Category:Sunni Muslim scholarsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Category:Scholars   Category:Muslims            

       

       

               

     

  Category:Muslim scholars                  

                             

         

 

Category:Sunni Muslim scholars            

 

                               

             

   

Category:Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam        

 

                               

                 

   

Category:Sunni imams    

 

                             

       

   

Category:Shi'a Muslim scholars            

 

                             

           

   

Category:Shi'a Muslim scholars of Islam        

 

                             

               

   

Category:Shi'a clerics    

 

                             

                   

   

Category:Ayatollahs 

   

 

Category:Muslim philosophers                

 

                           

 

   

Category:Muslim scholars of Islam

 

Category:Hadith compilers        

   

                         

SubcategoriesThis category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.

I

► Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam (3 C, 99 P)

S

► Sunni fiqh scholars (6 C, 31 P)

Pages in category "Sunni Muslim scholars"The following 77 pages are in this category, out of 77 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).

A

Aban bin Uthman bin Affan Abd Allah al-Qaysi Usama al-Abd Muhammad Abdul Malek Abdullah ibn Mubarak Abdulrahman bin Abdulaziz Al Kelya Abdur Rahim (scholar) Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Hazm Abu Hanifa Muhammad Abu Khubza Abu Sa'id Al-Janadi Abu'l-Faraj ibn al-Jawzi Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi Adnan Al-Qattan Ahmad ibn Hanbal Al ash-Sheikh Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i Al-Fakihi Mulla Shams ad-Din al-Fanari Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani Muhammad Metwali Alsharawi Asbat ibn Muhammad Averroes Abul Kalam Azad (politician)

B

Syed Ameen Badasha Ahmed Tijani Ben Omar

D

Dawud al-Zahiri Haji Dost Muhammad Qandhari

F

Saheb Qiblah Fultali

G

Muhammad Asadullah Al-Ghalib Abd al-Aziz al-Ghumari Ahmad al-Ghumari

H

Abdul Hadi Awang Hammad ibn Salamah Abdul Aziz al-Harbi Joel Hayward Azizul Haque (scholar) Al-Humaydī

I

Ibn al-Mughallis Ibn Dihya al-Kalby Ibn Khuzaymah Ibn Tahir of Caesarea Ibn Tufail Ibn 'Ulayya Ibn Zuhr Muhammad Idrees Dahiri Sheikh Mohammad Iqbal

K

Ibn Kathir Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Jundi Masood Ali Khan Kisa'i Mohammed Alkobaisi

M

Manazir Ahsan Gilani Rashid Al Marikhi Abdur Rahman (Islamic scholar) Fazlul Haque Amini Muhammad al-Shaybani Muhammad bin Dawud al-Zahiri Muhammad Faizullah Mundhir bin Sa'īd al-Ballūṭī Khurram Murad

N

Salman Husaini Nadwi Muhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy Said Nursî

S

Syed Mohammed Hameeduddin Sharafi Shawki Ibrahim Abdel-Karim Allam Siddiq Hasan Khan Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi Sayyad Laal Shah Hamdani

T

Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Fasi

U

Ullal Thangal

W

Timothy Winter

Y

Hamza Yusuf

Z

Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri Abu Turab al-Zahiri Zubair Ali Zai

List of Muslim historians

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from List of Islamic historians)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2010)

This is a subarticle of Islamic scholars, List of Muslim scholars and List of historians.

The following is a list of Muslim historians writing in the Islamic historiographical tradition, which developed from hadith literature in the time of the first caliphs. This list is focused on pre-modern historians who wrote before the heavy European influence that occurred from the 19th century onward.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Chronological list

o 1.1   The historians of the formative period

o 1.2   The historians of the classical period

1.2.1   Iraq and Iran

1.2.2   Egypt, Palestine and Syria

1.2.3   al-Andalus and the Maghreb

1.2.4   India and Pakistan

o 1.3   The early modern historians

1.3.1   Turkish: Ottoman Empire

1.3.2   Arabic: Ottoman Empire and Morocco

1.3.3   Persian: Safavid Empire and Mughal India

o 1.4   The historians of the modern period

2   See also

3   Notes

4   References

5   See also

Chronological list[edit]

See also: Historiography of early Islam and List of biographies of Muhammad

The historians of the formative period[edit]

First era: 700-750 (Ibn Zubayr and al-Zuhri's histories no longer exist, but they are referenced in later works).

Urwah ibn Zubayr (d. 712) Aban bin Uthman bin Affan (d. 723) Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 735)

Second era: 750-800

Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (d.741) Ibn Ishaq (d. 761) - Sirah Rasul Allah (The Life of the Apostle of God) Abi Mikhnaf (d. 774) - Maqtal al-Husayn

Third era: 800-860

Hisham ibn al-Kalbi (d. 819) Al-Waqidi (d. 823) - Kitab al-Tarikh wa'l-Maghazi (Book of History and Battles). Ibn Hisham (d. 835) Ibn Sa'd (d. 845) Khalifa ibn Khayyat (d. 854)

Fourth era: 860-900

Ibn Abd al-Hakam (d. 871) - Futuh Misr wa'l-Maghrib wa akhbaruha Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889) - Uyun al-akhbar, Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa[1]

Al-Dinawari (d. 891) - Akbar al-tiwal Baladhuri (d. 892) Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838CE - 923CE) - History of the Prophets and Kings

Fifth era: 900-950

Ya'qubi (d. 900) - Tarikh al-Yaqubi Ibn Fadlan (d. after 922) Ibn A'tham (d. 314/926-27) - al-Futuh Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī (d. 945)

The historians of the classical period[edit]Iraq and Iran[edit]

Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli (d. 946) Ali al-Masudi (d. 955) - The Meadows of Gold Sinan ibn Thabit (d. 976) al-Saghani (d. 990), one of the earliest historians of science Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1030) al-Utbi (d. 1036) Hilal ibn al-Muhassin al-Sabi' (d. 1056) al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071) - Tarikh Baghdad (a biographical dictionary of major

Baghdadi figures) Abolfazl Beyhaqi (995-1077) - Tarikh-e Mas'oudi (also known as "Tarikh-e Beyhaqi").[1]

Abu'l-Faraj ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1201) Ibn al-Athir (1160–1231) - al-Kamil fi'l-Tarikh Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi (c.1204) Rahat al-sudur, (a history of the Great Seljuq Empire

and its break-up into minor beys) Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi (d. 1242) Sibt ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1256) Hamdollah Mostowfi (d. 1281) Ibn Bibi (d. after 1281) Ata-Malik Juvayni (1283) Ibn al-Tiqtaqa (d. after 1302) Ibn al-Fuwati (d. 1323) Wassaf (d. 1323) Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (d. 1398) - Jami al-Tawarikh Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi (d. 1454) Mirkhond (d. 1498) - Rauzât-us-safâ

Egypt, Palestine and Syria[edit]

Al-Muqaddasi (d.1000) Ẓāhir al-Dīn Nīshāpūrī around 1175 al-Musabbihi (d. 1030), Akhbar Misr[2]

Ibn al-Qalanisi (d. 1160) Ibn Asakir (d. 1176) Usamah ibn Munqidh (d. 1188) Imad al-Din al-Isfahani (d. 1201) Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (d. 1231) Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad (d. 1235) - al-Nawādir al-Sultaniyya wa'l-Maḥāsin al-

Yūsufiyya (The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin) Sibt ibn al-Jawzi (d. 1256) - Mir'at al-zaman (Mirror of the Time) Ibn al-Adim (d. 1262) Abu Shama (d. 1267)[3]

Ibn Khallikan (d. 1282) Abu'l-Fida (d. 1331) al-Nuwayri (d. 1332) al-Mizzi (d. 1341) al-Dhahabi (d. 1348) - Tarikh al-Islam al-kabir Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) - al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya (The Beginning and the End) Ibn al-Furat (d. 1405) al-Maqrizi (d. 1442) - al-Suluk li-ma'firat duwwal al-muluk (Mamluk history of Egypt) Ibn Hajr al-Asqalani (d. 1449) al-Ayni (d. 1451) Ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1470) - Nujum al-zahira fi muluk Misr wa'l-Qahira (History of Egypt) al-Sakhawi (d. 1497) al-Suyuti (d. 1505) - History of the Caliphs Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi (d.1522)

al-Andalus and the Maghreb[edit]

Qadi al-Nu'man (d. 974) Ibn al-Qūṭiyya (d. 977) - Ta'rikh iftitah al-Andalus Ibn Faradi (d. 1012) Ibn Hazm (d. 1063) Yusuf ibn abd al-Barr (d. 1071) Ibn Hayyan (d. 1075) al-Udri (d. 1085) Abū 'Ubayd 'Abd Allāh al-Bakrī (d. 1094) Qadi Iyad (d. 1149) Mohammed al-Baydhaq (d. 1164) Ibn Rushd (d. 1198) Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi al-Qurtubi (d. 1273) Abdelaziz al-Malzuzi (d. 1298) Ibn Idhari (d. 1312) Ibn Battuta (d. 1369)) Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1374)

Ibn Abi Zar (d. ca. 1320) - Rawd al-Qirtas Ismail ibn al-Ahmar (d. 1406) Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) - al-Muqaddimah and al-I'bar

India and Pakistan[edit]Further information: Muslim chronicles for Indian history

al-Bīrūnī (d. 1048) - Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (Researches on India), The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries

Minhaj-i-Siraj (d. after 1259) Amir Khusro (d. 1325) Ziauddin Barani (d. 1357) Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Medieval Indian medical historian Sayyid Shamsullah Qadri ((24 November 1885 – 22 October 1953)

The early modern historians[edit]Turkish: Ottoman Empire[edit]

Aşıkpaşazade (d. 1481) Tursun Beg (d. after 1488)[4]

İdris-i Bitlisi (d. 1520) Matrakçı Nasuh (d. 1564) Hoca Sadeddin Efendi (d. 1599) Mustafa Ali (d. 1600) Mustafa Selaniki (d. 1600) Katip Çelebi (d. 1647) İbrahim Peçevi (d. 1650) Mustafa Naima (1655–1716) - Ta'rīkh-i Na'īmā Silahdar Findiklili Mehmed Aga (d. 1723) Ahmed Resmî Efendi (d. 1783) Ahmet Cevdet Pasha (d. 1895)

Arabic: Ottoman Empire and Morocco[edit]

Ibn Iyas (d. after November 1522) Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (d. 1632) Mohammed al-Ifrani (d. 1747) Mohammed al-Qadiri (d. 1773) Khalil al-Muradi (d. 1791) Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti (d. 1825) - Aja'ib al-athar fi'l-tarajim wa'l-akhbar Ahmad ibn Khalid al-Nasiri (d. 1897)

Persian: Safavid Empire and Mughal India[edit]

Muhammad Khwandamir (d. 1534) Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (d. 1602) - Akbarnama Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni (d. 1615) Firishta (d. 1620) Iskandar Beg Munshi (d. 1632) Nizamuddin Ahmad (d. 1621) Inayat Allah Kamboh (d. 1671)

Muhammad Saleh Kamboh (d. ca. 1675) Abul Fazl Mamuri (c. 1700) Mirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi (d. c. 1760) Ghulam Husain Tabatabai (d. after 1781)

The historians of the modern period[edit]

Dr Sheikh Mohammad Iqbal (Kashmir), (b. 1929)

See also[edit]

List of Islamic studies scholars

Notes[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to:a b (Robinson hasn't mentioned his name.)2. Jump up ^ Bianquis, "Al-Musabbihi", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden: Brill, 1960-2004.3. Jump up ^ (1969): Livre des deux jardins ("The Book of Two Gardens"). See: Recueil des Historiens des Croisades4. Jump up ^ "Tursun Beg." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1960-2004.

References[edit]

Robinson, Chase F. (2003), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62936-5 : XIV and XV ("Chase F. Robinson" in "Islamic Historiography" has mentioned the chronological list of Islamic historians.)

Babinger, Franz. Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen. Leipzig: O. Harrassowitz, 1927. Encyclopaedia of Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1960-2004.

Islamic studies by author (non-Muslim or academic)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Non-Muslim Islamic scholars)

Included are prominent authors who have made studies concerning Islam, the religion and its civilization, and the culture of Muslim peoples. Not included are those studies of Islam produced by Muslim authors meant primarily for a Muslim audience.[1]

Herein most of the authors from the early centuries of Islam belonged to non-Muslim societies, cultures, or religions. The primary intent of many early works was to inform non-Muslims about a distant and/or unfamiliar Islam; some were clearly polemical in motivation and cannot be termed objective. As time went on, academic standards were developed generally, and were increasingly applied to studies of Islam. Many of the authors here are of Christian provenance, yet there are also Jewish, Zoroastrian, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian, Communist, and secular points of view. The most recent entries are often sourced in universities, and include works by Muslim professors whose publications address a worldwide audience.[2]

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Chronological by date of birth

o 1.1 622 to 1500

o 1.2 1500 to 1800

o 1.3 1800 to 1900

o 1.4 1900 to 1950s

o 1.5 1960s-Present

2 Chronological by date of publication

3 Other and Incomplete: alphabetical

4 Reference notes

5 See also

6 External links

Chronological by date of birth[edit]

622 to 1500[edit]

Joannis Damasceni  (c. 676-749), official of the Caliph at Damascus, later a Syrian monk, Doctor of the Church, his Peri Aireseon [Concerning Heresies] [t], its chapter 100 being "Heresy of the Ishmailites" (attribution questioned).

Du Huan , captured at 751 Battle of Talas, traveled in Muslim lands for ten years, his Jingxingji [Record of Travels] (c. 770) contains descriptions of Muslim life; book lost, but quoted by his uncle Du You in his Tongdian (766-801), an encyclopedia of China.

Sankara  (c. 788-820) of Kerala, pivotal Hindu reformer; theologian of non-duality, the Advaita Vedanta: a unity of self (atman) and the whole (Brahman); unresolved is the claim that early notions of the Sufi wahdat al-wujud [Oneness of Being] was synthesized by Sankara.

Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi , probably 8th/9th century Abbasid, pseudonym [Servant of the Messiah...] of an Arab Christian, author of the Risalah, a dialogue with a Muslim; later translated into Latin by Pedro de Toledo, this work became very influential in Europe.

Nicetas Byzantius, his 9th century polemic Anatrope tes para tou Arabos... (P.G., v.105) picks at the Qur'an chapter by chapter.

Mardan-Farrukh  of Iran, his late 9th century Sikand-Gumanik Vigar [Doubt-Dispelling Treatise] [t] (S.B.E., v.24) favorably compares his Zoroastrianism, especially its theodicy, with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, whose doctrines and beliefs are discussed.

