciencetheoriesthathavebeendiscardedandreplaced–forexample,inastronomy(thecrystallinespheresoftheancientGreeks),inchemistry(phlogisten),inphysics(theopticalether),inbiology(spontaneousgeneration)andinEarthscience(catastrophistgeology).20However,theJosephNeedhamstoryalsotellsusthatscienceideasarefrequentlyperceivedtochangebecauseouraccountofthemchanges,byhindsight.
Radio waves and brain wavesInalectureroominthehugeoldcolonial-styleTownHallinCalcutta,21the‘CityofPalaces’,alargeaudiencehadgatheredthatdayin189522andalleyeswereontheshort,portly,dapperfigureoftheBengaliscientistJagadisChunderBose(pronounced‘Berzah’)ashemadethefinalmeticulouspreparationsforthedemonstration.Attheappointedtimetherewasnofailure;tothecrowd’swondermentanddelight,attheflickofafinger,Boseactivatedthetransmitterandcausedthemysteriousinvisiblewavestoapparentlyhurtlerightthroughthebodyofthechairman,Lieutenant-GovernorSirWilliamMckenzie,throughthreesolidwalls,andtoactivateareceiver75feetawayinanadjacentroom.InthewordsofBose’s1920biographer,PatrickGeddes,“thereceiver…whichcuriouslyanticipatedtheantennaofmodernwireless…atthisdistancestillhadenergyenoughtomakeacontact,whichsetabellringing,dischargedapistolandexplodedaminiaturemine.”23
RadiowaveshadnowbeendemonstratedinpublicinAsia.Butthiswasnocheaptrickturnedon,circus-style,formassentertainment;norwasitanall-or-nothingexperimentdesignedtoprove,onewayortheother,whetherradiowavesexisted.ItwassimplyasoberdemonstrationofBose’shard-wonpowersoflogicandimagination.J.C.Bose24(1858–1937),oftendescribedasIndia’sfirstmodernscientist,wasnotamantoleaveanythingtochance,andhishabituallyauthoritativeexteriorthatday,ashedrewhisaudienceintoadvancesattheveryfrontierofscience,revealedhowutterlyconfidenthewasinwhathewasdoing.
SchooledinEastBengal(nowBangladesh),andhavingobtainedhisBAinCalcutta,BosehadtravelledtoEngland,wherehefirststudiedmedicineinLondon,andwasthenawardedascholarshiptoChrist’sCollege,CambridgeUniversity,wherehetookupphysics.BoseimmersedhimselfinJamesClerkMaxwell’sepictheorisingaboutelectromagneticwavesofvariouslengths,andalsointhepracticaldemonstrationoftheirexistencebyHeinrichHerz.Bose’steachersincludedLordRayleighandJamesDewar,andhiswork–boththeoreticalandpractical,especiallyhiscapacitytodevisethemostsensitiveandrobustofinstruments–waslatertowinhighpraisefromthegreatLordKelvin.ButthedecadesfollowingBose’sreturntoIndiain1885wouldshowthattherewasevenmoretoBose’slifeinsciencethanbeingattheworldforefrontoftheinventionofradio.
Later,Bosewouldturntoplantphysiologyandachievedistinctionthere;and,inthestultifyingcontextofscience
inBritishcolonialIndia,hisgrapplingwithanattempttodefine,createandamplifyauniquely‘Indian’sciencewasabrave,ifinitiallydoomed,enterprise.Inanutterlyastonishingway,Boseinfusedthreecareers–physicist,botanistandactivistinthecultureofscience–withthenotionthat science is a blend of logic and imagination.
