Development of Historical Writings

SCHOOLS PART 3

DR ELMIRA AKHMETOVADEPT. OF HISTORY AND CIVILIZATION,IIUM

Schools School of Hijaz (Madinah)

School of Yemen

School of Al-Sham

School of Iraq

Mostly developed independently through halaqat each gathered among individual teachers or scholars

The teacher’s lecture or riwaya, was circulated from one to another, and, with the passage of time, there arose a school of history, hadith and jurisprudence

Historical school of Madinah (Hijaz)

The fist school of history was the maghazi school in Madinah

Associated with two scholars (authorities on hadith and jurisprudence):

‘Urwah b. Al-Zubayr, and his student, al-Zuhri

‘Urwah b. al-Zubayr Son of Asma bint Abi Bakr and al-Zubayr b. al-Awwam

From notables of the Quraish

Born in 22, 26 or 29 H

Grew up and studied in Madinah, lived in Egypt for 7 years, got married, visited Damascus

Did not participate in the politics of the Umayyads

Was among the most learnt men in his time

‘Urwah Studied jurisprudence and hadith

The Umayyad court (al-Walid) asked him about the events pertaining the mission of the Prophet SAW

His answers were the first historical writings:

1. Muhammad’s call at the age of 40, the first signs of the prophecy with bringing ayats from the Qur’an; how the Prophet SAW did realize the importance of mission

2. Hijrah to Abyssinia – appears in the form of a letter from ‘Urwah to ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan;

3. the opposition of Quraish to the Prophet’s mission; gave names who mocked the Prophet;

4. the Hijrah – began with the circumstances leading to hijrah – we do not know: is this the continuation of the letter to Abd al-Malik or a different account; how the Prophet reached Quba and how Muslims were waiting for him - bears isnad

‘Urwah 5. the account about ‘Abd Allah ibn Jahsh – attacking the Quraish caravan

6. Badr – very detailed

7. the campaign against Qaynuqa’ – the reason, their expulsion from Madinah and property confiscation

8. Ditch – efforts of Jews to rally against the Prophet SAW

9. Banu Qurayza

10. Hudaibiyyah

And many other accounts (18 accounts)

Some maghazi accounts from Rashidun time: Ridda wars, Yarmuk, the Battle of Camel

‘Urwah So his accounts were basic sketches in varying degrees of detail

Sometimes gives references only, sometimes discusses many details

He was a trustworthy scholar of hadith, so adhered to hadith methodology

Had access to primary sources, mentions isnad in many accounts but usage of isnad was not rule yet

With oral tradition, he also used written material such as letters of the Prophet, the verses of the Qur’an making connection between the writing of history and the Qur’anic message

Later this became the model for later historians

Took material from the most trustworthy transmitters (rawi), stated clearly if he was not sure about the trustworthiness of the rawi

‘Urwah Used poetry

Free from exaggeration or effort to influence the opinion of the reader

So history writing in Madinah began with close ties to the study of hadith, even derived from it

Historical accounts followed the style, structure and form of hadith

Shows also that early Muslims paid attention to the importance of seerah and experience of the ummah

‘Urwah’s work was important for gathering so many historical hadiths into the maghazi, laying part of the groundwork for historical studies and articulating a historical conception of considerable influence, he placed the study of history as an independent foundation (science)

Al-Zuhri (d. 124) The primary role in the rise of Madinah school belongs to Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Zuhri

Built solid foundations of history and elaborated its approach

Studied under scholars of hadith, was renowned for his strong memory – important asset in his days

But he used to write down everything whatever he heard, especially sunnan of the Prophet SAW

For his studies on the maghazi he depended on ‘Urwah, studied with him

So these three things: studying hadith, good memory and writing down everything helped him to become a person who laid down foundations of Muslim historiography

His name is mentioned by Imam al-Bukhari, al-Tabari

Al-Zuhri His maghazi structure:

1. pre-Islamic era (begins with the creation of Adam; Noah; Ismail and other prophets; the birth of the Prophet)

2. the Prophetic mission (begins with the revelation; Quraish reaction, Isra Mi’raj, the hijra to Abyssinia; the boycott, the pledge of Aqabah)

3. The period of Madinah (hijrah, detailed narration of all expeditions and battles; relations with the Jews; letters to kings; sickness and death of the Prophet SAW)

Accordingly, al-Zuhri provided the first seerah with its distinct framework and structure; so later writers will follow his way

It is wider than maghazi, includes many accounts not related to battles

He generally observed the chronological sequence of events, gives dates of battles

Al-Zuhri Approach is the same as scholars of hadith

He adopted the collective isnad – collecting many narrations slightly different from one another to one smooth and uninterrupted narration

Makes many references to the Qur’anic verses – it shows that the need for tafseer of the ayats related to the Prophet’s life was one of the reasons for the emergence of history field

Provides realistic and balanced information

Style is candid, unaffected by biasness, free from exaggerations

Less usage of folklore, Israiliyat and qisas

Used poetry as well

The writings of al-Zuhri include genealogy, the period of Rashidun, mainly did not deal with the Umayyad period

Al-Zuhri Established outlines and structure for writing of the biography of the Prophet SAW

Played an important role in stabilizing the hadiths and accounts of Madinah

Founded the historical school of Madinah

His books remained the fundamental core for seerah books

Paid attention to ummah

Wrote many accounts down

School of Yemen Wahb ibn Munabbih Born in Yemen (d. c. 110)

His father was a descendant from Persian troops sent to Yemen

Wahb was known for his ascetic tendencies

Pious man, was qadarite, but then abandoned this doctrine

Was qadi during the reign of ‘Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