Petrus Venerabilis  (c. 1092-1156), Abbot of Cluny (France), while in Hispania circa 1240, inspired a group led by Robert of Ketton (England), with Herman von Carinthia (Slovenia), Pierre de Poitiers (France), and the mozarab Pedro de Toledo to translate the Qur'an into Latin, hence the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete(1143); it circulated only in manuscript copies until 1543. Often only a tinted paraphrase, later George Sales would say it "deserves not the name of translation" because of its inaccuracy.

Raimundo, Arzobispo de Toledo  (r. 1125-1152) sponsored uncensored translations, at first by Domingo Gundisalvo a mozarab who rendered into Latin theSpanish translations from Arabic by the converso Juan Avendaut; later joined by European scholars, e.g., Gerardo da Cremona. From books found in al-Andalus, e.g., the pagan Aristotle (centuries earlier translated from ancient Greek into Arabic by Syrian Christians), and the Muslims Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd (Averroës); such translations led to controversy & the eventual "baptism" of Aristotle by Tomas d'Aquino at the University of Paris.

Mose ben Maimon  (1135–1204), major Jewish theologian and talmudist who fled Al-Andalus for Morocco, then Cairo, his Dalalat al-Ha'rin [Guide of the Perplexed] (Fostat 1190) [in Arabic] [t], reconciles the Bible and the Talmud with Aristotle, discusses Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and the Muslim Kalam, especially the Mutakallimun, as well as the Mutazili; influenced by Ibn Rushd (Averroës).

Marco de Toledo  (fl. 1193-1216) Castile, an improved Latin translation from Arabic of the Qur'an.

Francesco d'Assisi  (1182–1226), Italian saint, as peaceful missionary to Muslims, preached before Al-Kamil, Kurdish Sultan of Egypt, in 1219 during the fifthcrusade; his Regula non bullata (1221) [t], chapter XVI "Those who are going among the Saracens and other unbelievers" counsels not to enter disputes, but rather humility, proclaiming what will please God.

Frederick II  (1194–1250), Hohenstaufen Emperor, at whose court in Palermo, Sicily, translations from Arabic into Latin continued.

Ibn Kammuna  (c. 1215-c. 1285), Jewish scholar of Baghdad, his fair-minded though controversial Tanqih al-abhat li-l-milal al-talat [Examination of the Inquiries into the Three Faiths] (1280) [in Arabic] [t].

Alfonso X el Sabio  (1221–1284), Castile, his royal Scriptorium or Escuela de Traductores continued translations from Arabic (especially Greek scientific works and Islamic) into Latin, which then became widely known in Europe; many translators were Jewish.

Ramon Marti  (d. c. 1286) Castilla, Dominican friar, Summa contra errores Alcoranorum (1260); Pugio fidei adversus mauros et judaeos (c. 1280); a traditional partisan, he refers to the Qur'an, Hadith, as well as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, Ibn Rushd.

Tomás d'Aquino  (c. 1225-1274) Italian Dominican, Doctor of the Church ("Angelicus"), his Summa contra Gentiles (c. 1261-64) [t], includes criticism of theAristotelianism of Ibn Rushd (Averroës); also De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroistas (Paris 1270) [t].

Bar 'Ebraya  [Abu-l-Farag] ((1226–1286), Catholicos of the Syriac Orthodox Church, learned theologian, prolific author, his spiritual treatise in Syriac Kethabha dhe yauna [Book of the Dove], as well as his Ethikon said by Wensinck to show influence by al-Ghazali.

Ramon Llull  [Raimundo Lulio] (1232–1316) Catalan (Majorca) author and theologian, "Doctor Illuminatus", proponent of the "Ars Magna", fluent in Arabic, three times missionary to Tunis; his Llibre del Gentile e dels tres Savis (1274–76) [t], in which one learned in Hellenic philosophy hears three scholars, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim, whose views are shared with exquisite courtesy by reasoning over their mutual virtues, rather than by attack and defense. Lull infers a heterodox continuum between the natural & the revealed supernatural.

Riccoldo di Monte Croce  (1243–1320) Italian (Firenze) Dominican, a missionary during the 1290s, lived in Baghdad, his Propugnaculum Fidei soon translated into Greek, later into German by Martin Luther; also polemic Contra Legum Serracenorum (Baghdad, c. 1290).

Ramananda  (died 1410) Hindu egalitarian reformer of bhakti movement, origin as Brahmin in sect of Ramanuja; his popular synthesis of both Islamic and Hindu elements led also to inter-religious understanding; the Sant Mat poet Kabir was a disciple.

Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo  (died 1412), ambassador of Enrique III of Castile to Timur at Samarkand, Embajada a Tamor Lán (1582) [t].

Nicolaus Cusanus  (1401–1464) German Cardinal, at cusp of renaissance; following the fall of Constantinople, his De pace fidei (1455) [t] sought common ground among the various religions, presenting fictitious short dialogues involving an Arab, an Indian, an Assyrian, a Jew, a Scythian, a Persian, a Syrian, aTurk, a Tartar, and various Christians; also his Cribratio Alcorani (1460).

Nanak  (1469–1539) India, influenced by Muslim sufis and Hindu bhakti, became a teacher who traveled far to preach the unity of God; Sikhs revere him as their first Guru; opposed to caste divisions, and opposed to Hindu-Muslim rivalry/conflict.

Leo Africanus  (c.1488-1554), originally Al Hassan, Muslim of Fez; traveled with his diplomat uncle to Timbuktu; later captured by Christian pirates & sold into slavery; freed by Pope Leo X and baptised; wrote Cosmographia Dell'Africa of his travels; returned to Islam.

=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

1500 to 1800[edit]

Enbaqom  (c.1470-1565), Ethiopia, echage or abbot of Dabra Libanos, origin as trader from Yemen; his Anqasa Amin [Gateway of Faith] (c.1533), written inGe'ez, defends Christianity contra Islam, citing the Qur'an, and is addressed to the Muslim invader Ahmad Gran.

Theodor Bibliander  [Buchmann] (1506–1564), Swiss (Zurich) theologian, in 1543 published in Basle various documents (with a preface by Martin Luther), which included the Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete of 1143.

Luis de Marmol Carvajal  (c. 1520-c. 1600), Spanish soldier in Africa twenty years, captured and enslaved seven years, travels in Guinea, North Africa, Egypt, and perhaps Ethiopia: Descripción general de África (1573, 1599).

Alonso del Castillo (1520s-c.1607), Spain, formative work in Arabic archives and inscriptions (his father once a Morisco of Granada).

Andre du Ryer  (c. 1580-c. 1660) France, translation of the Qur'an: L'Alcoran de Mahomet translaté d'arabe en françois (Paris 1647) [t].

Alexander Ross  (1591–1654), Scotland, chaplain to Charles I, first English translation of the Qur'an (1649) from the French of du Ryer.

Ludovico Marracci  (1612–1700) Italian priest, professor of Arabic, Latin translation of the Qur'an, Alcorani textus universus... (Padova 1698), publication delayed by Church censors, in two volumes: Prodromus contains a biography of Mohammad and summary of Islamic doctrine; Refutatio Alcorani contains the Qur'an in Arabic text, with Latin translation, annotated

per partisan purposes (cf., Ottoman military proximity); cited by Edward Gibbon. Also, his earlier contributions translating the Bible into Arabic (1671).

Dara Shikuh  (1615–1659), Mughal, elder brother of Aurangzeb; Muslim but included here because of his syncretism in the tradition of his great-grandfatherAkbar; his Majma-ul-Bahrain [Mingling of Two Oceans] (1655) [t] finds parallels between Sufism and the monotheistic Vedanta of Hinduism, it was later translated into Sanskrit; also his own translation into Persian of the Upanishads.

Johann Heinrich Hottinger  (1620–1667) Swiss philologist, theologian, Historia Orientalis (Tiguri 1651) in Latin.

Barthelemy d'Herbelot de Molainville  (1625–1695) French philologist, Bibliothèque orientale (1697), based initially on the Turkish scholar Katip Celebi's Kashf al-Zunum which contains over 14,000 alphabetical entries.

Henry Stubbe  (1632–1676) English author, his An Account of the rise and progress of Mahometanism: with the life of Mahomet and a vindication of him and his religion from the calumnies of the Christians, which evidently lay in manuscript several hundred years until edited by Mahmud Khan Shairani and published (London: Luzac 1911).

Jean Chardin  (1643–1713) French merchant, Journal du Voyage.. de Chardin en Perse et aux Indes Orientales (1686, 1711) [t].

Antoine Galland  (1646–1715) France, first in the West to translate the Arabian Nights, Les Mille et Une Nuits (1704–1717).

Humphrey Prideaux  (1648–1724) Anglican Dean, traditional partisan, The True Nature of Imposture fully display'd in the Life of Mahomet (London 1697), reprint 1798, Fairhaven, Vermont; this work follows earlier polemics, & also refutes European deists.

Abraham Hinckelmann  (1652–1692), edited an Arabic text of the Qur'an, later published in Hamburg, Germany, in 1694.

Henri Comte de Boulainviller  (1658–1722) French historian, his Vie de Mahomet (2nd ed., Amsterdam 1731) [t], praises what he saw as the instrumental rationalism of the prophet, portraying Islam in terms of a natural religion.

Liu Zhi  (c.1660-c.1730) Chinese Muslim scholar writing in Chinese (Arabic "Han Kitab", Chinese books); during early Qing, presented Islam to Manchus as consonant with Confucianism, e.g., his Tianfang Dianli dealing with ritual, comparing li with Muslim practice.

Jean Gagnier  (c. 1670-1740) Oxford Univ., De vita et rebus Mohammedis (1723), annotated Latin translation of chapters on Muhammad from Mukhtasar Ta'rikh a-Bashar by Abu 'l-Fida (1273–1331); also La Vie de Mahomet (Amsterdam 1748), biography in French.

Liu Chih (16wx-17yz) China, T'ien-fang Chih-sheng shi-lu ([1721-1724], 1779), ["True Annals of the Prophet of Arabia"]; I. Mason [t], The Arabian Prophet; A life of Mohammed from Chinese sources (Shanghai 1921).[3]

Simon Ochley  (1678-1720) England, Cambridge Univ., his History of the Saracens (1708, 1718) praises Islam at arm's length.

Voltaire  [Francois-Marie Arouet] (1694–1778) French author, critic, anti-cleric, deist, wealthy speculator; his play Mahomet le prophete ou le fanatisme (1741) [t], invents scurrilous legends & attacks hypocrisy, (also being a hidden attack on the French ancien régime).

George Sale  (1697–1736), English lawyer, using Hinckelmann and Marracci, annotated and translated into English a well regarded The Koran (1734); member of the "Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge", proofread its Arabic New Testament (S.P.C.K. 1726).

Miguel Casiri  (1710-1780s), Syrian Maronite, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis (2 volumes, Madrid 1760-1770).

Carsten Niebuhr  (1733–1815) Germany, member of royal Danish expedition to Yemen, Beschreibung von Arabien (Kobenhavn 1772); Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Landern (3 volumes, Kobenhavn 1774, 1778, Hamburg 1837).

Silvestre de Sacy  (1758–1838) Jewish French, his Grammaire arabe (2v., 1810); teacher of Champollion who read the Rosetta Stone.

José Antonio Conde  (1765–1820) Historia de la dominacion de los arabes en Espana (Madrid 1820-1821), pioneer work now depreciated.

Ram Mohan Roy  [Raja Ram Mohun Roy] (1772–1833), India (Kolkata, Bengal), early journalist, influential religious and social reformer, founder of Brahmo Samaj, his Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin [Gift of the Unitarians] (1803–1804), a book in Persian on, e.g., the unity of religions.

Washington Irving  (1783–1859) U.S., author, Minister to Spain 1842-1846, Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829); Tales of the Alhambra (1832, 1851) where he lived several years; Mahomet and His Successors (New York: Putnam 1849) a popular, fair-minded biography based on translations from Arabic and on western authors, since edited (Univ.of Wisconsin 1970).

Charles Mills  (1788–1826) England, History of Mohammedanism (1818). Garcin de Tassy  (1794–1878) France, L'Islamisme d'apre le Coran (Paris 1874), the religion

based on a reading of the Qur'an. Yusuf Ma Dexin  (1794–1874) Chinese (Yunnan) Muslim scholar and leader; first to translate

the Qur'an into Chinese. A. P. Caussin de Perceval  (1795–1871) Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant

l'Islamisme (Paris 1847-1849), Arabia before Muhammad. => The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

1800 to 1900[edit]

Gustav Leberecht Flügel  (1802–1870), Germany, Al-Qoran: Corani textus Arabicus (Leipzig 1834), Arabic text for academics.

Gustav Weil  (1808–1889) Jewish German, Mohammed der Prophet (Stuttgart 1843); Biblische Legenden der Musel-manner (Frankfort 1845) [t]; Das Leben Mohammeds nach Mohammed ibn Ishak, bearbeitet von Abdel Malik ibn Hischam (Stuttgart 1864).

John Medows Rodwell  (1808–1900), English translation of The Koran, using derived chronological sequence of Suras.

Pascual de Gayangos y Arce  (1809–1897), Spanish Arabist, studied under de Sacy in Paris; translated al-Maqqari (d.1632) into English as History of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain (1840, 1843); Tratados de Legislación Musulmana (v.5, Mem.His.Esp. 1853).

Abraham Geiger  (1810–1874) German rabbi and scholar, major founder of Reform Judaism, his Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?(Bonn 1833) [t] restates and updates a perennial thesis (e.g., cf. L. Marracci).

Aloys Sprenger  (1813–1893) Austria, Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad (2nd edition, 3 volumes, Berlin 1869).

Carl Paul Caspari  (1814–1892) German, Christian convert from Judaism, Norwegian academic, Grammatica Arabica (1844–48), Latin.

William Muir  (1819–1905), Scotland, government official in India, The Life of Mohamet (London, 1861).

Edward Rehatsek  (1819–1891) Hungary, later India, first translation of Sirah Rasul Allah into English (deposited, 1898).

Reinhart Dozy  (1820–1883) Netherlands, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne jusqu'a la Conquete de l'Andalousie par les Almoravides (Leiden, 1861), 4 volumes; Recherches sur l'Histoire et la Littérature de l'Espagne pendant le moyen âge (1881).

Richard Francis Burton  (1821–1890) British, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Mecca (2 vol., 1855).

Ernest Renan  (1823–1892) French, Catholic apostate, Histoire generale et system compare des langues semitiques (Paris 1863).

