Scaffolding for Teachers at Various Levels of Development to Enhance Reflective Practice

MD Avgerinou, M Kelly Carroll,K Hanlon, & M Spelman

Saint Xavier University- Chicago

Illinois Online Conference (IOC), 18-20 February 2005

Introduction I

Effective teachers engage in reflective practice. The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium’s (INTASC, 1991) ninth core standard for teachers is worded: “The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally. Mewborn (1999) argued that pre-service teachers need time to learn and practice reflective skills in a non-evaluative environment. Bullough & Baughman (1997) asserted that the first five to seven years of teaching careers constitute the novice period; these years should be marked by ongoing reflection, typically in the form of journaling: diaries, notebooks, dialogues, integrative entries, and evaluative entries (Sileo, 1998). Experienced teachers also benefit from ongoing reflection in similar formats (Bean & Stevens, 2002).

Introduction II

“Teacher preparation programs … do not develop the skills of discourse, debate, self-analysis, introspection, elaboration, and the like for teachers to engage in personal reflection and professional renewal.”

(Goodland, 1994 as cited in Ornstein, 2003, p. 27)

Research Study: Overview

The presentation describes the assignments designed by various teacher preparation educators to enhance journaling, from private paper and pencil types to sophisticated rubric-driven journal entries in web-based instructional applications. These designs are intended for a continuum of developmental reflective practice for pre-service observers, methods course students, student teachers, novice in-service teachers, and experienced in-service teachers. The intersecting continuum of traditional journaling to various technological formats as well as the continuum of loose to more complex structures and parameters will be explored.

Research Study:Purpose and MethodologyThe purpose of this study is to share, through publication and conference

presentations, the journey that teachers make as they evolve as professionals. The pre-service and in-service teachers involved in this study are enrolled in one or more teacher education course offered at Saint Xavier University. The pre-service and in-service teachers in these courses are required to participate in reflective writing, either in paper and pencil formats or electronically. The setting for all of the data collection is Saint Xavier University. The anticipated dates of study are January 2005 through December 2005. All of the participants are adults enrolled in at least one course under the direction of one of the four researchers/presenters. All of the pre-service and in-service teachers will be required to participate in reflective writing as part of course requirements but only the writing of those who give permission will be used in the study.

Prompts will often be used to stimulate reflection. These prompts are typical of the topics about which pre-service and in-service teachers are asked to reflect during experiences in learning to be a teacher or practicing as a teacher. Prompts such as these might be used weekly during a course or at less frequent intervals. Participants may engage in written reflection and submit such reflections to the faculty member or participate in a larger discussion online, trading their reflections with other pre-service and in-service teachers.

Defining Reflection

ReflectionReflection is that kind of “thinking that extracts meaning from experiences as a mechanism to propel development” (Guillaume & Yopp, 1995, p. 96).

Also, reflection reflection is the “ability to think about what one does and why. Reflection influences how one grows as a professional by influencing how successfully one is able to learn from one’s own experiences” (Richert, 1990, p. 525).

Continua of Analysis

Continuum A Context/Course

Continuum B Targeted Population: Pre-service observers, methods course students, student teachers, novice In-service teachers, and experienced In-service teachers

Continuum C Medium: from Paper and Pencil Journaling, to Face-to-Face and Online Written Reflections

Continuum D Degrees of Scaffolding: loose to more complex structure

Continuum E Reflection Goals

Continuum F Reflection Assessment

Assessing Student Work: Levels of Reflection I

Non-reflectiveNon-reflective (simple report of events, and their interpretation via personal past experiences)

DescriptiveDescriptive (report accompanied by effort to analyze the reasons behind actions or events from one’s own viewpoint, or that or others)

DialogicDialogic (less reporting, more critical evaluating of events and actions through a multitude of perspectives)

Critical Critical (more critical evaluating of actions and events implemented through an ethical viewpoint that is based on social, political, and cultural considerations)

(Hatton & Smith, 1995; Whipp, 2003)

Assessing Student Work: Levels of Reflection II

Content ReflectionContent Reflection (description/examination of a problem)

Process ReflectionProcess Reflection (evaluating the problem-solving strategies one uses toward resolution of a problem)

Premise ReflectionPremise Reflection (questioning the problem itself)

Critical Self-ReflectionCritical Self-Reflection (trying to comprehend why we are doing what we are doing)

(Cranton & King, 2003; Mezirow, 1991)

