44

Philip H. Towner is a translation con-

sultant for the United Bible Societies. He

received his Ph.D. in New Testament

from the University of Aberdeen. Dr.

Towner has published numerous books

and articles and is currently working on

a commentary on the Pastoral Epistles

in the New International Commentary on

the New Testament series.

Most commentators agree that the threeactivities listed in 1 Timothy 4:13the pub-lic reading of Scripture, exhorting, andteachingwere typical features of a wor-ship meeting.1 However, beyond linkingthe emphasis on activities related to Scrip-ture to the presence of heretics in the com-munity, little attention has been paid to theactual function performed by the publicreading of Scripture in the believing com-munity. It is this question that this articlewill seek to explore in an introductory way.

Even a cursory reading of 1 Timothy 4:13immediately suggests that getting behindthe instructions will require investigatingbackgroundsfirst, the broader back-ground of Scripture reading in Judaism andthe early church, second, some parallel situ-ations in Greco-Roman society, and third,the specific situation in Ephesus that gaverise to the instruction. The reference toreading is not accompanied by any help-ful elaboration. In fact in the instruction,Until I arrive, give attention to the publicreading of scripture, to exhorting, to teach-ing, as the Greek text shows, the threeactivities, reading, exhorting, and teaching,are mentioned without explicit referenceto their object. Almost all agree that theunderstood object is the Scriptures (haigraphai). And on this assumption, we turnfirst to other texts that might shed lighton the activity envisioned in the instruc-tion along with its social and theologicalmeaning.

Antecedents of the Churchs PublicReading of ScripturePublic Reading in Judaism

There is little doubt that the formativebackground of the activity enjoined in 1Timothy 4:13 is the practice in Judaism ofpublic Scripture readings in the syna-gogue.2 The New Testament gives us prac-tically nothing in the way of informationabout the activity as it was carried outwithin the Christian communities.3 But theclose relationship between worship in thesynagogue and the worship of the earlyChristians, especially in the Diaspora,clearly explains the reference to the prac-tice in a Christian document in a way thatimplies that it was a standard feature ofworship.4 Texts that turn more or lessaround a Pauline axis such as Acts 13:15,15:21, and 2 Corinthians 3:14 assume thepractice of reading the Scriptures aloud inthe synagogue setting. The assumption isthat the content of the Scriptures consistedof the Old Testament writings, whether inHebrew or, as would have been normal inthe Pauline churches, in Greek translation.5

While it is arguable that the scope of theScriptures might have been expanding toinclude the stories that would become thecanonical Gospel tradition and the Paulineletters, as texts such as 2 Corinthians 7:8,Colossians 4:16, 1 Thessalonians 5:27, and2 Thessalonians 3:14 show, in Pauls letters,the term hai graphai (e.g. pasa graphe in 2Tim 3:16) still signifies, with some fluidityof content in this period, the collection of

The Function of the Public Readingof Scripture in 1 Timothy 4:13 and in

the Biblical TraditionPhilip H. Towner

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writings that would in large part becomethe OT canon. For our purposes, thePauline letters and Jesus tradition can beregarded as transitional material that wasstill coming of age. Thus surely in the caseof the majority of references to the publicreading of Scripture, the reading of the OTis in view, and this should also be assumedfor 1 Timothy 4:13.

The earliest evidence for the practice ofreading Scripture publicly is in the recorddescribing the assembly in Nehemiah 8:7-8:

Also Jeshua, Bani, Sherebiah, Jamin,Akkub, Shabbethai, Hodiah,Maaseiah, Kelita, Azariah, Jozabad,Hanan, Pelaiah, the Levites, helpedthe people to understand the law,while the people remained in theirplaces. So they read from the book,from the law of God, with interpre-tation. They gave the sense, so thatthe people understood the reading.

Synagogue reading is not in view here,but the fundamental practice later adoptedfor synagogue worship is. Somewhat closerto our time, the Qumran community canbe seen to continue what was for Judaismthe standard practice of reading the Scrip-tures in assemblies and explaining itsmeaning.

And in the place in which the Tenassemble there should not be miss-ing a man to interpret the law dayand night, always, each man reliev-ing his fellow. And the Many shallbe on watch together for a third ofeach night of the year in order toread the book, explain the regula-tion, and bless together (1 QS 6:6-8;see also 8:11-12; 9:12-14; cf. 1QpHab2:6-9).