Friedrich Max Müller  (1823–1900) German philologist, comparative religion pioneer, Oxford Univ. professor, editor of 50 volume Sacred Books of the East, volumes 6 and 9 being the Qur'an translated by E. H. Palmer.

es:Francisco Javier Simonet  (1825-c.1897) Spanish Arabist, traditional partisan, Leyendas históricas árabes (Madrid 1858); Historia de los mozarabes de Espana (Madrid 1897-1903); controversial views, e.g., suggests that one-sided Muslim marriage law caused an insulation in the subject people that over generations fused their religious & lineage identities, hence focus put on limpio de sangre.

Ludolf Krehl (1825–1901) Beitrage zur Muhammedanischen Dogmatik (Leipzig 1885). Alfred von Kremer (1828–1889) Austria, professor of Arabic at Wien, foreign service

to Cairo, Egypt; Geschichte de herrschenden Ideen des Islams (Leipzig 1868); Culturgeschichte Streifzüge auf dem Gebiete des Islams (Leipzig 1873) [t].

Girish Chandra Sen  (1836–1910) India, translated Muslim works into Bengali, including the Qur'an (1886); professor of Islam for the Brahmo Samaj, universalist Hindu reform society founded in 1828 by Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833).

es:Francisco Codera y Zaidín  (1836–1917) Tratado numismática arábigo-español (Madrid 1879); founded Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana.

Michael Jan de Geoje (1836–1909) Dutch academic, led the editing of the Arabic text of Ta'rikh al-rasul wa'l muluk [History of Prophets and Kings] of the Persian al-Tabari (d. 923), in 14 volumes (Leiden: Brill 1879-1901).

Theodor Nöldeke  (1836–1930) Germany, well regarded philologist and academic, Das Leben Mohammeds (1863); Zur Grammatik de klassische Arabisch(1896); with Friedrich Schwally Geschichte des Qorans (Leipzig, 1909–1919, 2 volumes).

Edward Henry Palmer  (1840–1882), English; traveler in Arab lands; called to the bar in 1874; translated Qur'an for the S.B.E. (1880); killed in Egypt by desert ambush while with British military patrol.

Ignazio Guidi  (1844–1935) Italy, L'Arabe anteislamique (Paris 1921). Julius Wellhausen  (1844–1918) Germany, Muhammed in Medina (Berlin 1882); Das Arabische

Reich und sein Sturz (Berlin 1902); his Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (Berlin 1878, 1882) [t] presents studies using the "higher criticism" of the Bible.

William Robertson Smith  (1846–1894) Scotland, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (Cambridge 1885); Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889), sought to locate ancient Judaism in its historical context; in his Old Testament studies influenced by Wellhausen.

Italo Pizzi (1849–1920) L'Islamismo (Milan 1905). Ignaz Goldziher  (1850–1921), Hungary, Die Zahiriten (Leipzig 1884); Muhammedanische

Studien (2 volumes, Halle 1889-1890) [t] {vol.2 questions hadith};Vorlesungen uber den Islam (Heidelberg 1910, 1925) [t]; Die Richtungen der islamischen Koranauslegung (Leiden 1920); well regarded Jewish scholar, admirer of Islam, e.g., writing that he felt fulfillment when praying with Muslims in a Cairo mosque.

Herbert Udny Weitbrecht  (1851−1937), The Teaching of the Qur’an with an Account of Its Growth and a Subjekt Index, (1919)

Martijn Theodoor Houtsma  (1851–1943) Netherlands, lead editor of Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E.J.Brill 1913-1938), 9 volumes; eclipsed by a new edition (1954–2002) of 11 volumes with index and supplements.

Julián Ribera y Tarragó  (1858–1934) Spain (Valencia), professor of Arabic, studies in mixed culture of al-Andalus (e.g., connections to the troubadours); El Cancionero de Abencuzmán (Madrid 1912); La musica de las Cantigas (Madrid 1922).

David Samuel Margoliouth  (1858–1940), Anglican, his father a Jewish convert, Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (London 1905, 1923); Relations between Arabs and Israelites prior to the Rise of Islam (1924); Table-talk of a Mesopotamian judge (1921, 1922, 2v).

William St. Clair Tisdall  (1859–1928) Anglican priest, linguist, traditional partisan, The Original Sources of the Quran (S.P.C.K. 1905).

Edward G. Browne  (1862–1926) English, A Literary History of Persia (4 volumes, 1902–1924). Henri Lammens  (1862–1937) Flemish Jesuit, a modern partisan; Fatima et ls filles de

Mahomet (Roma 1912); Le berceau de l'Islam (Roma 1914); L'Islam, croyances et institutions (Beyrouth 1926) [t]; L'Arabe Occidental avant l'Hegire (Beyrouth 1928).

Henri Pirenne  (1862–1935) Belgian historian, Mahomet et Charlemagne (Paris 1937) [t], how the Arab conquests disrupted Mediterranean trade, isolating the European economies which declined.

Maurice Gaudefroy-Desmombynes (1862–1957) France, Le pelerinage a la Mekke (Paris 1923); Le monde musulman et byzantin jusqu'aux croisades (Paris 1931) with S.F.Platonov; Les institutions musulmanes (Paris 1946) [t].

Duncan Black MacDonald  (1863–1943) Scotland; Hartford Seminary in U.S.; Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory (New York 1903); The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (Chicago 1909).

Friedrich Zacharias Schwally  (1863–1919), Germany; student of Theodor Nöldeke; Ibraham ibn Muhammed el-Baihaqi Kitab el Mahdsin val Masdwi (Leipzig 1899-1902); Kitab al-mahasin vai-masavi (Gießen 1902).

Thomas Walker Arnold  (1864–1930) England, professor in India associating with Shibli Nomani & Muhammad Iqbal, later at London S.O.A.S.; The Caliphate(Oxford 1924); Painting in Islam. A study of the place of pictorial art in Muslim culture (1928); The Preaching of Islam (1929); Legacy of Islam (Oxford 1931) editor with A. Guillaume.

Miguel de Unamuno  (1864-1936) Spain, philosopher; embraced Spanish connection to Berber North Africa but not to the Arabs.[4]

François Nau  (1864–1913) Les chrétiens arabes en Mesopotamia et en Syrie au VIIe et VIIIe siècles (Paris 1933).

William Ambrose Shedd  (1865–1918) U.S., Presbyterian, Islam and the Oriental Churches: Their historical relations (1904).

Marshall Broomhall  (1866-1937) British, Protestant missionary to China, Islam in China. A neglected problem (1910).

Theodor Juynboll (1866–1948) Handbuch des islamischen Gesetzes (Leipzig: Brill Harrassowitz 1910) on Islamic law.

Samuel Marinus Zwemer  (1867–1952) U.S., Dutch Reform missionary to Islam, later at Princeton, Islam. A Challenge to Faith (NY 1907); Law of Apostasy in Islam (1924).

Leon Ostrorog, Comte (1867–1932) Poland, The Angora Reform (London 1927), on the "Law of Fundamental Organization" (1921) of republican Turkeytransferring power from the Sultan to the Assembly; Pour la reforme de la justice ottomane (Paris 1912).

Gertrude Bell  (1868-1926) English, Persian Pictures (1894); Syria: The desert and the sown (1907); became a British political officer in Arab lands during World War I.

Reynold Nicholson  (1868–1945) English, The Mystics of Islam (1914); A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge Univ. 1930).

Carl Brockelmann  (1868–1956) Geschichte der arabischen Literatur (5 vol., Weimar & Leiden, 1898–1942), Geschichte der islamischen Volker und Staaten(Munchen 1939) [t].

Ramón Menéndez Pidal  (1869-1968), Spain, elaborates Ribera and Asín. España, eslabón entre la cristiandad y el islam (1956) [t].

Leone Caetani  (1869–1935) Italian nobleman, Annali dell'Islam (10 volumes, 1904–1926) reprint 1972, contains early Arabic sources.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi  (1869–1948) spiritual and independence leader in India, opposed caste divisions; prolific writer, teacher of satyagrahaworldwide, influencing Martin Luther King; his letter to Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Sept. 11, 1944, stated "My life mission has been Hindu-Muslim unity... not to be achieved without the foreign ruling power being ousted."

Because of policies favorable to Islam, the mahatma was assassinated by a Hindu ultra-nationalist. Cf., McDonough, Gandhi's responses to Islam (New Delhi 1994).

Miguel Asín Palacios  (1871–1944), Catholic priest, professor of Arabic, studied the mutuality of influence between Christian and Islamic spirituality (prompting vigorous response), Algazel (Zaragoza 1901); La escatologia musulmana en la Divina Comedia (Madrid 1923) ["t"] per influence on Dante of mi'raj literature; El Islam cristianizado. Estudio del sufismo a traves de las obras de Abenarabi de Murcia (Madrid 1931); Huellas del Islam (Madrid 1941) includes comparative articles on Tomas d'Aquino and Juan de las Cruz.

De Lacy O'Leary  (1872–1957) Bristol Univ. Arabic Thought and Its Place in History (1922, 1939); Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1923);Arabia before Muhammad (1927); How Greek Science passed to the Arabs (1949).

Georg Graf  (1875–1955) Germany, Geschichte der Christlichen Arabischen Literatur (Vatican 1944).

Richard Bell  (1876–1952) British, Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment (Edinburgh Univ. 1925).

Arthur S. Tritton  (1881–1973) The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects. A critical study of the Covenant of 'Umar (Oxford 1930).

Alphonse Mingana  (1881–1937) Assyrian Christian (Iraq), former priest, religious historian, collected early Syriac and Arabic documents and books into the "Mingana Collection".

Julian Morgenstern (1881-197x) U.S., Rites of Birth, Marriage, Death and Kindred Occasions among the Semites (Cincinnati 1966).

Arent Jan Wensinck (1882–1939) Dutch, Mohammed en de Joden te Medina (Amsterdam 1908) [t]; La pensee de Ghazzali (Paris 1940); Handworterbuch des Islam (1941) [t] with J. H. Kramers; from Syriac, Bar Hebraeus's Book of the Dove (Leyden 1919).

Louis Massignon  (1883–1962) France, influenced Catholic-Islamic understanding per the Nostra aetate of Vatican II (1962–1965); a married priest (Orthodox [Arabic rite]), Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris 1922, 2nd ed. 1954) [t]; Passion de Husayn Ibn Mansur Hallaj (Paris 1973) [t].

José Ortega y Gasset  (1883-1955) Spain, philosopher; like Unamuno opposed modern trend to incorporate into Spanish historiography the positive Islamic element. Abenjaldún nos revela el secreto (1934), about Ibn Khaldun.[5]

Nicolas P. Aghnides (1883-19xx) Mohammedan Theories of Finance (Columbia Univ. 1916). Margaret Smith  (1884–1970) Rabi'a the mystic and her fellow saints in Islam (Cambridge

Univ. 1928); Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East(1931) development of early Christian mysticism, of Islamic re Sufism, and a comparison.

Seymour Gonne Vesey-Fitzgerald (1884-19xx), Muhammadan Law, an abridgement, according to its various schools (Oxford Univ. 1931); The Iraq Treaty, 1930 (London 1932).

Tor Andrae  (1885–1947), Sweden, Univ.of Uppsala, history of religion, comparative religion; Mohammed. Sein Leben und Sein Glaube (Göttingen 1932) [t]; I myrtenträdgarden: Studier i tidig islamisk mystik (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Forlag 1947) [t].

Américo Castro  (1885-1972) Spain, reinterpreted Spanish history by integrating Muslim and Jewish contributions. España en su historia: Cristianos, moros y judíos (1948) [t]; Sobre el nombre y quién de los españoles: cómo llegaron a serlo (1973).

Philip Khuri Hitti  (1886–1978) Lebanon, formative re Arabic studies in the U.S., Origins of the Islamic State (Columbia Univ. 1916) annotated translation ofKitab Futuh Al-Buldan of al-Baladhuri; History of Syria, including Lebanon and Palestine (1957).

Shūmei Ōkawa  (1886–1957) Japanese author activist; pan-Asian modern partisan, pro-India since 1913 (criticized per China by Gandhi in 1930s); indicted at Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal for his "clash of civilizations" view; translation of Qur'an into Japanese (1950).

Giorgio Levi Della Vida  (1886–1967) Jewish Italian, professor of semitic languages, Storia e religione nell'Oriente semitico (Roma 1924); Les Sémites et leur rôle das l'histoire religieuse (Paris 1938); anti-Fascist Italian politician in 1920s.

Gonzangue Ryckmans (1887–1969) Belgium, Catholic priest, Louvain professor, epigraphy of pre-Islamic South Arabia; Les Religions Arabes preislamiques(Louvain 1951).

Harry Austryn Wolfson  (1887–1974) U.S., Harvard Univ., Philo. Foundations of Religious Philosophy in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (1947); The Philosophy of the Kalam (1976); Repercussions of the Kalam in Jewish Philosophy (1979).

Alfred Guillaume  (1888-1966) England, Life of Muhammad (Oxford 1955) annotated translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, an early "biography" of the prophet (as transmitted by Ibn Hisham); Legacy of Islam (Oxford 1931) co-editor with T. W. Arnold.

es:Ángel González Palencia  (1889–1949) Spanish Arabist, História de la España musulmana (Barcelona 1925, 3rd ed 1932); História de la literatura arábigo-española (Barcelona 1928, 1945); Moros y cristianos in España medieval. Estudios históricos-literarios (1945).

Arthur Jeffery  (1892–1959) American University at Cairo 1921-1938, Materials for the history of the text of the Quran (Leiden 1937-1951); Foreign Vocabulary in the Quran (Baroda 1938); A Reader on Islam (1962).

Barend ter Haar (1892–1941) Dutch, Beginselen en Stelsel van het Adatrecht (Groningen Batavia 1939) [t], on Adat law in Indonesia.

Olaf Caroe  (1892-1981) a former governor of the area, The Pathans. 550 B.C. - A.D. 1957 (London 1958).

Freya Stark  (1893-1993) English, Valley of the Assassins (1934) about NW Iran; The Southern Gates of Arabia. A journey in the Hadhramaut (1936); A winter in Arabia (1939).

Willi Heffening (1894-19xx) Germany, Das islamische fremdenrecht zu den islamisch-fränkischen staatsverträgen. Eine rechtshistorischen studie zum fiqh(Hanover 1925).

Évariste Lévi-Provençal  (1894-1956) France, Histoire de l'Espagne musulmane, 711-1031 (3 volumes, Paris-Leiden 1950-1953).

E. A. Belyaev  (1895–1964) Russia (USSR), Araby, Islam i arabskii Khalifat (Moskva, 2nd ed 1966) [t].

Henri Terrasse (1895–1971) French Arabist, Histoire du Maroc (2 volumes, Casablanca 1949-1950) [t]; Islam d'Espagne (Paris 1958).