Assessing Student Word: Levels of Reflection III Presence in Experience ( Learning to see) Description of Experience (Learning to

describe and differentiate) Experimentation (Learning to take intelligent

action) Analysis of Experience (Learning to think

from multiple perspectives and form multiple explanations)

(Rogers, 2002)

Context/Course Target Population

Medium Degree of Scaffolding

Reflection Goals

Reflection Assessment

Meg GraduateStudent Teaching

Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers

Online Written Reflections and Discussion

Semi-structured with prompts

Content;Process;Critical Self-Reflection

Semiweeklyparticipation required; integral to course, cannot pass without participation

Maria Graduate Research

In-Service Teachers

Online Written Reflections

Semi-Structured with prompts

Content; Process; Premise; Critical Self-Reflection

30% of the overall grade

Kathleen Secondary Methods

Pre-Service Teachers

Online Written Reflections

Highly Structured

Content;Process;Critical Self Reflection

20% of the overall grade

Maureen Undergraduate /Graduate

Graduate

Pre-Service Student Teachers

Reading Specialist Candidates

Paper/pencil reflection on daily lessons

Online asynchronous discussions;

Reflective journal entries

Online asynchronous discussions centered on professional readings

Open, unstructured self-analysis

Semi-structured with prompts;

Open, unstructured

Semi-structured with prompts

Presence; Description; Analysis; & Experimentation

Presence; Description; Analysis; & Experimentation

Daily/Weekly participation required; Overall growth represents an essential portion of final grade

Weekly journalingrequired

Minimum of 2-3 postings/peer responses per week

Matrix of Analysis

Meg’s Case: Student Teachers

Context/Course: Case: Student teachers are at the end of a program of teacher

preparation and are no longer in frequent face-to-face contact with their professors. Now their primary experience is with the cooperating teacher to whom they have been assigned and with the students that they are teaching. A common design is that student teachers are observed approximately six times by the university professor over the time period of placement (often 10-16 weeks) and meet with the university professor and other student teachers once weekly on campus.

Problem: In a large metropolitan area, student teachers may be assigned to schools that are not close to the campus at all, let alone close to each other. Given bus schedules and high school/elementary school schedules, school start and stop times vary considerably. Finally, many student teachers are asked to assume after-school responsibilities, including tutoring and co-curricular experiences. As a result, the 21 student teachers in the sample were unable to meet on campus on any day of the week and be present at a reasonable hour concurrently (some were also taking evening classes, mitigating against a meeting time beginning later than 5:00).

Solution: Virtual meetings! The professor structured minimum entries (two per week) and heading under which the discussion could ensue

Meg’s Case: Student TeachersReflective Project and Project Structure: All 21 teacher candidates were required to post on a

Blackboard discussion area at least twice per week. Postings could be in response to any of the prompts and beginning their own thread or responding to colleagues. The professor participated too.

Prompts for Student Teacher Reflection and Discussion: Prompt 1: Effective Materials for Instructional Use—please add questions and advice for

colleagues here. Prompt 2: Effective Instructional Methods—Give and get ideas for instruction. Prompt 3: Curriculum Questions—How do you know what to teach and when? How do you

sequence instruction? How many rehearsals does it take to put things into memory?

Prompt 4: Highlights—Share your successes. Prompt 5: Regrets—What happened? What would you do differently? Prompt 6: Family Issues—How do you juggle your family and teaching? How do you deal

with the families of your students? Prompt 7: Assessment-- How do you determine whether students have learned? What are

the issues when special education students have to take standardized tests? Prompt 8: Learning Centers (Stations or Activity Centers)—As I visit many of you, I see the

need for learning stations, at all academic levels and levels of function; some of you have them going. Please provide examples of activities that teachers can use at independent or semi-independent learning centers or ask about the use of centers here.

Prompt 9: Certification Information—There still seems to be some confusion over certification issues so let's air them here and I will answer in a forum that all can consult.

Prompt 10: Frustrations—What bugs you? What challenges seem almost too much to bear?

Prompt 11: Behavior Issues—Ask questions, seek advice, and give advice. Prompt 12: Wish List—If you could have some materials for your room that you do not now

have, what would they be?  This could just be therapeutic and abstract or maybe one of the readers will have what you want. 

