SCIENCEWhat are the harmful effects of a typhoon? Typhoon winds can affect buildings and other structures in two ways: through direct force and through projectiles. Direct force is when a wind gust slams directly into a building or structure and causes physical damage, such as when wind blows the roof off a home. Wind can also inflict damage by picking up and launching debris and other items, such as tree branches and building materials, into buildings and other structures. The heavy and persistent rainfall that typhoons bring can also have devastating effects. In addition to making homes uninhabitable, the flooding associated with typhoons can make roads impassable, which can cripple rescue and aid efforts. Typhoons can also affect the natural environment, and cause harm to trees and other vegetation, including crops that communities may rely on for sustenance or trade, or both. Strong winds can snap branches; detach and injure leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds; and uproot trees and plants. Flooding can produce over-saturation and drown out vegetation. Typhoons also deposit large quantities of salt onto plant life, which can have adverse effects. According to the Green Fun website, trees and vegetation in urban areas are more susceptible to typhoon damage, as they tend to grow in poor, restricted soil conditions. Typhoons are also well-known for stirring up the seas. Individuals on watercraft or those performing water operations (such as on oil rigs) not only have to contend with heavy winds and rain, but they have to deal with massive waves and, in general, turbulent water conditions. According to the Naval Historical Center website, typhoons have a history of causing harm out at sea, and this was especially true during World War II, when Pacific naval fleets were regularly battered by the storms. Today, fishing boats, cruise ships and other vessels rely on sophisticated technology to help them predict and avoid the devastating effects of typhoons.

Intertropical Convergence ZoneTheIntertropical Convergence Zone(ITCZ), known by sailors asthe doldrums, is the area encircling the earth near theequatorwhere the northeast and southeasttrade windscome together.The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the "Intertropical Front" (ITF), but after the recognition in the 1940s and 1950s of the significance ofwind field convergenceintropicalweather production, the term "ITCZ" was then applied.When it lies near the equator, it is called thenear-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with amonsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as amonsoon trough, a usage more common in Australia and parts of Asia. In the seamen's speech the zone is referred to as the doldrums because of its erratic weather patterns with stagnant calms and violent thunderstorms.The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms,that circle the globe near the equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestern direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the equator, these directions change according to theCoriolis effectimparted by the rotation of the earth. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing asconvectiveactivity ofthunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds.The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of theHadley cell, and is wet. The dry descending branch is thehorse latitudes.DoldrumsThedoldrumsis acolloquialexpression derived from historicalmaritimeusage, in which it refers to those parts of theAtlantic Oceanand thePacific Oceanaffected by theIntertropical Convergence Zone, a low-pressure area around theequatorwhere theprevailing windsare calm. The low pressure is caused by the expanding atmosphere due to heating at the equator, which makes the air rise and travel north and south high in the atmosphere, until it subsides again in thehorse latitudes. Some of that air returns to the doldrums through thetrade winds. This process can lead to light or variable winds and more severe weather, in the form ofsqualls, thunderstorms and hurricanes. The doldrums are also noted for calm periods when the winds disappear altogether, trapping sail-powered boats for periods of days or weeks. The term appears to have arisen in the 18th century; when cross-Equator sailing voyages became more common.The word is derived fromdold(an archaic term meaning "stupid") and-rum(s), a noun suffix found in such words as "tantrum".

