Science in the Elementary School:

Introduction: Background relating to 1he genesis of the Black Box Teaching i\'1e1hod.

Science educators and others have, for many years, n:commendcd and extolled the \'irtues of teaching and learning the so-called intangible aspects of science. Such noble goals were generally staled briefly and repeatedly in grandiose but nebulous terms and can be found in numerous publications issued over the past fi\'t.~ decades (e.g .• in the Thiny-firsl Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1932; the Forty-sixth Yearbook of the NSSE. 1947; and in the Fihy-ninth Yearbook, 1960).

These goals all add up to the development of a realistic and appn:ciative understanding or the n,tlure of the scientific and technological enterprises , of sci­emists as people, aml or the aims, methods and limi• tations of sciemific inquiry-in short, an understand­ing of lhe spirit or philosophy of science.

Yet, despite reiterated statemenLs of goals for gen­eral education in science, the public image of science and scientists is weird, grossly distorted and most unn:al istic (as revealed e.g., in the studies of Mc-.id and Mclraux, Remmers and Radler, Beardslee and O 'Dowd, Wilson, Williams and others). There appears lo be an expansive hiatus between persons trained in the sciences and those in other walks of life. This gap in appreciative understanding an<l communica­tion constitutes part of what C.P. Snow has referred to as the problem of "the two cuhures''.

Thus, a discrepancy seems to exist between our stated aims and results achieved in so far as this one sub-set of goals is concerned, namely , understanding the nature of the human activity called "science". Perhaps part of the difficulty resides in our over-all approach to general education in science.

It is surely necessary that teachers and students know much or the factual content of the various sci­ences. Facts remembered are part or the stuff from which ideas arc made, and the stuff used by a crea-

Black Box Investigations and Philosophy of Science

Mitchell E. Batoff

live imagination, and the stuff upon which judgments arc based.

Although a knowledge of the factual fabric of sci­ence is necessary, it is not a sufficient condition for understanding what science is all about. Even a know­ktlge of the current stock of generalizations in the form of laws and principles and contemporary lheo­rit•s is not sufficient for the development of a synoptic view of science both as an institution, and as a vi­brant, cumulali vc, evolving, international enterprise. A knowkdge of the generalizations in the form of laws, principles and theories still leaves a yawning gap in general education in science. One can achieve a knowledge of the facts and generalizations of ,;cience without experiencing-directly or vicariously -any of the excitement and any of the tra\'ail in­vol\'cd in crmting relatively stable explanations that attempt to unify some of the apparently chaotic di­\Crsity in the world; and one can have knowledge of fuel~ and generalizations without any real idea of how we know what the text books say we know; without any ,1cquaintance with the intellectual and technolog· ical modes of inquiry; and without ha,•ing had contact with many other facets of the complex enterprise called "science".

The first task that must be undertaken if we are to close this hiatus in general education in science, is to sensitize teachers-al all levels-to the problem as it now exists in the United States and perhaps throughout the west. Many teachers and curriculum workers al prcsenl arc not so sensitized. Teachers must come to sec and believe that all is not content­even modern content. And further, all is not process, particularly isolated processes of inquiry. A reorien· tation of view toward the teaching or the spirit of science, the philosophy of science, or the scientific outlook-is a necessary prerequisite for bringing the study of science closer to the cultural life of man.

A second reason that may be advanced for the widespread misunderstanding of the nature of sci-

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ence, is a dearth of adequate analyses of science­analyses that delineate objectives which in aggregate constitute an understanding of the scientific outlook. Thus, general and nebulous goals must be reduced 10 spccif ic objecti vcs in the form of pervasive themes which comprise the enduring warp and woof of sci­ence.

The third source of difficulty which is inextricably related to a lack of orientation (on the pan of teach­ers), and a lack of definite, spelled-out objectives, is a lack of instructional materials. Structured male­rials have not been available which were specifically designed to guide the Leaching and learning of the so-called intangible objectives of science Leaching, the permsivc invariant themes or key concepts which permeate science. Consequently, these ideas do not presently pervade education in science. IL has been amply demonstrated that unless specific plans are made lo Leach for certain objectives, it is unlikely that the objectives will be auained by pupils at the end of a unit, at the end c,f a course, at the end of a year-or ever. Whal is needed arc structured materials that tightly couple and interlock key concepts or per· vasive themes with subject matter and teaching ap· proach.

The fourth reason why the particular sub-sci of objectives dealing with an understanding of the philosophy or spirit of science has not been auained to a sufficient degree, is that evaluation instruments rarely tested for these objectives. Irrespective of what we may wish and irrespective of how noble certain objectives may be in our minds or even on paper, the kind of tests we give, the kind of questions we ask in class, and the kind of behavior we reward-all these -set the objcct-ivcs for our pupils. If key concepts or pervasive themes relevant to the philosophy of sci­ence are among the objectives which we hope to al· Lain through education in science, then it behooves us to discuss these ideas in class, ask questions on these points, and test for these objectives.

In the light of the preceding considerations the writer set out to find approaches to use with elemen­tary school children which would aim directly at the attainment of certain "intangible" objectives relevant to the philo·sophy of science.