Any attempt to reconstruct the actualformat of the Jewish order of service in thefirst century C.E. requires drawing on theMishnah ([mMeg 4; mMeg 2] with some

corroboration from Qumran and NT texts[Matt 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 11:43; 20:46;see Philo, Every Good Man is Free, 12.81 onthe seating of the Essenes]). This literarybackground allows us to approximate theshape of synagogue worship in the periodof our interest. In addition to informationdescribing the seating arrangements (inwhich is set out the relative positions ofdistinguished members in the front andyounger members in the back; and the seg-regation of men and women can probablybe assumed),6 we learn that the Scripturereadings were rather carefully scheduledto include (following the recitation of theShema and the prayer) the reading of theTorah, the reading of the prophets, fol-lowed by the priestly blessings:

If there are less than ten present theymay not recite the Shema with itsBenedictions, nor may one go beforethe Ark, nor may they lift up theirhands, nor may they read the [pre-scribed portion of] the Law or thereading from the Prophets, nor maythey observe the Stations . . . (mMeg4:3).7

Further, we learn that the Scripture read-ings could equally be done by any mem-ber of the congregation, even by a minor(mMeg 4:4-6). There were certain excep-tions to this apparent openness; if priestsor Levites were present, they took prece-dence in the reading (mGit 5:8). The Torahreading was arranged so that the wholePentateuch was read consecutively in a 3-year cycle (mMeb 29b).8 The Masoreticarrangement of the Pentateuch into 154 sec-tions probably traces back to this 3-yearcycle (but there were also known arrange-ments of 161 and 175 sections).9 Severalmembers would have been invited by anofficer (archisunagogos; Acts 13:15; 18:8, 17;etc.) to take part in the reading: at leastseven at the Sabbath service (fewer on

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week days), of whom the first and lastwould pronounce a benediction at thebeginning and the end. This Palestinianpractice (i.e., prescribed in Mishnah) var-ied in non-Palestinian settings (i.e., as pre-scribed in Talmud): most importantly, thereadings would have been conducted byone man (corroborated by Philo, The Spe-cial Laws, 2.15.62).

In NT times (see Luke 4:17; Acts 13:15;mMeg 4:1-5), readings from Torah werejoined by sections from the Prophets. Theactivity itself as carried out in a synagoguesetting is illustrated in Luke 4:16-20.

When he came to Nazareth, wherehe had been brought up, he went tothe synagogue on the Sabbath day,as was his custom. He stood up toread, and the scroll of the prophetIsaiah was given to him. He unrolledthe scroll and found the place whereit was written: The Spirit of theLord is upon me, because he hasanointed me to bring good news tothe poor. He has sent me to proclaimrelease to the captives and recoveryof sight to the blind, to let theoppressed go free, to proclaim theyear of the Lords favor. And herolled up the scroll, gave it back tothe attendant, and sat down. Theeyes of all in the synagogue werefixed on him.

If this depiction seems a bit stylized, itis nonetheless well enough attested outsideof the canon as Philo indicates (On Dreams,2.127: And would you still sit down inyour synagogue, collecting your ordinaryassemblies, and reading your sacred vol-umes in security, and explaining whateveris not quite clear, and devoting all your timeand leisure with long discussions to thephilosophy of your ancestors?; cf. Who isthe Heir, 253).

The reading from the Prophets con-cluded the service and the congregationwas dismissed. It is not clear whether the

selection of the prophetic passage for read-ing was left to the one chosen to read. Butin NT times there seems not to have been aschedule of readings from the Prophets (inpost-Mishnaic times the concluding read-ings from the Prophets were fixed).10

One final item sheds light on the proce-dure implied in 1 Timothy 4:13, and that isthe matter of exposition or sermon. First,as the language in which Scripture wasread became less and less familiar to themembers of the congregation, a translationhad to be provided. This device came to becalled the Targum. This was a continuousrendering of the Hebrew text into Aramaic.The evidence is not clear whether the syna-gogue officer(s) had the duty of so render-ing the text. In any case, the procedureseems to have been verse-by-verse for thereading of the Torah, and 3-verses-at-a-time for the Prophets. This was apparentlyan oral procedure: there is no evidence untilthe 4th century C.E. of the translation beingread from a written Targum (yMeg 74d).