His approach differed from school of Madinah; he was a compiler of akhbar and qisas

Yaqut called him “akhbari and teller of tales”

Storyteller – was a topic for criticism and controversy, but some regarded as reliable authority

Wahb ibn Munabbih Took material from both oral accounts and books, including ancient books (Israliliyat)

Fairly accurately transmitted fragments from the Old Testament which were later quoted by al-Tabari in his Tafsir

Reported fragments of the Psalms, creation narratives from Talmud

Gave names and personalities of the Book of Genesis in accordance with Hebrew text

Used popular Yemenite tales as well

His works Mubtada: (Qisas al-Anbiyah), Kitab al-Tijan (the book of Crowns)

1. age of the earth, creation of earth

2. Noah and his sons

3. regarding the prophets, he uses the Torah tales by bringing some references from the Qur’an

Wahb These books glorify Yemenites for their acceptance of monotheism, contributions in battles, scholarship, science and crafts.

Folkloristic writer, yet 1st historian who established a framework to study the history of the prophethood from the creation of the universe until coming of Islam

Later scholars like Al-Tabari will use the same framework with more careful method of checking sources

This was the beginning of Historical Folklore

Historical School of Iraq Historical writing was an integral part of Arab culture and could be understood in terms of other cultural activities and developments

They were history conscious, historical tales like Ayyam al-’Arab, but there was no clear concept of history yet

At earliest stages: two general perspectives:

1. the perspective of the hadith scholars - Islamic – special attention to the Prophet SAW

By the end of the 1st century – general lines of sirah books were laid down

2. the perspective of the tribes, which was in a sense a continuation of earlier tribal activities - tribal Both had an influence on various aspects of life

Madinah – the center for the perspective of hadith scholars

Kufa and Basra –settlements of the tribal garrisons and centers of tribal traditions (founded and city was planned by ‘Umar RA) – population – Arabs from Arabia, when Christians accepted Islam –joined them

Historical School of Iraq Islamic scholarship emerged among these three cities

Tribal perspective on the study of history began as a result of the interest in the activities and affairs of the tribes

In both line – style and approach was a direct continuation of ayyam tales and accounts of genealogies adding all info about battles and openings of Islam

Narratives were related to tribal gatherings and was viewed as a collective property of tribe or family

Tribe’s elderly (mashaikh) or narrators were its principal transmitters

Continued as before at the early age of Islam

with Islam, tribes gathered together, learnt to read and write, Islamic unity

At the beginning of the 2nd century – tribal narrators began writing, adding genealogies, poetry and akhbar together – yet, it was considered as a property of the tribe

School of Iraq These narrations played an important role later as a source for historical works

At the middle of the 2nd century, pioneering scholars in various fields began collecting poetry, akhbar and hadith – give rise to akhbariyun

Akhbariyun were first historians in the tribal perspective

Examples: Abu Mikhnaf (d. 157H), ‘Awana ibn al-Hakam (dd.147), Sayf ibn ‘Umar (d. 180H) and the doyen of the akhbariyun, al-Mada’ini (d.225)

Interest in the affairs of the ummah along side their special concern for the affairs in Iraq

So, when they write about Iraq, they will write about Islam, battle of Ridda, fitna wars

We also can see the concepts of divine foreordainment (jabr – human actions are created by God) in public affairs as promoted by the Umayyads; the concept of free will; human responsibility – viewpoints

School of Iraq They also discussed other issues like the concept of state, the rights of imam and obedience to him, as opposed to the tribal view (loyalty to tribal shaykh), rebellion against the Umayyads – not regarded as illegitimate

Even when they criticized Mu’awiyah’s revolt against ‘Ali RA – criticism was founded on factional consideration than being explained through the concept of state

So, these works of akhbariyun were discussing worldviews, concepts, but in moderation, not taking one side only

Also, they glorified tribes, their role in battles, public affairs They collected many information, for example, Abu Mikhnaf gave many accounts from the tribal elders, and used family accounts

School of Iraq Used documents, letters, treaties from local diwans

Reports of majalis

Regarding isnad – freedom, they used broken chain hadiths, or the first name of rawi is mentioned, or just ‘it was said’

Also, genealogical studies began within the limits of a single tribe

Also the influence from Persia including Persian language was strong – so, historians tried to maintain the role of the Arabic,

So, akhbariyun, philologists and geneologists defined the scope of history

By the beginning of the 3rd century, - writing of history reached at the stage of the emergence of the great historians

School of Iraq The concept of the unity of Islamic history emerged

Al-Haytham ibn Adi’s work, “Kitab al-Tarikh ‘ala Sinin (History according to the Years) – genealogical perspective developed into a historical perspective set

The idea of universal history also emerged – Hisham al-Kalbi – wrote history of the prophets, pre-Islamic Arabia and Islamic history as a whole

Methodology: attention to isnad increased

A new phase of cultural development

This was the era of the rihlah bi talab al-ilm (educational journeys), a movement initiated by hadith scholars to collect hadith and to classify them

Use of isnad became widespread; more firmly established; judgements based on one scholar’s opinion

School of Iraq Main historians of the 3rd century:

Al-Baladhuri (d.279), al-Ya’qubi (d.284), al-Dinawari (d.282), Ibn Qutayba (d 270) and al-Tabari (d 310)

Histories of Islamic community

Main historical concepts: the unity and continuity of of the experiences of the ummah, and the universal vision of history

Their motives in writing are varied: Ibn Qutayba focused on the class of secretaries (kuttab); Dinawari – role of Iraq; al-Tabari – to show the will of God in history, to make his work as a guide

They are critical about their sources