Saussurea Lappa Review 1

8/16/2019 Saussurea Lappa Review 1

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/saussurea-lappa-review-1 1/10

S60

Document heading doi: 10.1016/S1995-7645(14)60204-2

A review of therapeutic potential of Saussurea lappa-An endangeredplant from HimalayaKulsoom Zahara, Shaista Tabassum, Sidra Sabir , Muhammad Arshad, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Muhammad Shoaib Amjad,

Sunbal Khalil Chaudhari*

Department of Botany, PMAS Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S60-S69

Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine

journal homepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/apjtm

*Corresponding author: Sunbal Khalil Chaudhari, Department of Botany, PMAS Arid

Agriculture University Rawalpindi, Pakistan.

E-mail: [email protected]

1. Introduction

1.1. Geographical distribution

Saussurea lappa (S. lappa ) is indigenous to

I nd ia , Pak i s t an and China , where i t g rows in

the Himalaya region at 2 500-3 500 m altitude [1 ].

1.2. Morphological description of S. lappa (Decne.) C.B.

Clarke plant

S. lappa C.B. Clarke, syn. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch

belonging to family Asteraceae (Table 1), commonly known

as Costus which is a tall, perennial herb that grows to a

height of 1-2 m; stem is upright, stout and fibrous while rootis a long stout of approximately 60 cm with a characteristic

odour; leaves are lobate, stalked, membranous, irregularly

toothed; upper leaves are small while basal leaves are large

with long lobately winged stalks. Flowers are stalkless, dark

purple to black in colour and are arranged in terminal and

axillary heads (Figure 1). Pappas is approximately 1.7 cm

long, fluffy, feathery giving an inquisitive appearance to the

fruiting flower heads. Fruit of S. lappa is cupped, curved,compressed and hairy[2].

2. Active constituents of S. lappa

Studies on the chemical ingredients of S. lappa could be

traced back to 1950s. Until now, many compounds have beenisolated. Its active constituents are mainly terpenes, but

it also contains anthraquinones, alkaloids and favonoids.

Plant has various terpenes that mainly have antitumor

properties and anti-infammatory, such as costunolide,

dihydrocostunolide, 12-methoxydihydrocostunolide,

dihydrocostus lactone, dehydrocostus lactone [3 ],α-hydroxydehydrocostus lactone, β-hydroxydehydrocostuslactone, lappadilactone[4], mokko lactone, betulinic acid,

betulinic acid methyl ester [5], cynaropicrin, reynosin,

santamarine[6], saussureamines A-C[7], α-cyclocostunolide,

alantolactone, isoalantolactone[8], isodihydrocostunolide,β-cyclocostunolide[9 ], 1β-hydroxy arbusculin A[5 ],

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

There are 300 known Saussurea species. Among them, Saussurea lappa (S. lappa) is a

representative perennial herb, globally distributed across Himalaya region. S. lappa has beentraditionally used in medicines without obvious adverse effects. Despite significant progress inphytochemical and biological analyses of S. lappa over the past few years, inclusive and criticalreviews of this plant are anachronistic or quite limited in scope. The present review aims tosummarize up-to-date information on the active constituents, pharmacology, traditional uses,trade and challenges in conservation and sustainable use of S. lappa from the literature. Inaddition to botanical studies and records of the traditional use of S. lappa in over 43 diseases,scientific studies investigating the latent medicinal uses of this species and its constituentphytochemicals for a range of disorders are presented and discussed. The structure, bioactivity,and likely mechanisms of action of S. lappa and its phytochemicals are highlighted. Althoughsome progress has been made, further scrupulous efforts are required to investigate the individualcompounds isolated from S. lappa to validate and understand its traditional uses and developclinical applications. The present review offers preliminary information and gives direction forfurther basic and clinical research into this plant.

Article history:Received 30 Jun 2014

Received in revised form 23 Jul 2014

Accepted 10 Aug 2014

Available online 17 Sep 2014

Keywords:

Saussurea lappaHimalayaPhytochemicalsBioactivitiesClinical research

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect



Kulsoom Zahara et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S60-S69 S61

arbusculin B[10], saussureal and so on[11].

Table 1

Taxonomic Hierarchy of S. lappa C.B. Clarke.

Kingdom Plantae

Subkingdom Viridaeplantae

Infrakingdom Streptophyta

Division Tracheophyta

Subdivision SpermatophytinaInfradivision Angiospermae

Class Magnoliopsida

Superorder Asteranae

Order Asterales

Family Asteraceae

Genus Saussurea DC.