Mentionradiowavesand,ofcourse,thenameofGuglielmoMarconi,theItalianscientist-engineerandbusinessmancomestomind.TheresearchofBoseandMarconihasinterestingparallels.Duringthe1890s,bothwerestrenuouslyseekingtoreducethewavelengthofradiowavestoamatterofmillimetres(neededforeffectivetransmission),andbothwerelabouringtoperfecta‘coherer’,thatis,aradiowavereceiver.25
AroundthetimeofBose’sdemonstrationintheCalcuttaTownHall,Marconiwasgraduallyextendingtherangeofhistransmission,firstoveraboutamileonhisfather’sestateinItalyintheautumnof1895,theninEnglandacrossadistanceofninemilesontheSalisburyPlainin1896,andthen,mostdramatically,acrosstheAtlanticOcean,adistanceof1800milesonDecember12th1901.Buttherewerealsoimportantdifferences:Marconihadnoacademicqualificationsinphysics,Bosedid;Marconiusuallyneverlackedsupportiveworkingfacilitiesandfundingforhisprojects,Boseoftendid;Marconihadagreateyeforglobalmarketing,Bose’sultimateconcern,asweshallsee,wasforthefortunesofscienceitselfinColonialIndia;Marconiwasquicktopatenthisdiscoveries,Boseneverdid.Andalthoughbothwereacclaimedfortheirwork,somehowMarconireceivedverymuchthemajorshare–alongwithKarlBraun,hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysicsin1909.BosewasnominatedforaNobelbyhisfriend,theBengalipoetRabindranathTagore,butmissedout,althoughhedidreceiveashareofhonoursfromtheWesternscienceestablishment:hewasknightedbytheBritishgovernmentin1916,andhewaselectedaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyofLondonin1928.
However,bythetimetheseawardsweremade,Bosehaddramaticallyswitchedhisattentionfromheartlandphysicstoheartlandbotanyand,evenwider,totherelationshipsbetweenthelivingandthenonlivingworlds.Hiscapacitytomonitortinyelectricalcurrentswastheconnectingfactorinthisstunningleapoftheimagination,buttherewerealsodeep-seatedphilosophicalreasonsforhisswitch.Bose’sworkinphysicshadbeenentirelywithintheframeworkofmainstreamorWesternscience26butnow,aroundtheyear1901,hisresearchclearlybegantoshowtheinfluencesofcertainaspectsoftheIndianphilosophicaltradition,notablythedoctrineof‘monism’–thenotionthatrealityisinsomesenseone,thatis,unchangingorindivisibleorundiffer-entiated.
HisviewsculminatedinthepublicationofResponseintheLivingandNonlivingin1902.Thebook’smaintheoreticalimportancewasthepropoundingoftheso-calledBosianthesis,namelythatthereisnodiscontinuitybetweenthelivingandthenonliving.Hisstrongestclaim,that“inorganicmatterpossessedaspecificproperty,electricalresponsiveness,thatwasthefundamentalpropertyoflifeitself”,27wasinanyliteralsense,notonethatthecourseofbiologicalsciencehassincesustained.However,inanumberofmoregeneralways(forexample,ecologicalsystems’thinking)Bose’sinsistenceonthefundamentalinter-relatednessofthelivingandnonlivingworldsisnotsocontroversialtoday.
PlantphysiologyemergedasthemainthrustofBose’sresearchinhislateryears.Usinginstrumentslikehis‘Crescograph’,whichwassaidtobeabletorecordplantgrowthassmallas1/100,000inchpersecond28,Bose
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madecontributionstostudiesinwhatwewouldcallchronobiology,translocation,photosynthesis,andplantgrowthandresponsiveness.Bose’splantphysiologywasinmanywaystheoppositeofhisphysics;itwas“eccentric,idiosyncratic,overwhelminglyprolific,surprising…”and“…itdrewamixofintenseadmirationandintensedislikeamongscientistsintheWestinawayhisphysicsneverdid.”29
Thelackofacceptancewasduetosuchthingsastheabsenceofanyresearchtraditioninwhichtheworkcouldbeplaced(nooneelsewasmeasuringelectricalresponsesacrossplanttissues,anditfellinagapbetweenphysicistsandphysiologists);someregardeditasaworkofphilosophicalratherthanscientificinterest;and,verysignificantly,theworkwasbasedonBose’sidiosyncratic
Science curriculum statements:Understanding about science
Stories from science Connections
LEVEL ONE AND TWO• Appreciatethatscientistsask
questionsaboutourworldthatleadtoinvestigationsandthatopen-mindednessisimportantbecausetheremaybemorethanoneexplanation.