ThunderstormAthunderstorm, also known as anelectrical storm, alightning storm, or athundershower, is a type ofstormcharacterized by the presence oflightningand itsacousticeffect on theEarth's atmosphereknown asthunder.[1]Thunderstorms occur in association with a type ofcloudknown as acumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied bystrong winds,heavy rainand sometimessnow,sleet,hail, or, in contrast,no precipitationat all. Thunderstorms mayline up in a seriesorrainband, known as asquall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms may rotate, known assupercells. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of thetropospherethat they occupy, verticalwind shearcauses a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moistair.Warm, moist updraft from a thunderstorm associated with a southward-moving frontal boundary. Taken from Texarkana, Texas looking north.They can occur inside warm, moist air masses and at fronts. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms cumulonimbus clouds that can reach heights of over 20km (12.45 miles). As the rising air reaches itsdew point, water droplets and ice form and begin falling the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft of cold air and moisture that spreads out at the Earth's surface, causing the strong winds commonly associated with thunderstorms, and occasionally fog.Thunderstorms can generally form and develop in any particular geographic location, perhaps most frequently within areas located atmid-latitudewhen warm moist air collides with cooler air.[2]Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards to populations and landscapes. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted bydownburstwinds, largehailstones, andflash floodingcaused by heavyprecipitation. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producingtornadoesandwaterspouts. A 1953 study found that the average thunderstorm over several hours expends enough energy to equal 50 A-bombs of the type that was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan during World War Two.[3] There are four types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multicell cluster, multicell lines, andsupercells. Tornado

TORNADOAtornadois a violently rotating column ofairthat is in contact with both the surface of the earth and acumulonimbus cloudor, in rare cases, the base of acumulus cloud. They are often referred to astwistersorcyclones,[1]although the wordcycloneis used in meteorology, in a wider sense, to name any closedlow pressurecirculation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but they are typically in the form of a visiblecondensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud ofdebrisanddust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177km/h), are about 250 feet (76m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. Themost extremetornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (483km/h), stretch more than two miles (3.2km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100km).[2][3][4]Various types of tornadoes include thelandspout,multiple vortex tornado, andwaterspout. Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellulartornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to theequator, and are less common athigh latitudes.[5]Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include thegustnado,dust devil,fire whirls, andsteam devil;downburstsare frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar.

Afigure of speechis a word or phrase that has a meaning something different than its literal meaning. It can be ametaphororsimilethat is designed to further explain a concept. Or, it can be a different way of pronouncing a word or phrase such as withalliterationto give further meaning or a different sound.Examples of Figures of SpeechUsing AlliterationAlliterationis the repetition of beginning sounds. Examples are: Sally sells seashells. Walter wondered where Winnie was. Blue baby bonnets Nick needed notebooks. Fred fried frogs.Using AnaphoraAnaphorais a technique where several phrases or verses begin with the same word or words. Examples are: I came, I saw, I conquered - Julius Caesar Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition! King John - William Shakespeare We laughed, we loved, we sang With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, - Abraham Lincoln We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. - Winston ChurchillUsing AssonanceAssonanceis the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close together. Examples are: A - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore (Poe) E - Therefore all seasons shall be sweet to thee (Coleridge) I - From what Ive tasted of desire, I hold with those who favor fire (Frost) O - Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn (Wordsworth) U - Uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (Poe)Using a EuphemismEuphemismis a word or phrase that replaces a word or phrase to make it more polite or pleasant. Examples are: A little thin on top instead of bald Homeless instead of bum Letting him go instead of fired him Passed away instead of died Put to sleep instead of euthanizeUsing HyperboleHyperboleuses exaggeration for emphasis or effect. Examples are: Ive told you a hundred times It cost a billion dollars I could do this forever She is older than dirt Everybody knows thatUsing IronyIronyis using words where the meaning is the opposite of their usual meaning. Examples are: After begging for a cat and finally getting one, she found out she was allergic. A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. The Titanic was said to be unsinkable. Dramatic irony is knowing the killer is hiding in a closet in a scary movie. Naming a Chihuahua BrutusUsing MetaphorMetaphorcompares two unlike things or ideas. Examples are: Heart of stone Time is money The world is a stage She is a night owl He is an ogreUsing OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeiais a word that sounds like what it is describing. Examples are: Whoosh Splat Buzz Click OinkUsing OxymoronOxymoronis two contradictory terms used together. Examples are: Peace force Kosher ham Jumbo shrimp Small crowd Free marketUsing PersonificationPersonificationis giving human qualities to non-living things or ideas. Examples are: The flowers nodded Snowflakes danced Thunder grumbled Fog crept in The wind howledUsing SimileSimileis a comparison between two unlike things. Examples are: As slippery as an eel Like peas in a pod As blind as a bat Eats like a pig As wise as an owlUsing UnderstatementUnderstatementis when something is said to make something appear less important or less serious. Examples are: It's just a scratch - referring to a large dent It is sometimes dry and sandy - referring to the driest desert in the world The weather is a little cooler today - referring to sub-zero temperatures I wont say it was delicious - referring to terrible food The tsunami caused some damage - referring to a huge tsunamiPREPOSITIONS Aprepositionis aword which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The relationships includedirection, place, time, cause, mannerandamount. In the sentenceShe went to the store,tois aprepositionwhich showsdirection. In the sentenceHe came by bus,byis aprepositionwhich shows manner. In the sentenceThey will be here at three o'clock,atis aprepositionwhich showstimeand in the sentenceIt is under the table,underis aprepositionwhich showsplace. Aprepositionalways goes with a noun or pronoun which is called theobject of the preposition. Theprepositionis almost alwaysbeforethe noun or pronoun and that is why it is called apreposition. Theprepositionand theobject of the prepositiontogether are called aprepositional phrase. The following chart shows theprepositions, objects of the preposition,andprepositional phrasesof the sentences above.PrepositionObject of the PrepositionPrepositional Phrase