Species S. lappa C.B. Clarke

Figure 1. S. lappa floral part.

S. lappa has three anthraquinone compounds, namely,aloeemodin-8-O-β-d-glucopyranoside, rhein-8-O-β-d- glucopyranoside, and chrysophanol. Four favonoidglycosides have antibacterial function[12]. Shikokiols have

antitumor activity[13], whereas chlorogenic acid preventsoxidization.

3. Costus oil

The oil extracted from the roots of S. lappa is known ascostus oil, which is used in the preparation of hair oil and inhigh quality perfumes. Costus oil is pale yellow to brownishin color and is also said to be valuable in treating leprosy.

In a recent study, 39 components have been identifiedfrom the essential oil of S. lappa roots. The chief compoundswere dehydrocostus lactone (46.75%), costunolide (9.26%), 8-

cedren-13-ol (5.06%) and α-curcumene (4.33%). However,β-costol (13.55%) and δ-elemene (12.69%), α-selinene (5.02%),β-selinene (4.47%), α-costol (4.02%), 4-terpinol (3.38%),elemol (3.21%), α-ionone (3.13%), β-elemene (3.00%), (-)- γ-elemene (2.08%), p-cymene (1.96%) and 2-β-pinene (1.57%),(-)-α-selinene, (+)-selina-4, 11-diene, (-)-α-trans-bergamotene, (-)-α-costol, (+)- γ-costol, (-)-elema-1,3,11 (13)-trien-12-ol, (-)-α-costal, (+)- γ-costal, (-)-elema-1,3,11(13)-trien-12-al, (-)-(E)-trans-bergamota-2,12-dien-14-al, (-)-ar-curcumene, (-)-caryophyllene oxide and 12-methoxydihydrodehydrocostuslactone were also reported[14,15]. However, in the other reported studies, the proportionof all these compounds greatly differs. Existing variationsin the composition of S. lappa essential oil may be due tovarious factors related to ecotype, phenophases, chemotypeand variations in environment conditions such as relativehumidity, temperature, photoperiod and irradiance.Furthermore, the chemistry of secondary metabolites ofplants may also be affected by genetic background[16].

4. Pharmacology

S. lappa is a medicinally important plant. Variousactive compounds isolated from plant are reported tohave medicinal properties e.g. the major componentsare sesquiterpene lactones such as costunolide anddehydrocostus lactone. S. lappa possesses variousbioactivities such as antifungal [17], antidiabetic [18],anthelmintic[19], antitumor [20], antiulcer [21], antimicrobial[22],i m m u n o s t i m u l a n t[ 2 3 ], an t i i n f l ammato ry [ 2 4 ] andantihepatotoxic[25].

4.1. Anticancer/antitumor

Costunolide (isolated from root of S. lappa) was studiedfor its effect and supposed pathways of action on theinduction of apoptosis in HL-60 human leukemia cells.Using apoptosis analysis, evaluation of mitochondrialmembrane potentials and measurement of reactive oxygenspecies (ROS), it was proved that costunolide was a potentapoptosis inducer, and by ROS generation aiding its activity,it induced mitochondrial permeability transition andreleased cytochrome C to the cytosol. In cells treated withcostunolide, an antioxidant N-acetylcystein is responsiblefor blocking the mitochondrial alteration, ROS production,

and consequent apoptotic cell death. Costunolide stimulatesthe ROS-mediated mitochondrial permeability transition andresultant cytochromes C release[26]. The hexane extract of S. lappa was investigated for thechemo preventive potential in autonomous androgen prostatecancer and apoptosis induction in DU145 cells. Results ofthis study showed that dehydrocostus lactone isolated fromthe hexane extract of S. lappa induced apoptosis in cell linesof DU145 human autonomous androgen prostate cancer andinhibited the cell growth[27]. Cynaropicrin isolated from S. lappa was assessedfor its immunomodulatory effects on cytokine release,immunosuppressive effects, and nitric oxide production.