Second, the reading from the Bible wasfollowed by something on the order of asermon, in which the portion read wasexpanded upon for purposes of practicalapplication. References in the NT to theactivity of teaching in the synagogues (e.g.,Matt 4:23; Mark 1:21; Luke 4:15; etc.; as wellas in Philo and Qumran.) bear witness tothis feature of synagogue worship.

Public Reading inGreco-Roman Society

A complete consideration of the back-ground to almost any NT church practice,especially in the case of the Paulinechurches, would include relevant parallelsin the Greco-Roman environment. Thematters of literacy, reading, and writingboth in ancient Jewish and Greek cultureshave been examined with the net result

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being a range of estimates.11 As A. Millardsuggests, one might conclude that the lit-eracy situation in Jewish society was on abetter footing than Greco-Roman society,because of the strong tradition of educa-tion designed to ensure that Jewish menwere able to read the Scriptures in syna-gogue worship gatherings (see y.Ket. 8.32c[reflecting presumably on a situation aboutB.C.E. 100] on the education of children;Josephus, Against Apion, 2.178).12 But in factit is uncertain how far this program wascarried out in practice.

While popularly the Greco-Romanculture is often described as a literateculture, the actual degree of literacy wasalmost certainly rather low and limited (atleast in the fullest and modern sense ofbeing literate).13 Providing some corrobo-ration of this is the indisputable evidenceof oral features in documents of the period,showing that they were written for oraldelivery and aural reception by an audi-ence. The extreme cost of books and thelimited availability of written texts wouldnecessitate the continued practice of oralpresentation for a community,14 but theseconsiderations should not disguise the factthat most people would have relied uponthe reading skills of a smaller literate groupfor engaging with other than the simplestday to day lists, placards, and signs.

Nevertheless, certain discussions thatspeak of the difficulty of reading and theimportance of the task begin a Greek back-ground sketch. Epictetus wrote: Whenyou say, Come listen to a reading that Iam going to do, make sure that you do notgrope your way through (3.23.6; see alsoPlutarch, Alex. 1.1; 23.3). Apprenticeship tothe scholar began in the school (Plato, Leg.810b), and if the pupil misread a syllableor stumbled in the reading, he often expe-rienced extreme embarrassment (Plautus,

Bacch. 423ff.). Training in reading becamea fundamental element in the rhetoricaleducation, because in the recitation-declamation component of the officialexamination, the student had to give criti-cal comment on the text that was sight read(Plutarch, De aud. Poet). The point of suchreferences is simply that reading was anact whose success was measured by theaccuracy of communicating the content ofa written discourse exactly. Reverence forthe biblical texts in the case of ancientJewish culture assures the same level ofconcern within the Jewish context. Thosecalled on to read in a Christian church,whether in Palestine or the Diaspora,would be expected to conform to high stan-dards of quality control.

More specifically, the practice and func-tion of public reading in the Greek religioussphere, including both the more publiclyrelevant Delphic Oracles and the more pri-vate mystery cults, might be regarded as auseful backdrop to reading Scripture inPauline churches. The institution of theDelphic Oracle, more relevant to the clas-sical period, provided Greek society witha divine touchstone, embracing the reli-gious, moral, and political facets of Greeklife. Its role in reinforcing the sense of cor-porate Greek identity (normally segmentedinto city-groups), in these terms, cannot beoverestimated.15

The broad religious category of theso-called Mysteries is potentially morerelevant to the NT period, but as a categoryit does not represent a religious or culturalphenomenon that is particularly unified,stable, or predictable, and so great care isneeded in assessing the data that has cometo light.16 D. E. Aune reminds us that ourknowledge of the liturgical practices of theancient religious cults is fragmentary atbest, and often ancient writers intention-

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ally withheld from their descriptions thevery details from which our reconstruc-tions could most profit.17 Nevertheless,glimpses of practices in this setting pro-vided by the ancient writers suggest thatvarious readings and recitations (of mate-rials at first perpetuated in an oral tradi-tion but eventually written down and read)did play a part in communal activities ofthe various groups. Of greatest interest isthe observation that a myth (e.g., surround-ing Dionysius, Mithras; cf. the Hymn toDemeter) that would be recited andenacted (Pausanias, 8.6.5) lay at the cen-ter of a groups identity. The central mythcelebrated by a given cult was not a secret,whereas the initiation rites were indeedkept secret, and in addition to the centralmyth, the withholding of the initiatoryrevelation was paramount to a groups dis-tinctiveness and sense of identity.18

Given the strong links of the NT churchwith the beliefs and practices of Judaismfrom whence it came, it is not likely that aPauline church such as that in Ephesusdepicted in 1 Timothy would derive itsliturgical shape and customs from a paganinstitution. However, in terms of the roleof readings and recitations of central sto-ries in reinforcing group identity, theGreco-Roman parallel is certainly worthnoting (see further below).