Morris S. Seale  (1896-1993) Muslim Theology. A Study of Origins with Reference to the Church Fathers (London: Luzac 1964).

Gerald de Gaury  (1897-1984) English soldier, Rulers of Mecca (New York, c.1950). José López Ortiz (1898–1992) Spain, Arabist with interest in legal history; article

on fatwas of Granada; Los Jurisconsultos Musulmanes (El Escorial, 1930);Derecho musulman (Barcelona, 1932); a Catholic priest, later made Bishop.

Enrico Cerulli  (1898–1988) Italy, Documenti arabi per la storia nell' Etiopia (Roma 1931); his two works re Dante and Islam per M. Asín: Il "Libro della scala" e la question delle fonti arabo-spagnole della Divina commedia (Vatican 1949), Nuove ricerche sul "Libro della Scala" e la conoscenza dell'Islam in Occidente(Vatican 1972).

=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

1900 to 1950s[edit]

Claude L. Pickens (1900–1985), professor of Chinese at Harvard University, son-in-law of S. M. Zwemer, Annotated Bibliography of Literature on Islam in China (Hankow: Society of Friends of the Moslems in China 1950).

Josef Schacht  (1902–1969) France (Alsace), Islamic legal history, Der Islam (Tübingen 1931); Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford 1950) influential work, a legal historical critique (following, e.g., Goldziher) re the early oral transmission of Hadith & founding

jurists; Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford1964); Legacy of Islam (2nd ed., Oxford 1974) edited with C. E. Bosworth.

J. Spencer Trimingham  (1904-wxyz) English; Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford 1952), a history and current sociology; Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford 1971); Christianity among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times (Beirut 1990).

Erwin Rosenthal (1904-wxyz) German Jewish, Political Thought in Medieval Islam (1958); Judaism and Islam (1961).

Arthur John Arberry  (1905–1969) English, The Koran Interpreted (1955), a translation that attempts to capture the medium of the original Arabic; various other translations; Sufism. An Account of the Mystics of Islam (1950).

Emilio Garcia Gomez  (1905–1995) Spain, Arabist, poet; Poemas arabigoandaluces (Madrid 1940); Poesia arabigoandaluza (Madrid 1952); his theories, e.g., on origins of the muwashshahat (popular medieval strophic verse); his admired translations from Arabic.

Henri Laoust  (1905-wxyz) France, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki-d-Din Ahmad Taimiya, cononiste 'anbalite (Le Caire 1939); Le traite de droit public d'Ibn Taimiya [al-Siyasah al-Shariyah] (Beirut 1948); Le politique de Gazali (Paris 1970).

Geo Widengren  (1907-wxyz) Sweden, comparative religion; Muhammad, The Apostle of God, and His Ascension (Uppsala 1955).

Frithjof Schuon  (1907–1998) German Swiss; of Traditionalist School (sophia perennis or "western" sufi), its co-founder with Rene Guenon and Ananda Coomaraswamy, influenced Seyyed Hossein Nasr; De l'unite transcendente des religions (Paris 1948) [t]; Comprendre l'Islam (Paris 1961) [t]; Regards sur le Mondes Anciens (Paris 1967) [t].

Henry Corbin  (1907–1978) France, former Catholic, associated with Eranos Institute (inspired by Carl Jung), an academic re history of religions, idiosyncratic, long a resident of Tehran; Les Motifs zoroastriens dans la philosophie de Suhrawardi (Tehran 1948); Avicenne et la recit vissionaire (Tehran 1954) [t];L'imagination creatrice dans le soufisme d'Ibn 'Arabi (Zurich 1955-56, Paris 1958) [t]; Terre celeste et corps de resurrection: de l'Iran mazdeen a l'Iran shi'ite(Paris 1960) [t].

Neal Robinson (1908-1983) academic, Christ in Islam and Christianity (SUNY 1991), study of Islamic commentaries and interpretations.

James Norman Dalrymple Anderson  (1908–1994) U.K., Islamic law at S.O.A.S., Islamic Law in Africa (H.M.S.O., 1954); Islamic Law in the Modern World (New York University, 1959); Law Reform in the Muslim World (Athlone, 1976).

Titus Burckhardt  (1908–1984) German Swiss, early contact with Traditionalist School and Rene Guenon; Du Soufisme (Lyon 1951) [t]; Die Maurische Kultur in Spanien (Munchen 1970) [t]; great nephew of Jacob Burckhardt.

Abraham Katsh (1908–1998) U.S., Jewish academic, Judaism in Islam. Biblical and Talmudic backgrounds of the Koran and its Commentators, Sura I & II (New York 1954), reprinted 1962 as Judaism and the Koran.

William Montgomery Watt  (1909–2006) Scottish Episcopal priest, Arabist, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford 1953), Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956); with P. Cachia A History of Islamic Spain (Edinburgh 1965); Formative Period of Islamic Thought (1998).

Claude Cahen  (1909-1991) France, Introduction a l'histoire du monde musulman medieval, VIIe-XVIe siecle (Paris 1983).

Martin Lings  (1909–2005) Sufi scholar, Muhammed. His life based on the earliest sources (1983); Secret of Shakespeare (1984).

Józef Bielawski  (1910–1997) Uniwersytet Warszawski, former Polish diplomat to Turkey; Historia lieratury arabskiej: zarys (Wroclaw 1968); translation of Qur'an into Polish (Warszawa 1986), improving on that of J.M.T.Buczacki (1858).

Jacques Berque  (1910 Algeria - 1995 France), pied-noir scholar who early favored Maghribi independence, he retained his ties to Africa; Moroccan Berberethnology: Les

structures sociales du Haut Atlas (1955); Arab renaissance: Les Arabes d'hier a demain (1960) [t].

Geoffrey Parrinder  (1910-2005) comparative religion, Methodist minister, Jesus in the Qur'an (London 1965), reprint Oneworld 1995.

Wilfred Thesiger  (1910–2003) England, born and home in Ethiopia; Arabian Sands (New York 1959), on late 1940s explorations by camel of the "empty quarter" Ar-Rab' Al-Khali; The Marsh Arabs (London 1964), on the rural people of southern Iraq.

Ann K. S. Lambton  (1912-2008) English, State and Government in medieval Islam (1981); Continuity and Change in medieval Persia. Aspects of administrative, economic and social history, 11th-14th century (1988).

Giulio Basetti-Sani (1912-wxyz) Italy, Mohammed et Saint François (Ottawa 1959); Per un dialogo cristiano-musulmano (Milano 1969).

Kenneth Cragg  (1913-2012) U.S., The Call of the Minaret (Oxford 1956; 2d Orbis 1985); The Arab Christian (Westm./Knox 1991).

George Hourani  (1913–1984) Lebanese English, Averroes. On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy (London 1961) annotated translation of Kitab fasl al maqal of Ibn Rushd; Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics (Cambridge Univ. 1985); Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in ancient and medieval times(Princeton Univ. 1951, 1995).

Uriel Heyd [Heydt] (1913–1968) Jewish German, moved to Israel in 1934, Studies in old Ottoman criminal Law (Oxford 1973).

Robert Charles Zaehner  (1913–1974) religious studies at Oxford, The Comparison of Religions (London 1958); Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (London 1960);Concordant Discord: The Interdependence of Faiths (Oxford 1970).

Franz Rosenthal  (1914-wxyz) Fortleben der Antike im Islam (Zurich 1965); Muslim intellectual and social history (Variorum 1990).

Toshihiko Izutsu  (1914–1993) Japan, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur'an (1959, 1966); Sufism and Taoism (Berkeley 1984).

Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov  (1914–1999) USSR/Russia, historian, linguistics, Semitokhamitskie iazyki [Semito-Hamitic languages] (Moskva 1965) [t];Afraziiskie iazyki [Afrasian languages] (Moskva 1988) [t]; both on history and description of Afroasiatic languages.

Joseph Greenberg  (1915–2001) U.S., Stanford Univ., linguistic anthropology; in historical linguistics use of his mass lexical comparison to establish language families; Languages of Africa (1966) coined "Afroasiatic" to replace "Hamito-Semitic" for it includes as equal branches Ancient Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, and Cushitic, as well as Semitic; also his recent book on Eurasiatic; cf. Nostratic.

Albert Hourani  (1915–1993) Lebanese English, Minorities in the Arab World (Oxford 1947); Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798-1939 (1962) on the Arabnahda [revival]; Political Society in Lebanon (MIT 1986); A History of the Arab Peoples (1991, Harvard 2002); brother of George Hourani.

Maxime Rodinson  (1915–2004) Jewish French Marxist, Mahomet (Paris 1961) [t] as understood with empathy by an atheist; Islam et capitalisme (Paris 1966) [t]; Israel et le refus arabe (Paris 1968).

Bernard Lewis  (1916->) Jewish English, prolific author, lately a modern partisan insider, Arabs in History (1950); Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982, 2001);What went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (2002).

George Makdisi (1920–2002) U.S., Islamic studies, Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh Univ. 1981); Rise of Humanismin Classical Islam and the Christian West (Edinburgh Univ. 1990).

Ehsan Yar-Shater  (1920->) Editor of encyclopedia Danishnamah-i Iran va Islam (10 volumes, Teheran 1976-1982); editor of History of al-Tabari [re the Ta'rikh al-rusul wa'l-muluk] (39

volumes, SUNY c1985-c1999); editor of Encyclopædia Iranica (Costa Mesa: Mazda 1992->); History of Medicine in Iran (New York 2004).

Marshall Hodgson  (1922–1968) U.S., professor, Quaker, The Venture of Islam (3 volumes, Univ.of Chicago [1958], 1961, 1974); The Order of the Assassins(The Hague: Mouton 1955); Rethinking World History. Essays on Europe, Islam... (Cambridge Univ. 1993).

Annemarie Schimmel  (1922–2003) Germany, studied Sufi texts in Turkey, Die Bildersprache Dschelaladdin Rumi (Walldorf 1949); Mevlana Celalettin Rumi'nin sark ve garpta tesirleri (Ankara 1963); Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Univ.of N.Carolina 1975).

Sabatino Moscati  (1922->) Italy, Semitic studies, Le antiche civilita semitiche (Milano 1958) [t]; I Fenici e Cartagine (Torino 1972).

Bogumil Witalis Andrzejewski (1922–1994), Poland, linguistics at S.O.A.S. in London; Islamic literature in Somalia (Indiana Univ. 1983); formulator of Latin alphabet for Somali; also work in Oromo, another East Cushitic language, of the Afroasiatic language family.

Donald Leslie  (1922->) Australia, Islamic Literature in China, late Ming and early Ch'ing (1981); Islam in Traditional China (1986).

Ernest Gellner  (1925–1995) London Sch.of Econ., Saints of the Atlas (London 1969); Muslim Society: Essays (Cambridge 1981).

Irfan Shahid , (1926->) Georgetown Univ., Dumbarton Oaks; Byzantium and the Arabs (1984–1995) multi-vol., pre-Islamic politics.

Leonard Binder  (1927->) Univ.of Chicago, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Univ.of California 1961).

Francis E. Peters  (1927->) U.S., former Jesuit; Aristotle Arabus (Leiden: Brill 1968); Jerusalem and Mecca (NYU 1986); Muhammad and the Origins of Islam(SUNY 1994); Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam (Ashgate 1999).

John K. Cooley  (1927-2008) U.S. journalist, long time coverage of Arab world, An Alliance against Babylon (Univ.of Michigan 2006); Unholy Wars. Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (2001); Baal, Christ, and Mohammed. Religion and Revolution in North Africa (1965); collaboration with E. W. Said (2002).

Fredrik Barth  (1928->) Political Leadership among the Swat Pathans (Univ.of London 1959). Aram Ter-Ghevondyan  (1928–1988), Armenian historian; The Arab Emirates in Bagratid

Armenia (Yerevan, 1965) [t], historical, political, and social study on the Bagratuni Kingdom of Armenia (885-1045) and its relations with Byzantium and the Arab Emirates; Armenia and the Arab Caliphate (Армения и apaбcкий Халифат) (Yerevan, 1977).

Speros Vryonis  (1928->) U.S., U.C.L.A., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (Univ. California 1971); Studies on Byzantium, Seljuks and Ottomans (Malibu 1981).

John Wansbrough  (1928–2002) U.S., Islamic studies at S.O.A.S., a major reinterpretation of origins, utilizing Wellhausen higher criticism applied to Islam,Quranic Studies (Oxford 1977), Sectarian Milieu (Oxford 1978), books which sparked a traditionalist reaction.

Noel J. Coulson (1928–1986) U.K., Islamic law at S.O.A.S., History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh Univ. 1964); Conflict and Tensions in Islamic Jurisprudence(Univ.of Chicago 1969); Succession in the Muslim Family (Cambridge Univ. 1971); Commercial Law in the Gulf States: The Islamic Legal Tradition (Graham & Trotman 1984).

J. Hoeberichts (1929->) Dutch, Franciscus en de Islam (Assen: Van Gorcum 199x) [t]; formerly a theology professor in Karachi.

Wilferd Madelung  (1930->) Germany, The Succession to Muhammad (Cambridge Univ. 1997); studies on the Shia.

Jacob Neusner  (1932->) U.S., Jewish theologian, Comparing Religions through Law: Judaism and Islam (1999) with T.Sonn; Judaism and Islam in Practice(1999) editor, with T.Sonn & J.E.Brockopp; Three Faiths, One God (2003) with B. Chilton & W. Graham.

Edward W. Said  (1935–2003) Palestine, Christian, academic, Columbia Univ., modern partisan; Orientalism (New York 1978), a work often cited & easy to exaggerate; collaborations with Christopher Hitchens (1988), Noam Chomsky (1999), John K. Cooley (2002).

William Chittick  (c.193x->) U.S., collaborations with Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Allameh Tabatabaei in Iran; A Shi'ite Anthology (SUNY 1981); Sufi Path of Love(SUNY 1983) text and commentary on Rumi; Sufi Path of Knowledge (SUNY 1989) on Ibn Arabi; Imaginal Worlds. Ibn al-'Arabi and the Problem of Religious Diversity (SUNY 1994).

Sachiko Murata  (c.193x->), Japan, Tao of Islam. A sourcebook on gender relationships in Islamic thought (SUNY 1992); Chinese Gleams of Sufi Light (SUNY 2000) with her translations from Chinese, and those from Persian by W. Chittick, her spouse.

Sami Zubaida  (1937->) Univ.of London, Islam, the People and the State (1993); Law and Power in the Islamic World (I.B.Taurus 2003).

Farhad Daftary  (1938->) Inst. of Isma'ili Studies, London, The Isma'ilis: their history and doctrines (1990).