tothe storeto the store

bybusby bus

atthree o'clockat three o'clock

underthe tableunder the table

Prepositional phrasesare like idioms and are best learned through listening to and reading as much as possible. Below are some commonprepositionsoftimeandplaceand examples of their use. Prepositions of time:attwo o'clockonWednesdayinan hour,inJanuary;in1992fora day Prepositions of place:atmy houseinNew York,inmy handonthe tablenearthe libraryacrossthe streetunderthe bedbetweenthe books

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is phrase that starts with a preposition and ends with noun (or a pronoun). For example:

It is a little bit more complicated than shown above because the noun can be anything that plays the role of a noun. For example: fromher(the "noun" is apronoun) fromsleeping(the noun is agerund, i.e., a verbal noun) fromthe man across the street(the noun is anoun phrase) fromwhat he said(the noun is anoun clause)The words after the preposition (shown in bold above) are known as theobject of a preposition. There will often bemodifiersin the object of the preposition making it a noun phrase. For example: withJohn(There are no modifiers in this example. Compare it to the next example.) withthe wonderful John(With the modifierstheandwonderful, the object of the preposition is now a noun phrase.)Here is another example: withouttrying(There are no modifiers in this example. The object of the preposition is a noun. In this case, it's a gerund. Compare it to the next example.) withoutoverly trying(With the modifieroverly, the object of the preposition is a noun phrase.)Prepositional Phrases Function As Adjectives or AdverbsHere are some more examples of prepositional phrases. In each example, the prepositional phrase is shaded with the preposition in bold. Be aware that prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs.

Prepositional phrases functioning as adjectives: Please read the messagefromLee.(The prepositional phrase describes the nounmessage.) The manonthe radiohas a boring voice.(The prepositional phrase describes the nounman.) May I see oneofthe brown ones?(The prepositional phrase describes the pronounone.)Prepositional phrases functioning as adverbs: Lee caught a small mackerelwithutmost pride.(The prepositional phrase modifies the verbcaught. It is an adverb of manner; i.e., it tells ushowhe caught it.) Beforethe war, Lee played football for Barnstoneworth United.(The prepositional phrase modifies the verbplayed. It is an adverb of time; i.e., it tells uswhenhe played.) Lee is tiredfromthe hike.(The prepositional phrase modifies the verbis. It is an adverb of reason; i.e., it tells uswhyhe is tired.) Lee livesinthat fridge.(The prepositional phrase modifies the verblives. It is an adverb of place; i.e., it tells uswherehe lives.)