One such approach is the use of "black box" in­vestigations employed in a certain specified way. The writer used this teaching method in grades three

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through six during the years 1963-65 at the Roosevelt School, Ossining, New York, and in Edgemont, New York during pan of 1965-1966. The intent of emplo} · ing this teaching method was to introduce 10 demcn· tary school children certain clements of the philos­ophy of science. Ddinition of Terms: Black Box and Black Box Teaching i\kthod.

"Black Box", as used by the writer, is a metaphor representing an open-ended problem in science, amenable to inn'Stigation by children under con· trolled conditions, and ll.'ading itself to the theory building-model formation process in all its facets. The intent of this de\'icc is 10 simulate (on a small scale) a problem in sdcnce and to make the problem as difficult for the child as a comparable problem is for a scientist.

The Black Box Teaching Method consists of a set of black boxes, supportive materials, and a teaching approach; its central concern is the attainment of one sub-set of science teaching objectives that con· tribute 10 an understanding of the Naiure of science.

The Black Box Teaching Method requires that each child have his own permanently sealed box for in­\'Csligation over a long period of lime (as used by the writer, O\'er an entire school year); that each box be different in its contents from every other box but the thiny boxes per classroom may be grouped imo a number of problem types. Some boxes may suggest probing as the primary means of obtaining evidence. Other boxes may suggest countmg of objects passing a window as the primary observations to be made. External mampulaizori may be the central task in a third type of box. Sample a11alysis may be the main process used in a fourth kind of box. The Black Box Teaching Method requires, further, that the observa­tions which are possible on each box be interesting and perplexing to the child; that the intriguing ob­servations be such that they can be explained by several (perhaps numerous) theories or models; that deductions from the theories be capable of testing, and that these tests lead to modification of the theory or model, which in turn lead to further deductions and tests of these deductions ("If ... then"). General aim of using black box investigations in the the Leaching of elementary school science.

To imroduce children-in a concrete way-to the nature of the scientific enterprise, to the aims of sci-

cniifi<. inquiq and, spl'cifically, to the inwllcnual and technological proces<;cs involved in theory or model building and theory renm at ion. Specific de~i red objecti ,·cs to be dc\'cloped through the u<;c of the Black Box Teaching Method.

,\. The a11ainmcnt of certain understandings relc­,,1111 to the philosophy of science. • An app1e<·iathc Lmdcrstanding of the tcnta­

ti\'e n,llurc or scientific truths; the idl'a of ,ucet.•<,<;i, c approximation to the truth with­out e,cr wholly attaining this goal, without e\'t'r m1ching 1he "end of the line" on any problem.

• An understanding of what a theory or model is, how it functions, and the relationship of theory to obscn·ation and experiment; an 11nclcn,t,111ding that a theory is "true" on the h;isis of present!) a\'ailablc evidence and that it will be modified or discarded as new evi­dence becomes ,l\·ailable; a realiwtion that a theory never becomes a "fact" but rather becomes a hct1<:r or more refined or more adequate theory.

• A realization that the central objccti,·c or -;cicntific work is the building and testing of theories and models to explain natuml phe­nomena (through the making of observations, drawing of inferences and testing of inf<·r­cnccs). .

• An understanding of the difference between what we obser\'e and what we inkr or the distinction bl'tween observation and interpre­tation.

• An appreciative understanding of the role of indirect evidence in science and the realiza­tion that we can obtain an impressive amount or information about objects which we can­not sec or handle directly.

• An understanding that instruments and other technological devices extend our senses, fac­ilitate me-..isuremem, and are used to obtain evidence upon which a theory or model may be built and tested (i.e., deductions tested).

• A realization that the mere operation of ob­serving may change that which is observed so that it is no longer the same as it was prior to the observation.

B. The performance by pupils of numerous oper­illions or processes of inqui11· in the course of formulating and modifying thwries or models. • Obsen.nion.

With all the senses (alone) With the aid of man) divcrsc instrumcnts

• Checking of obscn ations. • Measurement. • Inferring from ohscn a tions. • Testing of infcrcnccs through further obser­

v.uion and or experimentation. • Making deductions from a theory (If ... then). • Testing deductions through observation and

or experimentation. • Discarding or modifying a model. • Visual iJ.ing in three dimensions. • Describing or representing through words and

diagrams (communication). • Con,truction of apparatus to do a specific

task. C. The eliciting of latent curio-;ity. D. The eliciting of latent creativity.

Reasons for introducing ide,1s relevant to the philos­ophy of science in the e"lcmeniaf) school.

The reason,; for attcmptmg to introduce facets of the philosoph} of science in the early grJdcs is to ofr'iet, countcr.1ct, or minimize the formation or a dis­torted image of science. Erroneous, unrealistic and di<;toncd perceptions about the nature of science arc difficult or perhaps impossible to reshape l,llcr in the child's schooling. The intent of the Bluck Box Tl·aching Method is to help build a realistic image of science and scientists which is based upon an ap­preciati \'C understanding of the nature of scientific inquiry; the intent is to evolve this understanding through an extended period or first-hand experiences combined with enlightened discussion. The hope is that these learnings will not ha\'e to be undone or eradicated at a later date.

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