- ‘Allknowledgeismyprovince’–FrancisBacon’sbigclaim(#113)
- Knowingourselves–biasinanthropology(#113)
- Rhododendrons,yakbutterandbrigands(#124)
- Thespiralsoflife(#106)
- His‘scientificmethod’wassupposedlyawayofrespondingtowhateverquestionswereasked.
- Open-mindednesshasbeendifficultbecauseourapproacheshavebeendominatedbycurrentvaluesinsociety.
- JosephRock’sopen-mindednesswascloudedbyhistemperamentandtheexpectationsofhisreadingaudience.
- Morethanoneexplanation(nucleicacidsversusnucleoproteins)competedintheDNAstory.
LEVEL THREE AND FOUR• Appreciatethatscienceisawayof
explainingtheworldandthatscienceknowledgechangesovertime.
• Identifywaysinwhichscientistsworktogetherandprovideevidencetosupporttheirideas.
- Theshamefulcaseofsexinplants(#106)
- JosephNeedham’sgreatlabouroflove(#124)
- Maize,mysticismandjumpinggenes(#113)
- FacialeczemadayatRuakura*(#106)
- JoanWiffen,dinosaurwoman*(#101)
- Applyingmodelsforplantsexuallifecyclesallowsustoexplainandpredictbotanicalmysteries.
- HerewrotethechangesovertimethathaveoccurredinChinesescienceandhencechangedWesternperceptions.
- BarbaraMcClintockandothergeneticistsworkedtogetherrespectfullybutfromverydifferentassumptions.
- Toxicologists,soilscientists,botanistsandmycologistsworkedtogether.
- Thescientificcommunityinitiallyworkedtogetherwithherveryunevenly.
LEVEL FIVE AND SIX• Understandingthatscientists’
investigationsareinformedbycurrentscientifictheoriesandaimtocollectevidencethatwillbeinterpretedthroughprocessesoflogicalargument.
- ‘Aplantisananimalstandingonitshead’(#113)
- WhytheKaingaroaforestisn’tgrassland*(#101)
- Whattranspiresinheartlessvegetables?(#106)
- Radiowavesandbrainwaves(#124)
- Aristotle’serroneousideathatplantsgettheirfoodfromthegroundguidedcurrentscientifictheoryfor2000years.
- Thecobalt-‘bushsickness’linkwasdiscoveredbydoggedlogicandinspiredinterpretationofevidence.
- Thefruitlesssearchforplant/animalanalogieswascontradictedbylogicalinterpretationofHales’sexperiments.
- J.C.Bose’sextraordinarypowersoflogicandimaginativeinterpretationwereappliedtophysics,botanyandliving/nonlivingrelationships.
LEVEL SEVEN AND EIGHT• Understandthatscientistshavean
obligationtoconnecttheirnewideastocurrentandhistoricalscientificknowledgeandtopresenttheirfindingsforpeerreviewanddebate.
- HaroldWellman–honesttoafault*(#113)
- Thecaseofthemidwifetoad(#113)
- AndreasReischek–thecollector*(#101)
- RomanovDNA–fromSiberiatosainthood(#106)
- HeconnectedhisnewideasabouttheSouthIsland’salpinefaulttoathen-minoritytheory:platetectonics.
- LamarckianPaulKammerer’sdifficultiesinsubmittingtopeerreviewculminatedinhissuicide.
- Hisactivitieswouldsparkhugepeerdebatetoday,onconservationgrounds.
- TheatmosphereoffearandsuspicioninthefinalSovietyearsretardedprocessesofpeerreviewandopendebateintheuseofDNAfingerprinting.