A Glimpse of the Practice ofScripture Reading in 1 Timothy 4:13

The activity of reading the Scripturesalluded to in 1 Timothy 4:13 is, then, to beunderstood against the background justsurveyed. Certain assumptions, however,are probably justified. 1 Timothy purportsto address not a synagogue situation butrather that of a Pauline church that hasseparated itself from the synagogue.

Despite all the questions about the authen-ticity of 1 Timothy, the letter envisages thePauline community that emerged from thedevelopments described in Acts 19: initialassociation with the synagogue; eventualseparation from it; continuation of thecommunity following the riot. In fact 1Timothy may well reflect a stage of thechurch just after the riot, with the letterbeing addressed to Timothy (to aid him instraightening out the community) by Paulfrom somewhere in Achaia or Macedonia.19

It need not be assumed that the sort ofworship organization described in theMishnah or Talmud was slavishly adheredto in the newly separated church; yet at thesame time there is no reason to doubt thatmuch would have carried over.

Undoubtedly, the references to exhor-tation and teaching that follow thereference to reading the Scriptures cor-respond to the exposition or practicalsermonizing that followed the readings insynagogue practice.20 In Pauline commu-nities the readings would almost certainlyhave been done in Greek, from the LXX,making the practice of targumic readingsunnecessary.

The Function of the Public Readingof Scripture within Judaism andChristianity

The setting of 1 Timothy 4:13 providesa window into the way in which Scripturereading in the OT and NT communitiesfunctioned. What lay behind this instruc-tion to Timothy? Some scholars argue thathere the author simply projected Timo-thy as a paradigm of the minister, thusgiving instructions for the continuous wor-ship of the church on into the next (post-apostolic) generation. However, the contextsuggests another reason for emphasizingthis instruction. Two texts which lead up

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to 4:13 (1:4-7 and 4:1-3) identify the deviantuse (speculations on myths and genealo-gies from which various ascetic practicesmay have been derived) of not just Scrip-ture but possibly also other early religioustexts on the part of a group of opponentswho seem to have emerged from withinthe ranks of the churchs leadership. Theirposition within the community and theirproclivity for arcane teaching may wellhave resulted in a shift in the worship meet-ings to more time being given to new theo-logical speculations (with certain OT textsreceiving an abnormal amount of expo-sure). Within the job description given toTimothy (1:3-5), which was basicallydesigned to bring an end to the false teach-ing and to reestablish the churchs leader-ship structure and stability, it would makesense to ensure that there was a corre-sponding return to regular reading of theScriptures in a balanced and systematicway. Following this ordered reading of theScriptures would be the emphasis on teach-ing and application, the three Scripture-related elements forming a whole. Thisassumes, of course, that such liturgicalreading and exposition were indeed nor-mal or traditional elements of worship inPauline churches. The more fundamentalquestion concerns the function that suchreading performed.

Modern studies of narrative and humansocial experience and of the role of read-ing and readers within the broader discus-sion of hermeneutics and communicationevents work from very different bases andarrive at different assessments of the placeof the reader/hearer in the determinationof meaning.21 But while almost all aspectsof the related discussions continue to beunder construction, a point of convergencethat seems to have emerged, whether theindividual reading event (N. Holland) or

the corporate/public reading event (D.Bleich, S. Crites, D. H. Kelsey, S. Hauerwas)is considered, is that reading/hearing ofcertain significant texts influences the for-mation, shaping, defining, and redefiningof individual and corporate identity.22 Thesignificance of this observation for under-standing the role of the public reading ofScripture in the Jewish and Christian tra-dition may be invaluable.

From the perspective of the historicaldescription of the practice as noticed in theOT and NT records (as well as in otherrelevant literature in Judaism), it may besuggested that the Scriptures were inten-tionally read as a way of answering analways present and pertinent question:who are we? Related but subsidiary ques-tions (e.g., if this is who we are, how shouldwe live, what should we do, etc.?) wereequally ever-present and addressed as thedidactic response to the regular publicreadings of the holy texts (in the form ofTargumic expansion, preaching, teaching).Although the question of identity wasalways the given subtext, the need for aparticularly relevant re-expression of theanswer clearly became more acute when-ever situations that threatened thecommunitys well-being presented them-selves (whether internal in the form ofidolatry, rebellion against God, etc.; orexternal in the form of attacks from theoutside).