Meg’s Case: Student Teachers

Assessment: Assessment was the least structured aspect of this reflective experience. No student teacher could complete the course without posting at least twice per week, as per syllabus requirements. On the other hand, no requirements, other than the minimal volume and frequency, were made. No specification about how long each comment or posting would be or that a posting had to respond to the posting of another teacher candidate, etc. was made. The intensive nature of student teaching is stressful and exciting; it would be quite unusual for teacher candidates to be without comments. Further, the nature of the teacher candidates’ relationship to each other as the only other persons who are experiencing this intensive activity at the same time with the same population (all 21 student teachers were placed in special education assignments) meant that teacher candidates naturally clung to each other for support and ideas. In addition, the student teaching supervisor not only saw each teacher candidate in the field regularly but participated in the discussion, bringing to the forefront observations that had been made and issues that arose as a result. The discussion took a truly conversational format as a result.

Maria’s Case: In-Service Teachers

Context/Course:Context/Course: This 10-week course initiates the graduate study research requirement for the Master of Arts in Teaching and Leadership (MATL). Course content explores the foundational assumptions, methods, and designs of educational research through both qualitative and quantitative paradigms, with particular reference to Action research and school improvement. Extant research is reviewed and analyzed. A statement of classroom-based research inquiry is developed, and a preliminary literature review is conducted.

Target Population:Target Population: All MATL students are in-service teachers. My graduate students are also in-service teachers with at least 2 years of teaching experience.

Medium:Medium: Written Reflective Journals posted on Blackboard’s Discussion Board (Group Area)

Degree of ScaffoldingDegree of Scaffolding: Prompts are semi-structured in that they help students focus specifically but not exclusively on issues of both content, and process related thematically to our weekly face-to-face meetings. Also, the journal’s length should be no more than 2 paragraphs (= one screen-full) unless otherwise specified.

Maria’s Case: In-Service Teachers

Reflective ProjectReflective Project: The students post on Blackboard a reflective journalreflective journal for 7 of the 10 weeks of the course with the view to achieve the goals listed below. The journal may consist of the student response to the weekly readings; their questions, fears and/or concerns with regard to their own study progress but also their group dynamics and communication; their thoughts, ideas and/or suggestions concerning the literature, their research project, the instructional modus operandi of the class, etc. Those journals are posted in the group discussion board, that is, an open forum that fosters and supports a collaborative community of learners.

Reflection GoalsReflection Goals:: to demonstrate active and critical engagement with the literature on educational research methodology, its findings, and applications to own educational context (Content, Premise, & Process); to establish and maintain commitment toward improving their own collaborative learning skills (Process, & Critical Self-Reflection); to systematically expand their understanding of instructional technology applications and their potential for research and communication purposes (Process, Premise, & Critical Self-Reflection); to develop action research skills (Content, Premise, Process, and Critical Self-Reflection); and, to improve their practice as educators through self-examination and analysis (Critical Self-Reflection)

Reflection AssessmentReflection Assessment: The online reflective journal carries a weighting of 30% of the student’s overall grade. The journal is assessed for clarity, organization, and content (depth of analysis).

Maria’s Case: In-Service TeachersWeekly Prompts:Weekly Prompts:Week 1- focus on the impact that our first research class

had on your understanding of, and feelings about educational research. What are the things you 've realized you know about educational research? What are the things you are not sure about, but also what are the things you would like to know about undertaking a research project? How do you feel about all that? Any further thoughts/concerns/ideas?... 

Week 2- focus on the impact that our second research class had on your understanding of, and feelings about the various types of educational research. What are the things you 've realized you know about them? What are the things you are not sure about, but also what are the things you would like to know about adopting them for you own research project? Do you feel more comfortable with the quantitative or the qualitative types? How about collaborating with your task group on this collaborative research-based activity? Any further thoughts/concerns/ideas?... 

Week 4- focus on your efforts to select a research topic AND/or a group to collaborate with.. What proved to be the most challenging step/issue in that process? What was the most positive and rewarding moment? What are the things you are still not sure about, but also what are the things you would like to know with regard to your research project? What aspect of the research process you feel most comfortable with? Why? How about collaborating with your research group to come up with a topic/area of focus of shared interest? Any further thoughts/concerns/ideas?... 

Week 5 (mid-term course assessment)- 1) what are the most reassuring feelings you have about this course so far? 2) what are some questions, concerns or worries you have about this course so far? 3) what's the most important thing you 've learned in this course so far?, and 4) what's the muddiest point still remaining unresolved in the course so far?

Week 6- focus on the mechanics of retrieving literature pertinent to your research project; your effort to select the most 'credible' and appropriate ones; as well as the ways that your group adopted in order for each member to avoid collecting and dealing with the same piece of information.

Week 7- concentrate on your demographic data collection. For the majority of you this must have been your debut as novice researchers: how did it feel? Did you encounter any difficulty in accessing the information? How did your school colleagues (not MATL related) react to your research activity? How close were your research data collection expectations to what actually happened in reality?