Richard E. Rubenstein  (1938->) U.S., professor of conflict resolution, Alchemists of Revolution. Terrorists in the modern world (1987); Aristotle's Children. How Christians, Muslims, & Jews rediscovered ancient wisdom & illuminated the Dark Ages (2003).

Robert Simon (1939->) Hungary, Meccan Trade and Islam. Problems of origin and structure (Budapest 1989); Qur'an translation (1987).

Michael Cook  (1940->) English, Studies in the Origins of Early Islamic Culture and Tradition (2004); with P. Crone, Hagarism (1977).

Roy Parviz Mottahedeh  (1940->) U.S., Loyalty and Leadership in an Early Islamic Society (Princeton University Press 1980), :The Mantle of the Prophet (Simon and Schuster, 1985).

John L. Esposito  (1940->) U.S., Islam. The Straight Path (Oxford 1988); editor-in-chief Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (4 volumes, 1995);Islam and Civil Society (European Univ. Inst. 2000).

Malise Ruthven  (1942->) Scotland, Islam in the World (Oxford Univ. 1984); Fury for God. Islamist attack on America (Granta 2002).

Mark R. Cohen  (1943->) Princeton Univ., Jewish Self-Government in Medieval Egypt (1980); Under Crescent & Cross (1994).

William A. Graham (1943->) U.S., Harvard University, "Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam" (Mouton, 1977); "Beyond the Written Word" (Cambridge, 1986); "Islamic and Comparative Religious Studies" (Ashgate, 2010)

Gerald R. Hawting  (1944->) with Wansbrough at S.O.A.S., The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750 (1986, 2000); The Idea of Idolatryand the Rise of Islam: From polemic to history (Cambridge Univ. 1999).

Karen Armstrong  (1944->) English author, former nun; Muhammad, a Biography of the Prophet (San Francisco, 1993); Jerusalem: one city, three faiths (1997);A History of God (New York, 1999); "Islam: A Short History" (2002).

Fred M. Donner  (1945->) U.S., Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writings (1998).

Patricia Crone  (1945->) Denmark, professor in England & U.S., a modern partisan, God's Rule : Government and Islam (New York 2004), on political thought;Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (1989); Roman, Provincial and Islamic Law (Cambridge Univ. 1987), as sources of Islamic jurisprudence ; with M. Cook,Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge Univ. 1977) following Wansbrough, sets forth the thesis (previously marginal, seldom explicit) that a multivalent sect of Judaic dissenters predated Muhammad and contributed to the Qur'an; not reprinted, Hagarism is largely rejected though cited.

Daniel Pipes  (1949->) U.S., Hoover Inst., historian, modern partisan; In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (1983, 2002).

Norman Calder (1950–1998) Studies in Early Muslim Jurisprudence (Oxford 1993), reasoned analysis of early Islamic legal texts following Wansbrough (1928–2002), Schacht (1902–1969), Goldziher (1850–1921).

Carl Ernst  (1950->) Islamic studies, Univ.of N.Carolina, Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center (1993); Shambhala Guide to Sufism (1997); Following Muhammad. Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world (2003).

D. M. Varisco  (1951->) U.S., Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan (Univ.of Washington 1994).

Maria Rosa Menocal  (1953-1912) U.S., her The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History (Univ.of Pennsylvania 1987).

Kim Hodong  (1954->) Korea, Holy War in China. Muslim Rebellion and State in Chinese Central Asia 1864-1877 (Stanford U., 2004).

=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

1960s-Present[edit]

Adam Gaiser , scholar of medieval Islamic studies and Ibadi traditions, author of Muslims, Scholars, Soldiers, a study of Ibadi Muslims in Oman.

David Powers , author of Muhammad is Not the Father of Any of Your Men. Claudia Liebeskind , scholar of Sufi studies and South Asian religious history. Angelika Neuwirth , German Islamic studies scholar focusing on literary readings of the Qur'an.

Author of Scripture, Poetry and the Making of a Community. Rudolph Ware , author of The Walking Qur'an.

Chronological by date of publication[edit]

Austin Kennett England, Bedouin Justice. Law and Custom among the Egyptian Bedouin (Cambridge Univ. 1925).

David Santillana Italy, Instituzioni di Diritto musulmano, malichita (Roma 1926, 1938), 2 volumes, on Islamic law, Maliki school.

Chin Chi-t'ang China, Chung-kuo hui-chiao shih yen-chiu [Studies in the Histsory of Chinese Islam] (1935).

Ugo Monneret de Villard Italian academic, Lo Studio dell' Islam in Europa nel XII e nel XIII secolo (Vatican 1944).

José Muñoz Sendino Spanish academic, La Escala de Mahoma (Madrid 1949), on mi'raj literature re Dante and Islam per M. Asín.

Jacques Ryckmans Belgium, Leuven Univ. professor, L'institution monarchique en Arabie meridionale avant l'Islam (Louvain 1951); Textes du Yemen antique(Louvain-la-Neuve 1994); nephew of Gonzangue Ryckmans.

Miguel Cruz Hernandez, Univ.of Salamanca, Filosofia Hispano-musulmana (Madrid 1957), 2 volumes.

Joseph Chelhod Introduction a la Sociologie de l'Islam. De l'animisme a l'universalisme (Paris 1958).

Norman Daniel Islam and the West. The making of an image (Edinburgh Univ. 1960). Jean Jacques Waardenburg L'Islam dans le miroir de l'occident (Paris 1962), cultural review of

various western scholars of Islam: Goldziher, Hurgronje, Becker, Macdonald, Massignon. Farhadt J. Ziadeh, University of Washington, Lawyers, the rule of law & liberalism in modern

Egypt (1968). James T. Monroe  U.S., Univ.of California at Berkeley; Islam and the Arabs in Spanish

Scholarship (Leiden: E. J. Brill 1970); Hispano-Arabic Poetry (Univ.of Calif. 1974, reprint Gorgias 2004); with Benjamin M. Liu, Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs (U.C. 1989).

Abraham L. Udovitch U.S., Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam (Princeton Univ. 1970). Cristobal Cuevas El pensaminto del Islam. Contenido e Historia. Influencia en la Mistica

espanola (Madrid 1972). Nilo Geagea Lebanese priest, Maria nel messagio coranico (Roma 1973) [t], study of texts and

of a meeting point between religions. Victor Segesvary Swiss, L'Islam et la Reforme (Univ.de Genève 1973). Federico Corriente Spain, Las mu'allaqat: antologia y panorama de Arabia preislamica (Madrid:

Instituto Hispano-arabe de cultura 1974), annotated translation of well-known collection of popular poetry in Arabia prior to Muhammad.

Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, her Studies in Al-Ghazzali (Jerusalem 1975); Intertwined Worlds. Medieval Islam and Bible Criticism(Princeton Univ. 1992); Islam-Yahadut: Yahadut-Islam (Tel Aviv 2003).

Bat Ye'or  (Gisele Orebi Littman), British author, Jewish refugee (in 1958 thousands expelled by Egypt as reprisal for Lavon Affair); her Hebrew pen name "Daughter of the Nile"; modern partisan; Le Dhimmi (Genève 1980) [t]; Les Chretientes d'Orient entre Jihad et Dhimmitude (Paris 1991) [t]; Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis (2006).

G. W. Bowersock U.S., Princeton Univ., Roman Arabia (Harvard Univ. 1983), Nabataea (now Jordan) to 4th century.

Antoine El-Gemayel, Lebanon, The Lebanese Legal System 2 vol. (International Law Inst., Georgetown Univ. 1985), editor.

Luce López-Baralt  Puerto Rico academic, her San Juan de la Cruz y el Islam (Colegio de Mexico, Univ.de Puerto Rico 1985; Madrid 1990); Huellas del Islam en la literatura espanola (Madrid 1985, 1989) [t]; influenced by Miguel Asin Palacios.

Joseph Cuoq France, L'Islam en Ethiopie des origines au XVIe siecle (Paris 1981); Islamisation de la Nubie Chretienne (Paris 1986).

George E. Irani Lebanon, U.S., The Papacy and the Middle East. The Role of the Holy See in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1962-1984 (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986), e.g., the effect of Vatican II on Church policy.

Lisa Anderson  U.S. academic, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980 (Princeton Univ. 1986).

David Stephen Powers Studies in Qur'an and Hadith. The Formation of the Islamic Law of Inheritance (Univ.of California 1986).

David B. Burrell U.S., Knowing the Unknowable God: Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas (Univ.of Notre Dame 1986).

Masataka Takeshita Japan, Ibn 'Arabi's Theory of the Perfect Man and its Place in the History of Islamic Thought (Tokyo 1987).

Heribert Busse, Univ.of Kiel, Theologischen Beziehungen des Islams zu Judentum und Christentum (Darmstadt 1988) [t], which discusses Muhammad, as well as the narratives found in the Qur'an about the Old Testament and the New Testament.

R. Stephen Humphreys U.S., Islamic History: a framework for inquiry (Minneapolis 1988); Tradition and innovation in the study of Islamic history. The evolution of North Armerican scholarship since 1960 (Tokyo 1998).

Jean-François Breton, L'Arabie heureuse au temps de la reine de Saba: Viii-I siècles avant J.-C. (Paris 1988) [t].

Claude Addas France, her Ibn 'Arabi ou La quete du Soufre Rouge (Paris: Editions Gallimard 1989) [t].

Julian Baldick, Univ. of London, Mystical Islam (1989); Black God. Afroasiatic roots of Jewish, Christian, & Muslim religions (1998).

Harald Motzki  Germany, Die Anfange der islamischen Jurisprudenz (Stuttgart 1991) [t], by his review of early legal texts, provides a moderate challenge to Schacht's criticism of Hadith & the origins of Islamic law.

Jacob Lassner , Northwestern Univ.; Demonizing the Queen of Sheba. Boundaries of gender and culture in postbiblical Judaism and medieval Islam (Univ.of Chicago 1993).

Haim Gerber Hebrew Univ.of Jerusalem, State, Society and Law in Islam. Ottoman Law in Comparative Perspective (SUNY 1994).

Brannon M. Wheeler (1965->) U.S., Applying the Canon in Islam. The Authorization and Maintenance of Interpretive Reasoning in Hanafi Scholarship (SUNY 1996).

G. H. A. Juynboll Dutch, Studies on the Origin and Uses of Islamic Hadith ("Variorum" 1996). Mehrzad Boroujerdi U.S., Iranian Intellectuals and the West. The tormented triumph of

nativism (Syracuse University 1996), includes clerical and lay religious thought, with critical profiles of several 20th-century academic writers.

Michael Dillon, China's Muslims (Oxford Univ. 1996); China's Muslim Hui Community. Migration, Settlement, and Sects (London 1999).

Malika Zeghal  western academic, Institut d'Etudes Politiques (Paris), Gardiens de l'Islam. Les oulemas d'al-Azhar dans l'Egypte contemporaine (Paris 1996);Les islamistes morocains: le defi a la monarchie (Paris 2005); currently at Univ.of Chicago.

Robert G. Hoyland  Oxford Univ., Seeing Islam as Others Saw It. A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian Writings on early Islam (Darwin 1997); Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (Routledge 2001).

Christopher Melchert  U.S., The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law (New York: Brill 1999); Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (2006), re Hanbali.

Christoph Luxenberg  (a pseudonym), Die Syro-Aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüssenlung de Koransprache (Berlin 2000, 2007), employs historic Aramaic to elucidate the Arabic texts.

Herbert Berg , Univ.of N.Carolina, Philosophy & Religion, The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam. The Debate over authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period (Routledge/Curzon 2000).

Knut S. Vikor, Univ.of Bergen, Norway; Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law (Oxford Univ. 2005), a fruitful synthesis of much resent scholarship; Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge (1995).

Benjamin Jokisch, Islamic Imperial Law. Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter 2007) restates early Islamic legal history re law reform by Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad, c.780-798), including reception of Roman law via Byzantine Empire, drafting a code, & centralized judiciary, followed by triumph of a vigorous opposition led by orthodox jurists & rise of legal theory; Islamisches Recht in Theorie und Praxis - Analyse einiger kaufrechtlicher Fatwasvon Taqi'd-Din Ahmad b. Taymiyya (Berlin: K.Schwarz 1996).

Timur Kuran , Duke Univ., The Long Divergence. How Islamic law held back the Middle East (Princeton Univ. 2011); Islam and Mammon: The economic predicaments of Islamism (Princeton Univ. 2004).

=> The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

Other and Incomplete: alphabetical[edit]

Akbar  [Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar] (1542–1605), Mughul emperor; based chieflly on Islam and Hinduism he founded a court religion Din-i-Ilahi, which did not flourish following the end of his reign.

Báb  [Sayyid Ali Muhammad] (1819–1850), Iran; he proclaimed prophethood and, in succession to the three Abrahamic faiths including Islam, initiated a new religion which continues as the Baha'i.

Juan Cole , American Baha'i, contemporary academic and commentator on Islam. Mircea Eliade , Romania, U.S., late professor of comparative religions, University of Chicago.

Cornell Fleischer , U.S., Kanuni Suleyman Prof. of Ottoman & Mod. Turkish Studies, Dept. of Nr. E. Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago.

H. A. R. Gibb  (1895-1971), British historian of the Arabs and Islam. Betty Kelen, U.S., U.N. editor, author, Muhammad, The Messenger of God Martin Kramer  (1954->), Israel, modern partisan, Wash. Inst. for Near East Policy; Shalem

Center; Harvard University. Richard Landes , U.S., Boston University, modern partisan. Franklin Lewis , U.S., Assoc. Prof. of Persian Lang. & Lit., Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. & Civil.,

U. of Chicago. Elijah Muhammad  [Elijah Poole] (1897–1975), U.S., started the Nation of Islam movement and

proclaimed prophethood. Pai Shou-i, China, Chung-kuo I-ssu-lan shih kang-yao [Essentials of the History of Chinese

Islam] (19xy). Andrew Rippin , Britain, Canada, University of Victoria. A. Holly Shissler , U.S., prof. of Ottoman & Early Turkish Republican History, Dept. of Nr. E.

Lang. & Civil., U. of Chicago. Srđa Trifković , Serbian-American journalist, political analyst, modern partisan; author, The

Sword of the Prophet. John Woods , U.S., Prof. of Iranian & Central Asian History, Dept. of Near Eastern Lang. &

Civil., Univ. of Chicago. Malcolm X  (1925-1965), U.S., minister-politician, former black Muslim, black nationalist leader;

Muslim hadji. => The [t] following a title indicates books translated into English.