Table 2: Connections between seventeen stories from science published in four editions of New Zealand Science Teacher and the ‘Understanding about science’ statements in The New Zealand Curriculum. Key connecting words
are in italics. The curriculum statements are treated cumulatively rather than sequentially replacing. The five stories with a New Zealand context are asterisked.
NewZealandAssociationofScienceEducators
NZscience teacher
124education research
37
ideasaboutwhatconstitutesthe‘signoflife’.Inasense,thiswasatusslebetweenBose’spowersoflogicandhisimagination.Asonecommentatorputsit,“Ontheonehand,hewasanexperimentalistandinstrumentdesignerparexcellence;ontheother,hismonisticmetaphysicsexceededwhathisdatacoulddeliver.”30
Bose’sthirdcareer,asanactivistinthecultureofscience,developedrelentlesslyashislifewenton.When,asayoungman,BosewasadvancingintoscienceinCalcuttainthelatenineteenthcenturyhehadfoundhimselfinaprofoundlydiscouragingenvironment.WesternsciencehadbeenveryslowtoestablishitselfinIndiaoverthepreviousthreehundredyears,andtheprevailingviewoftheBritishcolonialadministrationwasthatIndianswereincapableofengaginginfundamentalscientificresearchandthat,instead,theyshouldconcentrateonappliedtechnology.31ThisassumptionimpactedonBosewhen–nowimpressivelyqualifiedfromCambridgeUniversity–hearrivedbackinCalcuttain1885.HewasofferedapostatIndia’sbest-knowncollege,PresidencyCollegeinCalcutta,asajuniorprofessorofphysicsbutonlyif,beingIndian,heagreedtoreceivetwo-thirdsoftheregularsalary.Bosefamouslyprotestedbyforegoinghispayandbyrelentlesslyappealingtotheauthorities.Threeyearslaterheachievedpayparity.32
ThisincidentcannothelpbuthavepropelledBose’sthinkingalongapatterncommoninthedevelopmentofscienceinEuropean-colonisedcountries:fromtheinitialscienceswhichaccompanyearlycolonialpenetration(zoology,geology,geography),toasciencewhichdrawsonestablishedEuropeanpracticesandinstitutions,andthentoathirdstage–asomewhatindependentsciencetradition,inventedbyscientistswhoarenativesof,andculturallytiedto,thecolonisedcountry.33
Bose’smindclearlybegantakingintoaccounthow,asoneofhisbiographersputsit,“forcenturiestheIndianimaginationhadusednondualistthoughttoimposeorderondiversities,contradictionsandoppositions,andaunifiedworldviewonafragmentedsociety.”34Aswehaveseen,thisawarenessspilledoverintotheunderpinningsofBose’sownresearch.However,Bose’simaginationalsocausedhimtoquestiontheverystructureoforganisedscienceinIndia,andin1917heinauguratedanadvancedresearchcentreinCalcutta:theBoseInstitute.Itspurpose,accordingtoBose’sdedicationspeech,wastodefytheexcessivespecialisationinmodernscienceandtocapitaliseonIndia’suniquestrengths:“Throughherhabitofmind(India)ispeculiarlyfittedtorealisetheideaofunity,andtoseeinthephenomenalworldanorderlyuniverse.”35
IfBose’simaginationhadtakenaleapwhichwasdifficultforsomeWesternscientiststoaccommodateatthattime,assessmentsnowaremoreforgiving;forexample,“Today,whenbiophysicsisagenerallyrecogniseddisciplineandcomparativephysiologyrestsonamorescientificbasis,theideathatanimalandplanttissuesexhibitsimilarresponsesseemslesscontroversialandmayevenbetakenasforeshadowingNorbertWiener’scybernetics.”36Thesedays,thereisawidespreadacceptancethatEurocentricviewsofscienceandtechnologyhave“primarilyde-developedthevastmajorityofthepeopleswhoweresupposedtobenefitfromsuchscienceandtechnologytransfers.”37Afinalthought:itisimportantthatthedevelopersofschoolsciencecurriculadonotperpetuatethemyththatscienceisanexclusivelyWestern,post-Renaissanceactivity.38