The public reading of Scripture becomesa point of emphasis at crucial or crisismoments. The sort of events depicted inNehemiah (see above), in the story of Josiah(2 Chron 34:18-19, 30, with both public andprivate settings in view), and in 1 Timothyall share a common theme that sheds lighton at least one common feature of the func-tion of community Scripture reading. In theOT incidents mentioned, Israel is depicted

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in crisis situations, either back from exileand puzzling about her identity, or com-ing back to God after a time of spiritualexile (as in the case of Josiah). The peopleare being recalled to their God; their iden-tity as the people of the covenant is beingrestated, redefined for a new generation.These exceptional incidents explain thefunction of Scripture reading by relatingthe activity to the corporate identity of thepeople. Assuming the practice of the regu-lar reading of the text, in some organizedfashion, it is almost certainly the case thatthe practice is linked to the sort of com-mand found in Deuteronomy 31:11-12:

when all Israel comes to appearbefore the LORD your God at theplace that he will choose, you shallread this law before all Israel in theirhearing. Assemble the peoplemen, women, and children, as wellas the aliens residing in yourtownsso that they may hear andlearn to fear the LORD your Godand to observe diligently all thewords of this law.

The public reading of Torah was appar-ently designed to remind the people oftheir origin in YHWH, their continuedexistence within a covenant relationshipand their obligations within that relation-ship. The content of the formative storyto be read grew to include the propheticwritings and Psalms (as the relevantMishnaic and NT texts confirm). But thenthe sense of living in YHWHs story neces-sarily entailed a lengthening of that storyto ensure that the present people of God,in any place and time, not only knew theorigin of their identity but also where it wasat present and where it was headed. Inresponse to the new realities presented byexile and eventual resettlement in the land,weekly synagogue readings, along withother heavily symbolic cultic acts, served

to tell and retell the story that kept Israelsfaith and identity alive.

The function of Scripture reading in theNT era within the Christian movementundoubtedly served the same basic pur-pose. Again new realities are absorbed intothe growing story of Israels salvation.Now regular public reading of Scripturealso served to locate the new identity inChrist being experienced by various non-Jewish converts in the story that had beenin process for centuries. And the Christevent, particularly its core-forming ele-ments of crucifixion and resurrection,became the relocated story-center, notdisplacing the event of the Exodus, butrather prolonging the meaning of that for-mative covenant-founding event andbringing the salvation it proclaimed to anew point of climax. Crisis points continueto underline the importance of what couldeasily be mistaken for a simple liturgicalfixture. In fact were it not for crisis, habitu-ated activities (such as the public readingof Scripture) would come up only in pass-ing references (cf. Acts 13:15; 15:21; 2 Cor3:14 of synagogue practices). Given the OTexamples cited, it does not seem surpris-ing that, in the context of a church beingled away from a focus on a traditionalreading of the Scriptures to disputes andspeculation engendered by new readingsof certain texts and a new interpretation ofChristian identity, Timothy wouldreceive the command to pay attention toan activity that would remind the commu-nity of its identity in Christ and in covenantrelation with God. A different sort of crisisfrom those seen in the OT, perhaps, but itwas again a crisis situation that brought tolight something of the function of the prac-tice of the public reading of Scripture.

Judaism and Christianity (even in thefirst century) were movements whose

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members linked their identities and theirworldviews to a written record, a story, theScriptures. For numerous reasons this storywas written down (a practical necessity toensure preservation of an authoritativeversion, etc.), and surely one of the reasonswas the sheer importance of the story forthe communitys identity. The Writingswere intrinsic to Jewish and Christian iden-tity, and they were read regularly inworship gatherings and at other importantsocial occasions to reinforce this identityand underline the implications that existedwithin that identity.

But beyond the matter of historicaldescriptionthe meaning and backgroundof Scripture reading in 1 Timothy 4:13lies the question of the importance of thispractice in the church today. It is wellknown that different Christian traditionsgive differing amounts of attention to thevarious components normally associatedwith the worship gathering. And there arehistorical, social, cultural, and politicalreasons for the variety of practices.23 Litur-gical traditions may still incorporate read-ings set on a yearly calendar from the OT,Psalms, NT, and Gospels. Non-liturgicaltraditions may select as a reading the textto be expounded by the preacher. Andbetween these poles a variety of practicescan be found.