Reference notes[edit]

1. Jump up^ Many general and specific reference sources were used for the very wide variety of authors herein. The general sources employed include: Bearman, Bianquis, Bosworth, van Donzel, & Heinrichs (editors), Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition., 12 vols. (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960-2005); Brandon (editor), Dictionary of Comparative Religion (New York: Scribners 1970); Norman Daniel, Islam and the West (Edinburgh Univ. 1958); John L. Esposito, Oxford Dictionary of Islam (Oxford Univ. 2003); Gibb & Kramers (editors),Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: Brill 1953; Cyril Glassé, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989).

2. Jump up^ The entries usually include bibliographic citations to works of the authors. These also may serve as reference sources for further inquiry.

3. Jump up^ S. Munro-Hay, Aksum (Edinburgh Univ. 1991) at 92.4. Jump up^ J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 247-248, 251.5. Jump up^ J. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish scholarship (1970) at 248-251.

See also[edit]

Orientalism Middle Eastern studies

External links[edit]

Booknotes  interview with Karen Armstrong on Islam: A Short History , September 22, 2000. Booknotes  interview with Bernard Lewis on What Went Wrong? , December 30, 2001. Booknotes  interview with Caryle Murphy on Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East

—The Egyptian Experience , November 3, 2002. Booknotes  interview with Stephen Schwartz on The Two Faces of Islam: The House of Sa'ud

from Tradition to Terror , February 2, 2003.

Historiography of early IslamFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early history of Islam during the 7th century, from Muhammad's first revelations in AD 610 until the disintegration of the Rashidun Caliphate in AD 661, and arguably throughout the 8th century and the duration of the Umayyad Caliphate, terminating in the incipientIslamic Golden Age around the beginning of the 9th century.

Contents

  [hide] 

1 Primary sources

o 1.1 7th-century Islamic sources

o 1.2 7th-century non-Islamic sources

o 1.3 Epigraphy

2 Muslim historiography

o 2.1 Science of biography, science of hadith, and Isnad

o 2.2 Historiography, cultural history, and philosophy of history

o 2.3 World history

o 2.4 Famous Muslim historians

3 Modern Western scholarship

4 See also

5 References

6 Bibliography

7 External links

Primary sources[edit]

7th-century Islamic sources[edit]

692 – Qur'anic Mosaic on the Dome of the Rock. The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays ; by Sulaym ibn Qays(death: 75–95 AH (694–714)). This is a

collection of Hadith and historical reports from the 1st century of the Islamic calendar. Sulaym ibn Qays is the first Shia author in "al-Fihrist" of Ibn al-Nadim. Also al-Mas'udi refers to this book. A manuscript of the book survived from the early 10th.[citation needed] While it is the earliest available book of Shia Islam, some Shia scholars are dubious about the authenticity of some part of it.[1]However the oldest known copy, on which the majority of modern manuscripts are based, was written in 1676 CE[2]

7th-century non-Islamic sources[edit]

There are numerous early references to Islam in non-Islamic sources many have been collected in historiographer Robert G. Hoyland's compilation Seeing Islam As Others Saw It. One of the first books to analyze these works was Hagarism authored by Michael Cook and Patricia Crone. Hagarism contends that looking at the early non-Islamic sources provides a much different and more accurate picture of early Islamic history than the later Islamic sources do, although its thesis has little acceptance. For some, the date of composition is controversial. Some provide an account of early Islam which significantly contradicts the traditional Islamic accounts of two centuries later.

634 Doctrina Iacobi 636 Fragment on the Arab Conquests 639 Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem 640 Thomas the Presbyter 640 Homily on the Child Saints of Babylon 642 PERF 558 644 Coptic Apocalypse of Pseudo-Shenute 648 Life of Gabriel of Qartmin 650 Fredegar 655 Pope Martin I 659 Isho'yahb III of Adiabene 660 Sebeos, Bishop of the Bagratunis 660 A Chronicler of Khuzistan [1] 662 Maximus the Confessor 665 Benjamin I 670 Arculf, a Pilgrim 676 The Synod of 676 680 George of Resh'aina 680 The Secrets of Rabbi Simon ben Yohai 680 Bundahishn 681 Trophies of Damascus 687 Athanasius of Balad, Patriarch of Antioch 687 John bar Penkaye 690 Syriac Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius 692 Syriac Apocalypse of Pseudo-Ephraem 694 John of Nikiu 697 Anti-Jewish Polemicists

Epigraphy[edit]

Analysis of a sandstone inscription found in 2008,[3] determined that it reads: "In the name of Allah/ I, Zuhayr, wrote (this) at the time 'Umar died/year four/And twenty." It is worthwhile pointing out that caliph Umar bin al-Khattāb died on the last night of the month of Dhūl-Hijjah of the year 23 AH, and was buried next day on the first day of Muharram of the new year 24 AH, corresponding to 644 CE. Thus the date mentioned in the inscription (above) conforms to the established and known date of the death of ʿUmar bin al-Khattāb.[4]

Muslim historiography[edit]

Further information: Muslim historiography

Science of biography, science of hadith, and Isnad[edit]Further information: Science of hadith, Hadith terminology, Prophetic biography and Biographical evaluation

Muslim historical traditions first began developing from the earlier 7th century with the reconstruction of Muhammad's life following his death. Because narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions came from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Muslim world.

Ilm ar-Rijal (Arabic) is the "science of biography" especially as practiced in Islam, where it was first applied to the sira, the life of the prophet of Islam, Muhammad, and then the lives of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs who expanded Islamic dominance rapidly. Since validating the sayings of Muhammad is a major study ("Isnad"), accurate biography has always been of great interest to Muslim biographers, who accordingly attempted to sort out facts from accusations, bias from evidence, etc. The earliest surviving Islamic biography is Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah, written in the 8th century, but known to us only from later quotes and recensions (9th–10th century).

The "science of hadith" is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith. The classification of Hadith into Sahih (sound), Hasan (good) and Da'if (weak) was firmly established by Ali ibn al-Madini (161–234 AH). Later, al-Madini's student Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) authored a collection that he believed contained only Sahih hadith, which is now known as the Sahih Bukhari. Al-Bukhari's historical methods of testing hadiths and isnads is seen as the beginning of the method of citation and a precursor to the scientific method which was developed by later Muslim scientists. I. A. Ahmad writes:[5]

"The vagueness of ancient historians about their sources stands in stark contrast to the insistence that scholars such as Bukhari and Muslimmanifested in knowing every member in a chain of transmission and examining their reliability. They published their findings, which were then subjected to additional scrutiny by future scholars for consistency with each other and the Qur'an."

Other famous Muslim historians who studied the science of biography or science of hadith included Urwah ibn Zubayr (died 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (died 728),Ibn Ishaq (died 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (died 834), al-Maqrizi (1364–1442), and Ibn Hajar Asqalani (1372–1449), among others.

Historiography, cultural history, and philosophy of history[edit]Further information: Muqaddimah and Ibn Khaldun

The first detailed studies on the subject of historiography itself and the first critiques on historical methods appeared in the works of the Arab Muslim historian and historiographer Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who is regarded as the father of historiography, cultural history,[6] and the philosophy of history, especially for his historiographical writings in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-Ibar (Book of Advice).[7] His Muqaddimah also laid the groundwork for the observation of

the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[8] and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations.

Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography:

"Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing....The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociology

—sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. The development

of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the

utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on,

to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly

and modestly to shape present day historical thinking."[9]

In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, which was considered something "new to his age", and he often referred to it as his "new science", now associated with historiography.[10] His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[8] and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography"[11][12] or the "father of the philosophy of history".[13]

World history[edit]

Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838–923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history in his History of the Prophets and Kings in 915. Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī (896–956), known as the "Herodotus of the Arabs", was the first to combine history and scientific geography  in a large-scale work, Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems), a book on world history.

Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (973–1048). In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind (Researches on India), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religioushistory.[14] Along with his Researches on India, Biruni discussed more on his idea of history in his chronological work The Chronology of the Ancient Nations.[14]

Famous Muslim historians[edit]Further information: Muslim historians and List of Muslim historians

Urwah ibn Zubayr  (died 712) Hadith of Umar's speech of forbidding Mut'ah

Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri  (died 742) Hadith of Umar's speech of forbidding Mut'ah Hadith of prohibition of Mut'ah at Khaybar

Ibn Ishaq  (died 761) Sirah Rasul Allah

Imam Malik  (died 796)

Al-Muwatta Al-Waqidi  (745–822)

Book of History and Campaigns Ali ibn al-Madini  (777–850)

The Book of Knowledge about the Companions Ibn Hisham  (died 834)

Sirah Rasul Allah Dhul-Nun al-Misri  (died 859) Muhammad al-Bukhari  (810–870)

Sahih Bukhari Muslim b. al-Hajjaj  (died 875)

Sahih Muslim Ibn Majah  (died 886)

Sunan Ibn Majah Abu Da'ud  (died 888)

Sunan Abi Da'ud Al-Tirmidhi  (died 892)

Sunan al-Tirmidhi Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī  (896–956)

Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems) (947) Ibn Wahshiyya  (c. 904)

Nabataean Agriculture Kitab Shawq al-Mustaham

Al-Nasa'i  (died 915) Sunan al-Sughra

Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari  (838–923) History of the Prophets and Kings Tafsir al-Tabari

Al-Baladhuri  (died 892) Kitab Futuh al-Buldan Genealogies of the Nobles

Hakim al-Nishaburi  (died 1014) Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī  (973–1048) Indica History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father History of Khawarazm

Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi  (13th century) Ibn Abi Zar  (died 1310/1320)

Rawd al-Qirtas Al-Dhahabi  (1274–1348)

Major History of Islam Talkhis al-Mustadrak Tadhkirat al-huffaz Al-Kamal fi ma`rifat al-rijal

Ibn Khaldun  (1332–1406) Muqaddimah  (1377) Kitab al-Ibar

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani  (1372–1449) Fath al-Bari Tahdhib al-Tahdhib Finding the Truth in Judging the Companinons Bulugh al-Maram

Modern Western scholarship[edit]

The earliest Western scholarship on Islam tended to be Christian and Jewish translators and commentators. They translated the easily available Sunni texts fromArabic into European languages including German, Italian, French, or English, then summarized and commented in a fashion that was often hostile to Islam. Notable Christian scholars include:

William Muir  (1819–1905) Reinhart Dozy  (1820–1883) "Die Israeliten zu Mecca" (1864) David Samuel Margoliouth  (1858–1940) William St. Clair Tisdall  (1859–1928) Leone Caetani  (1869–1935) Alphonse Mingana  (1878–1937)

All these scholars worked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Another pioneer of Islamic studies, Abraham Geiger (1810–1874), was a prominent Jewish rabbi and approached Islam from that standpoint in his "Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?" (1833). Geiger's themes were continued in Rabbi Abraham I. Katsh's "Judaism and the Koran" (1962)[15]

Other scholars, notably those in the German tradition, took a more neutral view. The late 19th century scholar Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) is a prime example. They also started, cautiously, to question the truth of the Arabic texts. They took a source critical approach, trying to sort the Islamic texts into elements to be accepted as historically true, and elements to be discarded as polemic or pious fiction. These scholars might include:

Michael Jan de Goeje  (1836–1909) Theodor Nöldeke  (1836–1930) Ignaz Goldziher  (1850–1921) Henri Lammens  (1862–1937) Arthur Jeffery  (1892–1959) H. A. R. Gibb  (1895–1971) Joseph Schacht  (1902–1969) Montgomery Watt  (1909–2006)

In the 1970s, what has been described as a "wave of sceptical scholars" (Donner 1998 p. 23) challenged a great deal of the received wisdom in Islamic studies. They argued that the Islamic historical tradition had been greatly corrupted in transmission. They tried to correct or reconstruct the early history of Islam from other, presumably more reliable, sources such as coins, inscriptions, and non-Islamic sources. The oldest of this group was John Wansbrough (1928–2002). Wansbrough's works were widely noted, but perhaps not widely read. Donner (1998) says:

Wansbrough's awkward prose style, diffuse organization, and tendency to rely on suggestive implication rather than tight argument (qualities not found in his other published works) have elicited exasperated comment from many reviewers. (Donner 1998 p. 38)

Wansbrough's scepticism influenced a number of younger scholars, including:

Martin Hinds  (1941–1988) Patricia Crone  (born 1945) Michael Cook

In 1977, Crone and Cook published Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World, which argued that the early history of Islam is a myth, generated after the conquests of Egypt, Syria, and Persia to prop up the new Arab regimes in those lands and give them a solid ideological foundation. According to their theory the Qur'an was composed later, rather than early, and the Arab conquests may have been the cause, rather than the consequence, of Islam. The main evidence adduced for this thesis was based upon a contemporary body of non-Muslim sources to many early Islamic events. If such events could not be supported by outside evidence, then (according to Crone and Cook) they should be dismissed as myth.

Crone and Cook's more recent work has involved intense scrutiny of early Islamic sources, but not their total rejection. (See, for instance, Crone's 1987 publications,Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law and Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam, both of which assume the standard outline of early Islamic history while questioning certain aspects of it; also Cook's 2001 Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, which also cites early Islamic sources as authoritative.)

In 1972 a cache of ancient Qur'ans in a mosque in Sana'a, Yemen was discovered – commonly known as the Sana'a manuscripts. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Qur'an fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. [16]

Karl-Heinz Ohlig researched as well Christian/Jewish roots of the Qur'an and its related texts. He sees the term Muhammad istelf (the blessed, as in Benedictus qui venit) as part of that tradition.[17][18]

Contemporary scholars have begun to turn to the study of the Islamic sources in a sceptical mood. They tend to use the histories rather than the hadith, and to analyze the histories in terms of the tribal and political affiliations of the narrators (if that can be established), thus making it easier to guess in which direction the material might have been slanted. Notable scholars include:

Fred M. Donner Wilferd Madelung Gerald Hawting Jonathan Berkey Andrew Rippin G.H.A Juynboll

A few scholars have managed[according to whom?] to bridge the divide between Islamic and Western-style secular scholarship.[citation needed] They have completed both Islamic and Western academic training.