Stories and the NZ CurriculumTable2showshowtheseventeenstoriesinfourissuesofNewZealandScienceTeacherilluminatethethirteen
propositionsaboutthenatureofsciencesuggestedbyRutherfordandAhlgren.Now–andnotforgettingthatallthestoriesactuallycomprisemanyrichcross-currentsandissuesabouthowscienceworks–Ihaveidentifiedfromeachstoryonedominantaspectwhichalignswithkeywordsinthe‘Understandingaboutscience’statementsinTheNewZealandCurriculum(seeTable2).IwouldstressthatIhaveinterpretedthestatementscumulatively,thatis,Iassumethateachcontainsawealthofmeaningthatcanbeexploredingreaterandgreaterdepthacrosseachsuccessivelevelofschooling.Thestoriesarethereforetobeselectedandusedinwhateverwayismostproductive,appropriateandpurposeful.Evenbetter,theymightinspirestorytellingandstorywritinginothers.39Overall,itismyhopethattheywillhumanize,de-mythologiseandenlivenourscienceteaching.
Forfurtherinformationcontact:[email protected]
AcknowledgementsIamgratefultoElizabethBarkerandtoDrAjithaNayarforpointingmetowardstheNeedhamandBosestoriesrespectively,toLiJinruiforhercommentsonanearlierdraftofthisarticle,andtomanyotherfriendsandcolleaguesinChinaandIndia.
Footnotes1 Barker,M.(2002).Rippingyarns–sciencestorieswithapoint,101,31-36;
Barker,M.(2004).Spirals,shameandsainthood–morerippingyarnsfromscience,106,6-14.Barker,M.(2006).Rippingyarns–apedagogyforlearningaboutthenatureofscience,113,27-37.
2 Mayhew,B.,&Huhti,T.(1998).Lonelyplanet:South-westChina,p.378.Hawthorne,Aust:LonelyPlanetPublishing.
3 Winchester(2008).Seebelow,hasbeenpublishedunderthisalternativetitleintheUnitedStates.
4 Rutherford,J.,&Ahlgren,A.(1990).ScienceforallAmericans.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
5 Edwards,M.(1997).OurmaninChina.NationalGeographicMagazine,191(1),62-81.
6 Rock,J.(1928).LifeamongthelamasofChoni:DescribingthemysteryplaysandbutterfestivalinthemonasteryofanalmostunknownTibetanprincipalityinKansuprovince.NationalGeographicMagazine,54,569-619.
7 NationalGeographicMagazine1924,#46,473-499;1925,#47,447-491;1925,#48,331-347;1931,#60,1-65.
8 Ferry,D.(1998).DorothyHodgkin:Alife.London:Granta.Wilkins,M.(2003).Thethirdmanofthedoublehelix:TheautobiographyofMauriceWilkins.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
9 Kolbert,E.(2006).Fieldnotesfromacatastrophe–man,natureandclimatechange,p.131.NewYork:Bloomsbury.
10 Manuel,F.E.(1974).ThereligionofIsaacNewton.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Quammen,D.(2006).ThereluctantMr.Darwin.NewYork:Norton.
11 ThephilosopherThomasKuhnisanobviousexample.12 ManyofthesebiographicaldetailsaresourcedfromSimonWinchester’s
(2008)superblyreadableaccount.13 FormerlyChungking.14 FormerlyNanking.15 Winchester(2008),p.102.16 Hessenbruch(1999),p.868.17 Winchester(2008),p.9.ItispublishedbyCambridgeUniversityPress.18 Blue(2004).19 Needham(1969),frontispiece.20 French,S.(2007).Science:keyconceptsinphilosophy,p.95.London:Continuum.21 Thatis,modern-dayKolkata.22 Accountsdifferastotheexactdate.Thisisasensitivepointforthosewho
wouldclaimthatBose’sinitialtransmissionprecededMarconi’s.23 QuotedinHabibandRaina(2007),p.314.24 Thisishowheisusuallyreferredto.25 Bose’sinnovativecoherercomprisedatubecontainingironintheformof
finewirespiralspringswithalayerofmercurybetween;radiationcausedthesystemtoswitchtoaconductingstate,detectedbyaverysensitivegalvanometerinthecircuit.