What needs to be asked, however,especially in light of the identity-creatingand nurturing function of Scripture read-ing in the biblical tradition, is whetherScripture in one way or another is stillgiven the room to perform this task today.Modern western culture, generally speak-ing, enjoys a high rate of literacy, easyaccess to printed versions of the Scriptures,and tends to be far more individual-orien-tated than was the case in the cultures thatproduced the Scriptures. If it is argued that

the public reading of Scripture was simplya practical necessity then (low literacy rates,oral cultures, scarcity of printed texts), itmight follow that as a practice it has nowbeen rendered irrelevant or obsolete by theprinting press, wide-spread literacy, thepreference for private reading, and avail-ability of Bibles. However, it is doubtfulthat the task of identity forming, shaping,defining, and redefining will be carried outmeaningfully in a community by so manyindividual readings by its members. Thehazards of personalized spiritual reading,done outside of the influence of a sharedand stable tradition of interpretation, arewell known.24 This is not to say that per-sonal Bible study is a threat to Christianidentity; it is rather to suggest that it is nota substitute for the practice of corporatepublic reading.

Perhaps western individualist culturemilitates against a unified sense of Chris-tian identity. This should probably not sur-prise us. The NT perspective on the RomanEmpire (Rom 13:1-2; Revelation) was simi-lar. Then the church was faced with the taskof grounding its identity in Christamongother things by telling and retelling thestory of faithin an environment shapedand dominated by the Roman discourseand worldview. This opposing messageand the various cross-currents that chal-lenged Christian values (religious, politi-cal, economic, racial, etc.) were to beidentified for what they were and for thedangers they held. The church was calledto live in that hostile world as a transform-ing presence, and maintaining a focusedChristian identity (who are we, where didwe come from, where are we going?) wascentral to the task.25 Solidarity was crucialto survival, and while the value of corpo-rate solidarity could be called a culturalfixture (unlike in the modern West), it was

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not necessarily easily maintained.26 Wor-ship gatherings in house churches becamethe occasions for solidarity and identity tobe formed, expressed, and reinforced.Among the solidifying activities (prayer,praise, and celebration of the Eucharist)was the public reminder of the story offaith, rehearsed regularly, both for itsdidactic/parenetic value, and for the wayin which it underlined the identity of thepresent believers in Messiah in continuitywith the past people of God (1 Cor 10:11).

A modern response to our versions ofthe competing social/political/economicdiscourse and worldview, and the meansby which they are promoted, is not toattempt (somehow) a return to an idealfirst-century church. It is seen easilyenough in the NT writings that such achurch did not exist; on the contrary, letterafter letter addresses the churches at vari-ous crisis points. Realizing this does notlimit the helpfulness of the NT writings; ifanything, it allows us in our modern situ-ations to relate all the more to the chal-lenges they faced. We are susceptible to thesame kinds of cultural forces and messagesthat challenge an orthodox Christian valuesystem and worldview. In view of thediverse media with which modern societ-ies spread their messages today (e.g. tele-vision and internet), and in view of theready access most believers have to thesemedia, the need to ensure that measuresare taken in the church to reinforce Chris-tian identity is all the more urgent. We arealso called to live out a distinctively Chris-tian witness within the world, not separatefrom itso, putting distance between usand the competing messages and values isnot an option. But where within the mael-strom will the church find its solidifyingand anchoring sense of identity as Godspeople? It must come through a shared par-

ticipation in the symbolic and spiritualactivities that we practice when we gatherfor worship. The lesson to be learned from1 Timothy 4:13, and the background thatinforms the exegesis of this text, is that thedeliberate public reading of Scripture(according to a schedule or plan of somesort) is one way of rehearsing the acts ofGod in behalf of his people and his creationand finding and renewing our identity-cen-ter in that story over and over again. It takesonly a minimal amount of honest reflec-tion to reveal how easily we are attractedto other competing stories (and value sys-tems) for our sense of identity.

ENDNOTES1See I. H. Marshall, A Critical and Exegeti-cal Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles

(International Critical Commentary;Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1999) 562-563;J. Roloff, Der Erste Brief an Timotheus(Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentarzum Neuen Testament; Zurich/Neukir-chen-Vluyn: Benziger/Neukirchener,1988) 254.