Sherman Jackson Fazlur Rahman Suliman Bashear

See also[edit]

Timeline of early Islamic history Timeline of 7th-century Muslim history Timeline of 8th-century Muslim history list of biographies of Muhammad Islamic conquests

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ See:* Sachedina (1981), pp. 54–55 * Landolt (2005), p. 59 * Modarressi (2003), pp 82–88 * Dakake (2007), p.270

2. Jump up^ http://www.hurqalya.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/BIBLIOGRAPHY-HYP/08A-SHI%60ISM/IMAMOLOGY.htm3. Jump up^ http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/11/18/islamic-inscription.html4. Jump up^ http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Inscriptions/kuficsaud.html5. Jump up^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002). "Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity" (PDF). Al Akhawayn

University. Retrieved 2011-05-07.|chapter= ignored (help)

6. Jump up^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.

7. Jump up^ S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.ISBN 1-85065-356-9.8. ^ Jump up to:a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.9. Jump up^ Historiography. The Islamic Scholar.10. Jump up^ Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p.

x, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01754-9.11. Jump up^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.12. Jump up^ Enan, Muhammed Abdullah (2007). Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works. The Other Press. p. v. ISBN 983-9541-53-

6.13. Jump up^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic

Thought & Culture 12 (3).14. ^ Jump up to:a b M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", Oriens 25, p. 86-115.15. Jump up^ Online text: "Judaism And The Koran Biblical And Talmudic Backgrounds Of The Koran And Its Commentaries

(1962) Author: Abraham I. Katsh". Internet Archive. Retrieved 2007-04-18.16. Jump up^ Atlantic Monthly Journal, Atlantic Monthly article: What is the Koran ,January 199917. Jump up^ Ohlig, The Hidden Origins of Islam: New Research into Its Early History, Muhammad as a Christological

Honorific Title 2008 interviewhttp://www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-756/i.html18. Jump up^ Der frühe Islam: eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen, Karl-Heinz Ohlig,

p.333, Verlag Hans Schiler, 2007

Hadith terminologyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Hadith terminology (Arabic:  الح�د�ي�ث �ح muṣṭalaḥ al-ḥadīth) is the body of terminology (مص�ط�لin Islam which specifies the acceptability of the sayings (hadith) attributed to the prophet Muhammad and other early Islamic figures of significance, such as Muhammad's family and/or successors. Individual terms distinguish between those hadith considered rightfully attributed to their source or detail the faults of those of dubious provenance. Formally, it has been defined by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani as: "knowledge of the principles by which the condition of the narrator and the narrated are determined."[1] This page comprises the primary terminology used within hadith   studies .

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Number of terms

2   Terminology relating to the authenticity of a   hadith

o 2.1   Ṣaḥīḥ

o 2.2   Ḥasan

o 2.3   Related terms

o 2.4   Ḍaʻīf

3   Terminology relating to the number of narrators in an   isnad

o 3.1   Mutawatir

o 3.2   Ahaad

o 3.3   Impact on Islamic law

4   Terminology pertaining to a narration's origin

o 4.1   Marfu`

o 4.2   Mawquf

o 4.3   Maqtu'

5   Concise history of Sunni literature pertaining to   hadith   terminology

6   References

7   Further reading

Number of terms[edit]

The individual terms are numerous, with Ibn al-Salah including sixty-five in his Introduction to the Science of Hadith and then commenting: "This is the end of them, but not the end of what is possible, as this is subject to further particularization to an innumerable extent." Al-Bulqini commented on this by saying, "We have added five more categories, making it seventy." [2] Ibn al-Mulaqqin counted the various types as being "more than eighty"[3] and al-Suyuti included ninety-three in Tadrib al-Rawi. Muḥammad al-Ḥāzimī acknowledged the numerous terms, reaching almost 100 by his own count, saying: "Be aware that the science of hadith consists of numerous types reaching almost a hundred. Each type is an independent discipline in and of itself and were a student to devote his life to them he would not reach their end."[1]

Terminology relating to the authenticity of a hadith[edit]

Ibn al-Salah said: "A hadith, according to its specialists, is divided into ṣaḥīḥ, ḥasan and ḍaʻīf."[4]

Ibn al-Salah said, "A hadith, according to its specialists, is divided into ṣaḥīḥ ("authentic"), ḥasan and ḍaʻīf."[4]While the individual terms of hadith terminology are many, many more than these three terms, the final outcome is essentially determining whether a particular hadith is ṣaḥīḥ and, therefore, actionable, or ḍaʻīf and not actionable. This is evidenced by al-Bulqini's commentary on Ibn al-Salah's statement. Al-Bulqini commented that "the terminology of the hadith specialists is more than this, while, at the same time, is only ṣaḥīḥ and its opposite. Perhaps what has been intended by the latter categorization (i.e. into two categories) relates to standards of religious authority, or lack of it, in general, and what will be mentioned afterwards (i.e. the sixty-five categories) is a specification of that generality."[4]

Ṣaḥīḥ[edit]

Ṣaḥīḥ (ح� – is best translated as "authentic".[citation needed] Ibn Hajar defines a hadith that is ṣaḥīḥ lithatihi (ص�ح�ي"ṣaḥīḥ in and of itself" – as a singular narration (ahaad; see below) conveyed by a trustworthy, completely competent person, either in his ability to memorize or to preserve what he wrote, with a muttaṣil ("connected")isnād ("chain of narration") that contains neither a serious concealed flaw (ʻillah) nor irregularity (shādhdh). He then defines a hadith that is ṣaḥīḥ ligharihi – "ṣaḥīḥdue to external factors" – as a hadith "with something, such as numerous chains of narration, strengthening it."[5]

Ibn Hajar's definitions indicate that there are five conditions to be met for a particular hadith to be considered ṣaḥīḥ:

1. Each narrator in the chain of narration must be trustworthy;2. Each narrator must be reliable in his ability to preserve that narration, be it in his ability to

memorize to the extent that he can recall it as he heard it, or, that he has written it as he heard it and has preserved that written document unchanged;

3. The isnād must be connected (muttasil) insofar as it is at least possible for each narrator in the chain to have received the hadith from a predecessor;

4. The hadith, including its isnād, is free of ʻillah (hidden detrimental flaw or flaws, e.g. the establishment that two narrators, although contemporaries, could not have shared the hadith, thereby breaking the isnād.)

5. The hadith is free of irregularity, meaning that it does not contradict another hadith already established (accepted).

A number of books were authored in which the author stipulated the inclusion of ṣaḥīḥ hadith alone. According to Ahl al-Sunna, this was only achieved by the first two books in the following list:

1. Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī . Considered the most authentic book after the Quran.[6]

2. Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim . Considered the next most authentic book after Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. [6]

3. Ṣaḥīḥ ibn Khuzaymah . Al-Suyuti was of the opinion that Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Khuzaymah was at a higher level of authenticity than Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān.[7]

4. Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān . Al-Suyuti also concluded that Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān was more authentic than Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Ṣaḥīḥain.[7]

5. al-Mustadrak ʻalā al-Ṣaḥīḥayn , by Hakim al-Nishaburi.[7]

6. Al-Āhādith al-Jiyād al-Mukhtārah min mā laysa fī Ṣaḥīḥain by Ḍiyāʼ al-Dīn al-Maqdisī, authenticity considered.[8]

Ḥasan[edit]

Ḥasan (ح�س�ن meaning "good") is used to describe hadith whose authenticity is not as well-established as that of ṣaḥīḥ hadith, but sufficient for use as (religious) evidence.

Ibn Hajar defines a hadith that is ḥasan lithatihi – "ḥasan in and of itself" – with the same definition a ṣaḥīḥ hadith except that the competence of one of its narrators is less than complete; while a hadith that is ḥasan ligharihi ("ḥasan due to external factors") is determined to be ḥasan due to corroborating factors such as numerous chains of narration. He states that it is then comparable to a ṣaḥīḥ hadith in its religious authority. A ḥasan hadith may rise to the level of being ṣaḥīḥ if it is supported by numerous isnād (chains of narration); in this case that hadith would be ḥasan lithatihi ("ḥasan in and of itself") but, once coupled with other supporting chains, becomes ṣaḥīḥ ligharihi ("ṣaḥīḥ due to external factors").[9]

Related terms[edit]Musnad[edit]

The early scholar of hadith, Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Hakim, defines a musnad (د� ن meaning مس�"supported") hadith as:

A hadith which a. scholar of   hadith  reports from his shaikh whom he has apparently heard hadith from at an age conducive to that, and likewise each shaikhhaving heard from his shaikh until the isnād reaches a well known Companion, and then the Messenger of Allah. An example of that is:

Abu 'Amr 'Uthman ibn Ahmad al-Samak narrated to us in Baghdad: al-Ḥasan ibn Mukarram narrated to us: ʻUthman ibn 'Umar narrated to us: Yunus informed us from al-Zuhri from ʻAbdullah ibn Kaʻb ibn Mālik from his father Ka'b ibn Malik who sought from ibn Abi Hadrad payment of a debt the latter owed the former while in the mosque. Their voices became raised to the extent that they were heard by the Messenger of Allah. He exited only by lifting the curtain of his apartment and said, 'O Kaʻb! Relieve him of his debt,' gesturing to him in way indicating by half. So he Kaʻb said, 'Yes,' and the man paid him."

To clarify this example I have given: my having heard from Ibn al-Samak is apparent, his having heard from al-Ḥasan ibn al-Mukarram is apparent, likewise Hasan having heard from 'Uthman ibn 'Umar and 'Uthman ibn 'Umar from Yunus ibn Yazid – this being an elevated chain for 'Uthman. Yunus was known [for having heard from] al-Zuhri, as was al-Zuhri from the sons of Ka'b ibn Malik , and the sons of Ka'b ibn Malik from their father and Ka'b from the Messenger as he was known for being a Companion. This example I have made applies to thousands of hadith, citing just this one hadith regarding the generality [of this category].[10]

Musnad format of hadith collection[edit]

A musnad hadith should not be confused with the type of hadith collection similarly termed musnad, which is arranged according to the name of the companion narrating each hadith. For example, a musnad might begin by listing a number of the hadith, complete with their respective sanads, of Abu Bakr, and then listing a number of hadith from Umar, and then Uthman ibn Affan and so on. Individual compilers of this type of collection may vary in their method of arranging those Companions whose hadith they were collecting. An example of this type of book is the   Musnad of Ahmad .

Muttaṣil[edit]

Muttaṣil (ص�ل� refers to a continuous chain of narration in which each narrator has heard (متthat narration from his teacher.[11]

Ḍaʻīf[edit]Ibn Hajar described the cause of a hadith being classified as ḍaʻīf as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or due to some criticism of a narrator."[12]

Ḍaʻīf (ض�ع�ي�ف) is the categorization of a hadith as "weak". Ibn Hajar described the cause of a hadith being classified as weak as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or due to some criticism of a narrator."[12] This discontinuity refers to the omission of a narrator occurring at different positions within theisnād and is referred to using specific terminology accordingly as discussed below.

Categories of discontinuity[edit]

Muʻallaq[edit]

Discontinuity in the beginning of the isnād, from the end of the collector of that hadith, is referred to as muʻallaq (ع�ل�ق meaning "suspended"). Muʻallaq refers to the omission of one مor more narrators. It also refers to the omission of the entire isnād, for example, (an author) saying only: "The Prophet said..." In addition, this includes the omission of the isnād except for the companion, or the companion and successor together.[12]

Mursal[edit]

Mursal (س�ل meaning "hurried"): if the narrator between the Successor and Muhammad is مر�omitted from a given isnād, the hadith is mursal, e.g., when a Successor says, “The Prophet said ...”[13] Since Sunnis believe in the uprightness of all   Sahaba , they do not view it as a necessary problem if a Successor does not mention what Sahaba he received the hadith from. This means that if a hadith has an acceptable chain all the way to a Successor, and the successor attributes it to an unspecified companion, the isnād is considered acceptable. There are, however, different views in some cases: If the Successor is a young one and it is probable that he omitted an elder Successor who in turn reported form a Sahaba. The opinion held by Imam Malik and all Maliki jurists is that the mursal of a trustworthy person is valid, just like a musnad hadith. This view has been developed to such an extreme that to some of them, the mursal is even better than the musnad, based on the following reasoning: "The one who reports a musnad hadith leaves you with the names of the reporters for further investigation and scrutiny, whereas the one who narrates by way of irsal (the absence of the link between the successor and the Prophet), being a knowledgeable and trustworthy person himself, has already done so and found the hadith to be sound. In fact, he saves you from further research." Others reject the mursal of younger Successor.[13]

Muʻḍal[edit]

Muʻḍal (ع�ض�ل meaning "problematic") describes the omission of two or more consecutive مnarrators from the isnād.[14]

Munqaṭiʻ[edit]

A hadith described as munqaṭiʻ (ق�ط�ع� meaning "broken") is one in which the chain of people منreporting the hadith (the isnād) is disconnected at any point.[13] Theisnād of a hadith that appears to be muttaṣil but one of the reporters is known to have never heard hadith from his immediate authority, even though they lived at the same time, is munqaṭiʻ. It is also applied when someone says "A man told me...".[13]

Other types of weakness[edit]

Munkar[edit]

Munkar (ر� �ك meaning "denounced") — According to Ibn Hajar, if a narration which goes منagainst another authentic hadith is reported by a weak narrator, it is known as munkar. Traditionists as late as Ahmad used to simply label any hadith of a weak reporter as munkar.[15]

Shādhdh[edit]

Shādhdh (#شاذ meaning "anomalous") — According to al-Shafi'i, a shādhdh hadith is one which is reported by a trustworthy person who contradicts the narration of a person more reliable than he is. It does not include a hadith which is unique in its matn and is not narrated by someone else.[15]

Muḍṭarib[edit]

Muḍṭarib (ض�ط�ر�ب meaning "shaky") — According to Ibn Kathir, if reporters disagree about a مparticular shaikh, or about some other points in the isnād or the matn, in such a way that none of the opinions can be preferred over the others, and thus there is irreconcilable uncertainty, such a hadith is called muḍṭarib.[16]

An example is the following hadith attributed to Abu Bakr:

"O Messenger of Allah! I see you getting older?" He (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) replied, "What made me old are Surah Hud and its sister surahs."

The hadith scholar Al-Daraqutni commented: "This is an example of a muḍṭarib hadith. It is reported through Abu Ishaq, but as many as ten different opinions are held regarding this isnād. Some report it as mursal, others as muttasil; some take it as a narration of Abu Bakr, others as one of Sa'd or `A'ishah." Since all these reports are comparable in weight, it is difficult to prefer one above another. Hence, the hadith is termed as muḍṭarib".[16]

Mawḍūʻ[edit]

A hadith that is mawḍūʻ (و�ع is one determined to be fabricated and cannot be (م�و�ضattributed to its origin. Al-Dhahabi defines mawḍūʻ as a hadith the text of which contradicts established norms of the Prophet's sayings, or its reporters include a liar.

Recognizing fabricated hadith[edit]

1. Some of these hadith were known to be spurious by the confession of their inventors. For example, Muhammad ibn Sa`id al-Maslub used to say, "It is not wrong to fabricate an isnād for a sound statement." Another notorious inventor, `Abd al-Karim Abu 'l-Auja, who was killed and crucified by Muhammad ibn Sulaiman ibn `Ali, governor of Basra, admitted that he had fabricated four thousand hadith declaring lawful the prohibited and vice versa.