26 HabibandRaina(2007),p.328.27 Ibid.p.335.28 http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/scientists/JCBOSE.htm,07.04.0929 HabibandRaina(2007),p.34530 Ibid,p.338.31 Ibid,p.13932 Kumar(2006),p.218.33 HabibandRaina(2007),p.326.33 Nandy(1995),p.62.35 Ibid,p.60. continued on page 38
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36 Susskind(1980),p.325.37 Harding,S.1998).Issciencemulticultural?Postcolonialisms,feminisms
andepistemologies.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,p.738 Hodson,D.(1998).Sciencefiction:Thecontinuingmisrepresentationof
scienceintheschoolcurriculum.CurriculumStudies,6(2),191-216.39 SeeNewZealandScienceTeacher,#113,p.27.
Main sources about Joseph RockAris,M.(1992).Lamas,princes,andbrigands:JosephRock’sphotographsofthe
Tibetan BorderlandsofChina.NewYork:ChinaHouseGallery.Goodman,J.(2006).JosephF.RockandhisShangri-La.HongKong:Caravan
Press.Sutton,S.B.(1974).InChina’sborderprovinces:TheturbulentcareerofJoseph
Rock.NewYork:HastingsHouse.Winchester,S.(1996).Theriveratthecentreoftheworld:Ajourneyupthe
Yangze,andbackinChinesetime.NewYork:HenryHolt.
Main sources about Joseph NeedhamBlue,G.(2004).JosephNeedham.InH.C.G.Matthew&B.Harrison(Eds.)
OxfordDictionaryofBiography.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress(electronicsource).
Hessenbruch,A.(1999).JosephNeedham.InKellyBoyd(Ed.),Encyclopediaofhistoriansandhistoricalwriting.London:FitzroyDearborn.
Needham,J.(1969).Thegrandtitration:scienceandsocietyineastandwest.London:AllenandUnwin.
Teich,M.,&Young,R.(eds.)(1973).Changingperspectivesinthehistoryofscience:EssaysinhonourofJosephNeedham.London:Heinemann.
Temple.R.(1998).ThegeniusofChina:3,000yearsofscience,discovery,andinvention.London:Prion.
Winchester,S.(2008).Bomb,bookandcompass:JosephNeedhamandthegreatsecretsofChina.London:Viking.
Main sources about J. C. BoseHabib,S.I.,&Raina,D.(Eds.)(2007).SocialhistoryofscienceinIndia.Oxford:
OxfordUniversityPress.Kumar,D.(2006).ScienceandtheRaj–AstudyofBritishIndia(2nded.)Oxford:
Oxford UniversityPress. Nandy,A.(1995).Alternativesciences:creativityandauthenticityintwoIndian
scientists.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress(2nded.).Susskind,C.(1980).Bose,JagadisChunder.InC.C.Gillespie(Ed.),Dictionaryof
scientificbiography,v.2,p.325.NewYork:CharlesScribner.
CoRes and PaP-eRs CoRes and PaP-eRs can be used as tools for promoting the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of novice (and not so novice) science teachers, writes Anne Hume, School of Education, University of Waikato.