Week 8- share with the rest of us what you have learned (or not!!) in this class about yourselves as learners, and teacher researchers. You may also evaluate the class in terms of instructional design, teacher/peer interaction, opportunities for dialogue, assessment, class activities, and anything else that summarizes and reflects this class and your participation in it. For this reflection you are expected to produce a longer document that addresses the aforementioned themes (and any other of your own decision) as constructively and comprehensively as possible.

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Course/Context

Education 397-Literacy Instruction for Secondary Teachers is a required course within the teacher preparation program at SXU. Employing a critical/constructivist model, the focus is placed upon developing a repertoire of strategies to improve middle and secondary students reading comprehension, writing, higher order thinking, metacognative and interactive skills. Reflective practice is a continuous thread throughout the preparation program as is on-going field experiences designed to provide opportunities for observation and application of strategies. Teacher candidates are typically within a semester or two of student teaching.

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Description of Field ComponentDescription of Field Component

Teacher candidates are required to complete 15 hours working with secondary students who are identified by teacher/agencies within the region as needing additional academic assistance and support. Sites included a large Chicago public school, a home for at “risk girls” and a private college preparatory all-girls school. Teacher candidates elected sites in which to work.

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Goals of activityGoals of activity

This activity is designed: To create an opportunity for shared reflection, self -critique

and dialogue among teacher candidates using Blackboard as the platform for interaction

To offer opportunities for vicarious or virtual sharing and dialogue among teacher candidates within groups at both their common sites and among candidates at alternate sites

To provide teacher candidates an experience and resource for the integration of technology

To assist teacher candidates in the development of strategies to promote literacy development within their content areas

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Structure

Teacher candidates:

elected one of three diverse sites offered at which they would tutor assigned student(s) were assigned to peer groups of 3-5

completed 6 reflective piece in the Discussion area of Blackboard: three in a group where all were attending the same site and 3 within groups where members were at different sites

Were assigned specific prompts each round of reflection to guide responses and encourage reflection of their work and application of course strategies to assist learners

read the reflections and provided comments and insights to each of the group members each time and rotated the writing of each group summary for each round of reflective responses.

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Assessment Strategies

Given that the field work, reflection and peer interaction were integral components of the course, teacher candidates received a 20% weighting on the course final grade for their performance-10% was allotted for the quality of their individual reflective work and 10% for the quality of their peer interaction.

Rubrics were provided teacher candidates for the assessment of both the quality of their reflective responses and the quality of their peer responses as were basic guidelines for feedback and use of Blackboard.

Teacher candidates assessed issues/concerns at the mid-point orally in class

Teacher candidates completed a survey at the end of the course which addressed the use of technology, group interaction on-line, nature of reflective responses and ways to improve the project.

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Inquiry Stages in Reflective/Reflexive Process:

1. Describe the situation setting or context. What are the facts, data and evidence you have collected in your observation?

2. Interpret the data. What do you think the behaviors, actions inaction mean to the teacher, student or to you?

3. What beliefs or assumptions about students, teachers and learning are demonstrated? What barriers, limitations or social , political and economic forces may be operating within this context?

4. How else might students, the teacher, other school personnel and/or parents experience this?

5. What would you do? What options might you explore? How does this reflect your experiences, your vision of good practice?

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Sample of Prompts

Discuss what you have done to establish a positive relationship with your tutee. How have you attempted to access prior knowledge? How will you begin to decide which strategies might be good to use with the student at this point in time? Describe your tutee.

How do you see yourself as a tutor/mentor/model for your tutee at this point? How are you helping your tutee to develop thinking strategies? What are you doing to help you tutee become more a more independent learner? What strategies are you using?

Which reading, writing, thinking strategies have you used? What did you find helpful or necessary to make progress? How is your tutee responding to you and your efforts? Why? What will you do differently next time?

Kathleen’s Case: Pre-Service Teachers

Rubric for Reflective Responses

Student addresses all questions posed, multiple factors/forces are explored, Alternatives to behaviors, practices, responses are explored and consequences anticipated, Connection to personal experience, values, vision for personal action is included.

4 point on 4 pt scale

Application alternatives are offered but implications are not explored Connection to experiences and vision of good practice is not developed.