Kulsoom Zahara et al./Asian Pac J Trop Med 2014; 7(Suppl 1): S60-S69S62

Cynaropicrin repressed Jurkat T, Eol-1 and U937 celllines in a dose-dependent manner with IC50 values of 2.36,10.90 and 3.11 µmol/L respectively. Further, by means ofDNA disintegration, cell cycle arrest and morphologicalanalysis via U937 cells, its cytotoxic effect is studied. Whencynaropicrin is treated in combination with ROS scavengers’ rottlerin, N-acetyl-L-cysteine or L-cysteine repressed thecynaropicrin mediated cytotoxicity. The results showed that

cynaropicrin was more cytotoxic toward leukocyte derivedcancer cells than fibroblasts[28]. Costunolide is a sesquiterpene lactone isolated from S.lappa proved to have effect on carcinogenesis via reportergene assay, persuaded by a tumor endorsing phorbol ester12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate at cellular level.The activity of nitric oxide synthase is amplified by tumorpromoting phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate which consecutively repressed by costunolide withthe IC50 value of 2 mmol/L[29].

In another study, the effect of costunolide on telomeraseinhibitory activity was investigated on MDA-MB-231,MCF-7 cells which confirmed the hindering activity[30].

Dehydrocostuslactone is another sesquiterpene lactoneisolated from S. lappa and investigated for anticancerpotential for non lung cancer cell lines, for exampleA549, NCI-H460 and NCI-H520 and its activity have beenconfirmed[31]. Ethanolic extract of S. lappa showed that apoptosisfollowed in a dose and time dependent manner such as 80 µg/mL and 48 h which gives confirmation for the treatmentof gastric cancer by S. lappa[20]. Hepatocellular carcinoma activity of dehydrocostuslactonewas evaluated by in vitro assays, such as cell proliferationassay, immunoblot assay, assay for kinase activity,apoptosis and caspase activity assay. By using transmission

electron microscopy, the in vivo analysis was done. Theresults proved its anticancer activity at the IC50 values 16.7 and 18.8 µmol/L[32]. Costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone had beenisolated from different extracts of S. lappa. Costunolideand dehydrocostus lactone confirmed the cytolytic activityat ID 50 of 3.6-10 µmol/L. At 13 .6 µmol/L, costunolidecompletely inhibited the granule exocytosis in a dose-dependent manner and even repressed the amplificationin the tyrosine phosphorylation at different concentrations.Therefore, results disclosed that the costunolide performedin a mechanistic means by preventing the increase in thephosphorylation of tyrosine[33].

Costunolide inhibits the vascular endothelial growthfactor (VEGF)-induced chemotaxis of human umbilical veinendothelial cells in a dose-dependent manner. It was alsofound to selectively inhibit the endothelial cell proliferationinduced by VEGF. The result of this study showed thatby blocking the angiogenic factor signaling pathway,costunolide might inhibit angiogenesis. VEGF interactswith its cognate receptors, KDR /Flk-1 and Flt-1, and exertsits angiogenic effect. Costunolide is found to inhibit theautophosphorylation of KDR /Flk-1 without affecting thatof Flt-1. These results suggest that costunolide may proveto be useful for the development of a new angiogenesisinhibitor [34]. C-17 polyene alcohol isolated from S. lappa

exhibited moderate cytotoxicities against the human tumorcell lines A549, SK-MEL-2, SK-OV3, HCT 15 and XF 498[13].

4.2. Anti-inflammatory activity

In Korean traditional prescriptions, S. lappa is frequentlyused for inflammatory diseases. Methanol extract of S.lappa was investigated. It was observed that at 0.1 mg/

mL concentration, it exhibited more than 50% of inhibitionon the cytokine induced neutrophil chemotactic factorinduction[35]. Ethanolic extract of S. lappa was studied at a dose rangeof 50-200 mg/kg, for the acute and chronic inflammationinduced in both mice and rats. The result of this studyrevealed that the extract showed considerable values foranti-inflammatory activity through carrageenan inducedpaw edema and peritonitis animal models[36]. Costunolidewas investigated for anti-inflammatory activity and itwas observed that costunolide hindered the protein andmRNA expression of interleukin-1b. By means of anelectrophoretic mobility shift assay, it was confirmed that

it also concealed the AP-1 transcription activity. So, allthese activities proved the anti-inflammatory activity ofcostunolide[37]. The potential of dehydrocostus lactone for the oxidativeosteoblast damage was investigated and showedconsiderable increase in the osteoblast growth andhydrogen peroxide. At 0.4-2 µg/mL of dose, the factorsfor example calcium deposition, collagen and alkalinephosphatase were improved. These results confirmed thatdehydrocostus lactone compound had potential to be usedagainst oxidative osteoblast damage[5]. At the doses of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg, the ethanolicextracts of S. lappa were assessed for their action on acute

and chronic inflammation and at 50-200 mg/kg it showedconsiderable inhibition on carrageenan induced pawedema[36].