IntroductionTherehasbeenincreasingdiscussionaroundpedagogicalcontentknowledge(PCK)asausefulideaforpromotingteacherlearning.PCKwasfirstintroducedbytheAmericawriterLeeShulman(1987)inrecognitionoftheveryspecializedprofessionalknowledgeexpertteachersinparticularsubjectspossess,e.g.theknowledgethatanexpertscienceteacherhasthatsetshim/herapartfromanyscientistexpertinthatfield.Shulmancreditedtheseexpertteacherswiththeabilitytocarryoutteachingasacomplexandchallengingactivitythatrequiredongoingandinformeddecisionmakinginresponsetoindividualstudent’slearningneeds,ratherthanjustthesimpletransmissionofinformationfromteachertostudents.Hemaintainedthattheypossessaspecialblendofsciencecontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledgeforteachingparticularsciencetopicstoparticulargroupsofstudents,whichisbuiltupovertimeandexperienceandwhichhetermedPCK.PCKistopicspecific,uniquetoeachscienceteacher,andcanonlybegainedthroughteachingpractice.However,itisaverydifficultformofknowledgetodescribeandexemplifybecauseexperiencedteachersveryrarelydiscussorshareitwithfellowteachers−oftenbecausetherearefewopportunitiesinbusyprofessionallivestodothis,andalsobecauseofitsfluidnature,constantlychangingandevolvingasclassroomcircumstancesdictate.ThusPCKtendstoremainhiddenastacitratherthanexplicitknowledge.
SinceShulmanfirstintroducedthisnotionofPCK,otherwritershavebeguntoexplore,debate,andexpanduponitsnature.Magnussonetal.,(1999)identifiedfivecomponentsofascienceteacher’sPCKthatthereissomeagreementoninthescienceeducationfield.Thesecomponentsincludehis/her:• orientationstowardsscienceteaching(theteacher’s
knowledgeofscienceandthenatureofscience,andbeliefsaboutscienceandhowtoteachit)
• knowledgeofcurriculum(whatconceptsandskillstoteachandwhentoteach)
• knowledgeofassessment(whattoassess,whyandhow);
• knowledgeofstudents’understandingofscience(includingtheirpriorknowledgeandmisconceptionsandpotentialmisconceptions)
• knowledgeofinstructionalstrategies(provenappropriateandeffective).
ThespecificPCKsthatteacherswillneedtodevelopduringtheirteachingcareersrequireagreatdealofprofessionallearning.Classroomteachingexperienceisessentialforbuildingthisknowledge;butimaginethevaluetonovicescienceteachersofhavingaccesstosuchknowledgethatalreadyexists!Nottomentionthoseteachersalreadyintheprofessionwholackexpertiseinparticularsciencecontentareas,suchasthephysicsspecialistwhoisaskedtoteachbiologyinjuniorscienceprogrammes.Untilrecentlytherehavebeenfewconcreteexamplesthatareapplicabletoscienceteaching.
Developing PCK exemplars AboutsixyearsagoagroupofscienceeducationresearchersatMonashUniversity,beganinvestigatingiftheycould‘capture’thePCKofsomeexpertscienceteachersforuseininitialteachereducation.Loughranetal.(2004,2006)identifiedanumberofexpertscienceteachersintheirlocalarea,andinvitedthemtoparticipateinaresearchprojecttoseeiftheiraimofcapturingexpertPCKwasfeasible.TohelptheteachersrecognizeanddepictcomponentsoftheirPCK,Loughranetal.createdstrategiesknownasContentRepresentations(CoRes)andPedagogicalandProfessional-experienceRepertoires(PaP-eRs).
TheCoResaretemplateswhichattempttoportraycollectiveoverviewsofexpertteachers’PCKrelatedtotheteachingofaparticularsciencetopicandareaccompaniedbyPaP-eRs,whicharenarrativesabouthowspecificaspectsofthetopicalignedtotheCoRehavebeentaughtbytheexpertteachers−eachCoRehasasetofrelatedPaP-eRs(seeFigure1overpage).
Use of CoRes and PaP-eRs in science teacher educationTheCoResandPaP-eRsdevelopedbytheexpertscienceteachersintheLoughranetal.studyarepresentedinthe2006publicationUnderstandinganddevelopingscienceteachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledgebyJ.Loughran,A.BerryandP.Mullhall.
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