2Most regard the first part of the three-fold instruction, proseche te anagnosei(devote yourself to the reading [of theScriptures]) as a reference to public orcommunity reading associated with theworship meeting, rather than as a call topersonal Bible study. W. D. Mounce,while acknowledging that a public read-ing is envisioned with synagogue prac-tices in the background, neverthelesssees the focus in reading to be onTimothy himself: Timothy is to immersehimself in the biblical text. . . (PastoralEpistles [Word Biblical Commentary;Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2000] 200).Despite the second person singularshape of the command, it is not to beunderstood as personal reading, but as

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a community practice designed to steerthe congregation out of the unorthodoxbackwaters of the heretical reading ofcertain texts and back into the main-stream of the biblical story. See furtherbelow. Cf. L. T. Johnson, The First andSecond Letters to Timothy (Anchor Bible;New York: Doubleday, 2001) 252.

3In later centuries, readers of Scripturebecame liturgical ministers. See Justin,1 Apol. 67; Tertullian, Praescrip. 41.8;P. Apoll. 99.5; cf. H. Leclercq, Lecteur,in Dictionnaire darchologie chrtienne etde liturgie (Paris: Librarie Letouzey etan, 1929) 8:2, col. 2242ff; J. M. Nielen,Gebet und Gottesdienst im Neuen Testament

(Freiburg: Herder, 1937) 182ff.4In corroboration, the presence of the defi-nite article with each noun indicates typi-cal or familiar activities (proseche teanagnosei, te paraklesei, te didaskalia).

5See P. H. Towner, The Old Testament inthe Letters to Timothy and Titus, inCommentary on the Use of the Old Testa-

ment in the New Testament, ed. G. K. Bealeand D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker,forthcoming).

6E. Schrer, The History of the Jewish Peoplein the Age of Jesus Christ, rev. and ed. G.Vermes, F. Millar, M. Black (Edinburgh:T & T Clark, 1979) 2:447-48.

7Cf. Schrer, 2:448.8Cf. ibid., 2:450.9Ibid., 2:451.

10Ibid., 2:454, n. 128.11See esp. A. Millard, Reading and Writing

in the Time of Jesus (New York: New YorkUniversity Press, 2000) 154-184; W. V.Harris, Ancient Literacy (Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).

12Millard, 157; see Schrer, 2:417-421, 450.13Some degree of literacy was very wide-

spread, as merchants and commonpeople all needed to deal with written

documents, deeds, and so on to at leasta limited extent (Millard, 166-168).

14See further Millard, 166-184.15See the discussion in E. Ferguson, Back-

grounds of Early Christianity (Grand Rap-ids: Eerdmans, 1987) 166-171.

16See the introduction and survey inFerguson, 197-240.

17D. E. Aune, Prolegomena to the Studyof Oral Tradition in the HellenisticWorld, in Jesus and the Oral Gospel Tra-dition, ed. H. Wansbrough (Sheffield:Sheffield Academic Press, 1991) 59-106,83-85 (see refs. to the sources).

18See Ferguson, 197-240.19See Johnson, 65-68.20See Marshall, 562-563; Johnson, 252-253.21So cf. the different programs of N. Hol-

land, The Dynamics of Literary Response(New York: Oxford University Press,1968); id., 5 Readers Reading (New Haven,CT: Yale University Press, 1975); D.Bleich, The Double Perspective: Language,Literacy and Social Relations (New York:Oxford University Press, 1988); S. Crites,The Narrative Quality of Experience,Journal of the American Academy of Religion

39 (1971) 291-311; D. H. Kelsey, BiblicalNarrative and Theological Anthropol-ogy, in Scriptural Authority and Narra-tive Interpretation, ed. G. Green (Phila-delphia: Fortress, 1987) 121-143; S.Hauerwas, A Community of Character(Notre Dame, IN: University of NotreDame Press, 1981).

22See esp. Crites, Kelsey, and Hauerwas.23See e.g. M. Labberton, Ordinary Bible

Reading: The Reformed Tradition andReader-Oriented Criticism, Ph.D. Dis-sertation, University of Cambridge, 1990(cited by A. C. Thiselton, New Horizonsin Hermeneutics [Grand Rapids: Zonder-van, 1992] 532).

24See discussion in Thiselton, 579.