3 points on 4 point scale

Alternatives and multiple perspectives are presented in only a limited manner Little or no exploration of personal application or insight is evident Questions address in general manner, little depth Limited ability to interpret is demonstrated. 2 points on a 4 pt scale Little description or interpretation is offered Student does not address the prompt or only in a cursory manner Only one or two questions are adequately addressed No personal reflection or insight evident 1-0 points on 4 pt scale

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service Teachers

Context/CourseContext/Course

The clinical practice practicum represents the capstone experience for pre-service teacher candidates. Throughout the 16-week experience teacher-candidates work closely with the on-site cooperating teacher and are supported by periodic (minimum 6-8) visits from the university supervisor. In addition, all teacher-candidates meet weekly in small, on campus discussion groups and are enrolled in a concurrent seminar course.

The reading specialist candidates are enrolled in a 9-week cohort course that emphasizes the reading/writing connection. Candidates experience the workshop setting as students, analyze the

workshop approach from a pedagogical point of view, and prepare to present the essential workshop concepts and strategies via professional

development programs.

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersTarget Population

Both the undergraduate and graduate students participating in the clinical practice experience are seeking initial certification in elementary education.

Graduate level reading specialist candidates are in-service teachers with a minimum of 2 years teaching experience. All are pursuing an Illinois Type 10 certificate that will enable them to assume leadership and coaching roles in the K-12 schools.

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersMediumMedium Teacher-candidates are required to complete paper/pencil

reflections on each daily lesson taught. In addition, each teacher-candidate is expected to participate in online, asynchronous discussions.

Reading specialist candidates are required to maintain a paper/pencil journal throughout the 9-week course. In addition, each candidate is required to read and respond to their cohort classmates’ asynchronous discussion postings.

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersDegree of ScaffoldingDegree of Scaffolding

The paper/pencil reflections on daily lessons that are required of pre-service teachers, are primarily unstructured opportunities for free-writing. The focus here is on the ability to be present and perceptive in the classroom. Through these paper pencil reflections and ensuing discussions the teacher-candidates refine self-analysis skills.

Online, asynchronous discussions take place in one of three discussion board settings. In one group page, the candidates are clustered with student teachers assigned to similar grade levels; K-2, 3-5, and 6-8. The second discussion board page consists of teacher-candidates assigned the same university supervisor. The third group pages is accessible to those enrolled in the same section of the seminar course. Each on group page is semi-structured and prompts are provided to initiate postings and discussions.

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersDegree of Scaffolding (continued)Degree of Scaffolding (continued) The paper/pencil reflective journals required of reading

specialist candidates provide an unstructured format for thoughts and reactions to classroom workshop experiences and applications. These journal entries will serve as conversation starters in whole class discussions and one-to-one conferences.

The online asynchronous discussions will center on weekly assigned readings. Instructor’s questions and/or comments on the reading will serve as prompts for the discussion forum. Each candidate is required to read assigned professional articles, post a response, and respond to the postings of at least two classmates. At this level, instructor responses will aim to encourage analysis from multiple perspectives and to help participants form multiple explanations.

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersReflection GoalsReflection Goals The ultimate goal of reflective practice is student learning. To

achieve this goal, both levels of candidates must be able to maintain an alert presence in the classroom. Here they refine their diagnostic skills by seeing what and how students are learning.

From there the teacher-candidates will learn to describe and differentiate the multiple elements present in the teaching/learning situation (Rodgers, 2002).

At the next level of reflection candidates move towards analysis and making meaning. Reorganization and reconstruction of experiences leads both the teacher-candidate and the reading specialist candidate toward intelligent actions (Dewey, 1916/1944).

Thorough analysis paves the way for experimentation in a cyclical manner, back to the first level of being present in the new experience (Rodgers, 2002).

Maureen’s Case: Pre-Service & In-Service TeachersReflection AssessmentReflection Assessment

Undergraduate and graduate students seeking initial certification are required to participate in daily and weekly reflection exercises. Their overall growth in self-analysis and reflection skills over the 16-week practicum is calculated into the final practicum grade.

Graduate students seeking certification as reading specialists are required to participate in weekly journaling as well as asynchronous discussion board activities. Changes and growth in reflection skills are an integral part of the transformation from teacher to leader/coach.

A few last thoughts…

SummarySummary: This research involves a variety of designs for reflective practice for teacher candidates at all levels of development, including experienced teachers teaching in their own classrooms.

ConclusionConclusion: Custom design of reflection opportunities appears to be the best choice for teacher preparation professors. This is especially true when those custom designs are based on the instructional design (esp. objectives) and delivery of the course, strengths as well as specific needs of the teacher candidates and their instructors, and the ongoing call for for thoughtful reflection in a “people-based” profession where infinite variables continue to influence effectiveness.

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Bibliography II

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