2. Mawḍūʻ narrations are also recognised by external evidence related to a discrepancy found in the dates or times of a particular incident. For example, when the second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab decided to expel the Jews from Khaybar, some Jewish dignitaries brought a document to Umar apparently proving that the Prophet had intended that they stay there by exempting them from the jizya (tax on non-Muslims under the rule of Muslims); the document carried the witness of two companions, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh and Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. Umar rejected the document outright,

knowing that it was fabricated because the conquest of Khaybar took place in 6 AH, whereas Sa'd ibn Mua'dh died in 3 AH just after the Battle of the Trench, and Mu'awiyah embraced Islam in 8 AH, after the conquest of Mecca.

Causes of fabrication[edit]

There are several factors which may motivate an individual to fabricate a narration:

political differences; factions based on issues of creed; fabrications by heretics; fabrications by story-tellers; fabrications by ignorant ascetics; prejudice in favour of town, race or a particular leader; inventions for personal motives; the desire to promote proverbs into hadith.

Collections[edit]This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2012)

A number of hadith specialists[who?] have collected fabricated hadith separately in order to distinguish them from other hadith. Examples include:

Al-Maudu`at  by Abul-Faraj Ibn Al-Jawzi. Kitab al-Abatil by al-Jauzaqani. Al-La'ali al- Masnu'ah fi 'l-Ahadith al-Mawdu`ah by al-Suyuti. Al-Mawdu`at by Ali al-Qari. Al-Fawaid al-Majmu'ah fi al-Ahaadeeth al-Mawdu'ah by Muhammad ash-Shawkani.

Terminology relating to the number of narrators in an isnad[edit]

In hadith terminology, a hadith is divided into two categories based, essentially, upon the number of narrators mentioned at each level in a particularisnād.[4]

In hadith terminology, a hadith is divided into two categories based, essentially, upon the number of narrators mentioned at each level in a particular isnād. Consideration is given to the least number of narrators at any level of the chain of narration; thus if ten narrators convey a hadith from two others who have conveyed it from ten, it is considered `aziz, not mashhur.[17]

Mutawatir[edit]

The first category is mutawatir (ر� �وات meaning "successive") narration. A successive متnarration is one conveyed by narrators so numerous that it is not conceivable that they have agreed upon an untruth thus being accepted as unquestionable in its veracity. The number of narrators is unspecified.[17] A hadith is said to bemutawatir if it was reported by a significant, though unspecified, number of narrators at each level in the chain of narration, thus reaching the succeeding generation through multiple chains of narration leading back to its source. This provides confirmation that the hadith is authentically attributed to its source at a level above reasonable doubt. This is due to its being beyond historical possibility that narrators could have conspired to forge a narration. In

contrast, an ahaad hadith is a narration the chain of which has not reached a number sufficient to qualify as mutawatir.

Types of mutawatir[edit]

Hadiths can be mutawatir in both actual text and meaning:

Mutawatir in wording

A hadith whose words are narrated by such a large number as is required for a mutawatir, in a manner that all the narrators are unanimous in reporting it with the same words without any substantial discrepancy.

For example: "[Muhammad said:] Whoever intentionally attributes a lie against me, should prepare his seat in the Fire." This is a mutawatir hadith in its wordings because it has a minimum of seventy-four narrators. In other words, seventy-four companions of Muhammad have reported this hadith at different occasions, all with the same words. The number of those who received this hadith from the Companions is many times greater, because each of the seventy four Companions has conveyed it to a number of his students. Thus the total number of narrators of this hadith has been increasing in each successive generation and has never been less than seventy-four. All these narrators who now are hundreds in number, report it in the same words without even a minor change. This hadith is therefore mutawatir in its wording, because it cannot be imagined reasonably that such a large number of people have colluded to coin a fallacious sentence in order to attribute it to Muhammad.

Mutwatir in meaning

A hadith which is not reported by multiple narrators using the same words. The words of the narrators are different. Sometimes even the reported events are not the same. But all the narrators are unanimous in reporting a basic concept, which is common in all reports. This common concept is also ranked as a mutawatirconcept.

For example: It is reported by such a large number of narrators that Muhammad enjoined Muslims to perform two ra'kat in Fajr, four ra'kat in Dhuhr, Asr andEsha and three ra'kat in the Maghrib prayer, yet the narrations of all the reporters who reported the number of ra'kat are not in the same words. Their words are different and even the events reported by them are different. But the common feature of all the reports is the same: the exact number of ra'kat. The hadith is thus said to be mutawatir in meaning.

Ahaad[edit]

The second category, ahaad (آحاد meaning "singular") narration, refers to any hadith not classified as mutawatir. Linguistically, hadith ahad refers to a hadithnarrated by only one narrator. In hadith terminology, it refers to a hadith not fulfilling all of the conditions necessary to be deemed mutawatir.[17] Hadith ahadconsists of three sub-classifications also relating to the number of narrators in the chain or chains of narration:[17]

Mashhur[edit]

The first category is mashhur (و�ره This refers to hadith conveyed .(م�ش�by three or more narrators but not considered mutawatir.[17]

`Aziz[edit]

An `aziz (ز� hadith is any hadith conveyed by two narrators at any (ع�ز�يpoint in its isnād (chain of narrators).[17]

Gharib[edit]

A gharib (غ�ر�ي�ب) hadith is one conveyed by only one narrator.[17] Al-Tirmidhi's understanding of a gharib hadith, concurs to a certain extent with that of the other traditionists. According to him a hadith may be classified as gharib for one of the following three reasons:

1. Firstly, a hadith may be classified as gharib since it is narrated from one chain only. Al-Tirmidhi mentions as an example a tradition from Hammad ibn Salamah from Abu 'Usharai on the authority of his father who enquired from the Prophet whether the slaughtering of an animal is confined to the gullet and throat. The Prophet replied that stabbing the thigh will also suffice.

2. Secondly, a tradition can be classified as gharib due to an addition in the text, though it will be considered a sound tradition, if that addition is reported by a reliable reporter. The example cited by al-Tirmidhi is a tradition narrated through the chain of Malik (died 179 AH) from Nafi' (died 117 AH) on the authority of Ibn 'Umar (died 73 AH) who stated that the Prophet declared alms-giving at the end of Ramadan obligatory upon every Muslim, male or female, whether a free person or slave from the Muslims. However, this tradition has also been narrated by Ayyub Sakhtiyani and 'Ubaid Allah ibn 'Umar, without the addition "from the Muslims", hence the above-mentioned example due to the addition of "from the Muslims" in the text is classified as gharib.

3. Thirdly, a tradition may be declared gharib since it is narrated through various chains of transmitters but having within one of its chains an addition in theisnād.

Impact on Islamic law[edit]See also: Punishment of the Grave § History of belief in the punishment of the grave

There are differing views as to the level of knowledge achieved by each of the two primary categories mutawatir and ahaad. One view, expressed by Ibn Hajar and others, is that a hadith mutawatir achieves certain knowledge, while ahad hadith, unless otherwise corroborated, yields speculative knowledge upon which action is mandated.[17] A second view, held by Dawud al-Zahiri, Ibn Hazm and others – and, reportedly, the position of Malik ibn Anas[citation needed] is that hadith ahadachieves certain knowledge as well. According to Ibn Hazm, “[t]he narration conveyed by a single, upright narrator conveying from another of a similar description until reaching the Prophet mandates both knowledge and action.”[18]

Terminology pertaining to a narration's origin[edit]

Different terms are used for the origin of a narration. These terms specify whether a narration is attributed to Muhammad, a companion, a successor or a latter historical figure.

Marfu`[edit]

Ibn al-Salah said: "Marfo` (و�عف refers to a narration attributed (م�ر�specifically to the Prophet [Muhammad]. This term does not refer to other than him unless otherwise specified. The category of marfu` is inclusive of narrations attributed to the Prophet regardless of their being muttasil, munqati` or mursal among other categories."[19]

Mawquf[edit]

According to Ibn al-Salah, "Mawquf (و�ف refers to a narration (م�و�قattributed to a companion, whether a statement of that companion, an action or otherwise."[19]

Maqtu'[edit]

Ibn al-Salah defined maqtu` (و�ع as a narration attributed to (م�ق�طa Tabi‘i (a successor of one of Muhammad's companions), whether it is a statement of that successor, an action or otherwise. In spite of the linguistic similarity, it is distinct from munqati`.[19]

Concise history of Sunni literature pertaining to hadith terminology[edit]

As in any Islamic discipline, there is a rich history of literature describing the principles and fine points of hadith studies. Ibn Hajar provides a summation of this development with the following: “Works authored in the terminology of the people of hadith have become plentiful from the Imams, both old and contemporary:

1. From the first of those who authored a work on this subject is the Judge, Abū Muḥammad al-Rāmahurmuzī in his book, al-Muhaddith al-Faasil, however, it was not comprehensive.

2. And al-Hakim, Abū Abd Allah an-Naysaburi, authored a book, however, it was neither refined nor well arranged.

3. And following him, Aboo Nu’aym al-Asbahaanee, who wrote a mustakhraj upon the book of the later, (compiling the same narrations al-Hakim cited using his own isnād.) However, some things remain in need of correction.

4. And then came al-Khatib Abu Bakr al-Bagdadi, authoring works in the various disciplines of the science of hadith a book entitled al-Kifaayah and in its etiquettes a book entitled al-Jami` Li `Adab ash-Sheikh wa as-Saami`. Scarce is the discipline from the disciplines of the science of hadith that he has not written an individual book regarding, as al-Hafith Abu Bakr ibn Nuqtah said: “Every objective person knows that the scholars of hadith coming after al-Khatib are indebted to his works.” After them came others, following al-Khateeb, taking their share from this science."

5. al-Qadi ‘Eyaad  compiled a concise book naming it al-`Ilmaa'.6. Abū Hafs al-Mayyaanajiyy authored a work giving it the title Ma

Laa yasu al-Muhaddith Jahluhu or That Which a Hadith Scholar is Not Allowed Ignorance Of. There are numerous examples of this which have gained popularity and were expanded upon

seeking to make plentiful the knowledge relating to these books and others abridged making easy their understanding.

7. This was prior to the coming of the memorizer and jurist Taqiyy ad-Deen Aboo ‘Amrin ‘Uthmaan ibn al-Salah ‘Abd ar-Rahmaan ash-Shahruzuuree, who settled in Damascus. He gathered, at the time he had become a teacher of hadith at the Ashrafiyyah school, his well known book, editing the various disciplines mentioned in it. He dictated it piecemeal and, as a result, did not succeed in providing it with an appropriate order. He occupied himself with the various works of al-Khatib, gathering his assorted studies, adding to them from other sources the essence of their benefits. So he combined in his book what had been spread throughout books other than it. It is due to this that people have focused their attention upon it, following its example. Innumerable are those who rendered his book into poetry, abridged it, sought to complete what had been left out of it or left out any extraneous information; as well as those who opposed him in some aspect of his work or supported him."[20]

References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to: a  b al-`Asqalānī, Aḥmad ibn `Alī. al-Nukat Ala Kitab Ibn al-Salah (in Arabic) 1. `Ajman: Maktabah al-Furqan. pp. 81–95.

2. Jump up  Ibn al-Salah. 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, ed. Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah (in Arabic). Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif. p. 150.

3. Jump up  Al-Tathkirah fi 'Ulum al-Hadith, Dar 'Ammaar, Jordan, first edition, 1988.4. ^ Jump up to: a  b c d Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah, by Ibn al-Salah, along with Muhasin al-

Istilah by al-Bulqini, edited by 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, pg. 101, Dar al-Ma'arif, Cairo.

5. Jump up  Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 82, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.

6. ^ Jump up to: a  b al-Shahrazuri, `Uthman ibn `Abd al-Rahman Ibn al-Salah (1990). `Aishah bint `Abd al-Rahman, ed. al-Muqaddimah fi `Ulum al-Hadith. Cairo: Dar al-Ma’aarif. pp. 160–9.

7. ^ Jump up to: a  b c Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pg. 148, Dar al-'Asimah, Riyadh, first edition, 2003.

8. Jump up  al-Kattānī, Muḥammad ibn Jaʻfar (2007).   Al-Risālah al-Mustaṭrafah. (seventh ed.). Dār al-Bashāʼir al-Islamiyyah. p. 24.

9. Jump up  Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published as Al-Nukat, pg. 91–92, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.

10. Jump up  Marifah 'Ulum al-Hadith, by al-Hakim, pg. 17-8, Da'irah al-Ma'arif al-'Uthmanaiyyah, Hyderabad, India, second edition, 1977.

11. Jump up  Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 83, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.

12. ^ Jump up to: a  b c Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat, pg. 108, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.

13. ^ Jump up to: a  b c d "The Classification of   hadith   according to the links in the   isnād , by Suhaib Hsan". Witness-pioneer.org. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2010-03-16.

14. Jump up  Nuzhah al-Nuthr, published with Al-Nukat by 'Ali ibn Hasan, pg. 112, Dar ibn al-Jawzi, al-Damam, 6th edition.

15. ^ Jump up to: a  b "The Classification of   hadith   according to the nature of the text and   isnād , by Suhaib Hassan" . Witness-pioneer.org. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2010-03-16.

16. ^ Jump up to: a  b "The Classification of   hadith   according to a hidden defect found in the   isnād or text of a   hadith , by Suhaib Hassan" . Witness-pioneer.org. 2002-09-16. Retrieved 2010-03-16.

17. ^ Jump up to: a  b c d e f g h Nuzhah al-Nathar, by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, printed with: Al-Nukat Ala Nuzhah al-Nathr, pgs. 51–70, by Ali ibn Hasan ibn Ali, Dar Ibn al-Jawzi, Dammam, Saudi Arabia, sixth edition, 1422.

18. Jump up  Al-Ba’ith al-Hathith Sharh Ikhtisar Ulum Al-Hadith, Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, vol. 1, pg. 126, Maktabah al-Ma’arif, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, first edition, 1996.

19. ^ Jump up to: a  b c Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah, by Ibn al-Salah, along with Muhasin al-Istilah by al-Bulqini, edited by 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, pg. 193-5, Dar al-Ma'arif, Cairo.

20. Jump up  Nuzhah Al-Nathr, pg. 45–51, published with al-Nukat of Ali ibn Hasan, Dar Ibn al-Jawzi. I referred to the explanation of Ali al-Qari, Sharh Sharh Nukhbah al-Fikr, in particular segments of pgs. 143-7.