4.3. Hepatoprotective

Constunolide and dehydrocostus lactone (isolated from S.lappa) had little effect on the viability of the cells. However,they showed inhibitory effect on human hepatoma Hep3B cells, and on the expression of the hepatitis B surfaceantigen (HBsAg). It is proved that these compounds inhibitthe HBsAg production by Hep3B cells with IC50 of 1.0 and 2.0 µmol/L, respectively. Northern blotting analysis proved that

they suppress (HBsAg) gene expression mainly at the mRNA level. Moreover, in another human hepatoma cell line HepA2 (derived from Hep G2 cells) by transfecting a tandemlyrepeat hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA, the inhibitory effect ofcostunolide on replication of human liver cells was studied.Results showed that both costunolide and dehydrocostuslactone had the tendency to be developed as potent antiHBV drugs in the future[38].

4.4. Anti-ulcer and cholagogic

The acetone extract of S. lappa and costunolide showedcholagogic effect and inhibitory effect on the formation of




gastric ulcer in mice[39]. The serum gastrin, variation ingastric acidity output, and plasma somatostatin concentrationwere observed during S. lappa decoction perfusion intothe stomach of patients with chronic superficial gastritisand results revealed that the decoction could increasethe endogenous motilin release and accelerate the gastricemptying[38]. S. lappa is one of the major ingredients of UL-409, a formulation which possesses anti-ulcer activity and

the activity is may be due to the intonation of defensivefactors by improvement in gastric cytoprotection[40,41]. Antiulcer activity of herbal formulation of S. lappa wastested in Wistar rats and male pigs. Orally 600 mg/kg drugwas given. The drug showed significant effect in gastriculceration induced by alcohol and aspirin, cold resistantinduced ulcerations and duodenal ulcer models. It amplifiedthe mucus discharge in all so it was proved to be anantiulcer agent[40].

4.5. Imunomodulator

Costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone act as inhibitors

of killing activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Throughpreventing the increase in tyrosine phosphorylation,constunolide inhibited the killing activity of CTL in responseto the crosslinking of T cell receptors as inhibitors of thekilling function of CTL and the induction of intercellularadhesion molecule-1, dehydrocostus lactone from S.lappa and other guaianolides were examined for theirstructure activity relationship[33]. It was confirmed that theguaianolides moiety exhibited considerable inhibitory effectstowards the induction of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and killing function of CTL[42].

4.6. Anticonvulsant activity

Different extracts of S. lappa root were evaluated for theanticonvulsant activity by picrotoxin-induced convulsions,pentylenetetrazole and maximal electroshock testsperformed in mice. It was proved that the petroleum extractof S. lappa roots showed potent anticonvulsant activity at adose of 100 and 300 mg/kg[43].

4.7. Gastric function

Decoction of S. lappa was given to patients affected withpersistent superficial gastritis and checked for differencein factors such as serum gastrin, gastric acidity and plasma

somatostatin. Decoction of S. lappa was also given to fivehealthy volunteers. It was observed that it sped up thegastric emptying time and discharge of endogenous motilin.However, no change is observed in plasma somatostatin,acidity output and serum gastrin levels[38].

4.8. Gastro-protective effect

Costunolide, saussureamines and dehydrocostus lactoneisolated from the methanolic extract of S. lappa showed thegastro-protective effect in rats on acidified ethanol inducedgastric mucosal lesions in a dose dependent manner (5 and10 mg/kg)[44].

4.9. Angiogenesis effect

Endothelial cell proliferation (induced by vascularendothelia growth factor ) is reported to be repressed bycostunolide (isolated from S. lappa root). Studies provedthat the chemotaxis induced by vascular endotheliagrowth factor of human umbilical vein endothelial cellswas noticeably inhibited at IC50 of 3.4 µmol/L. Similarly by

in vivo method the neo-vascularisation of mouse cornealstimulated by vascular endothelia growth factor is repotedto be inhibited at a dosage of 100 mg/kg/day. Inhibition ofvascular endothelia growth factor on VEGFR KDR /Flk-1 wasalso proved through signaling pathway[34].

4.10. Hypoglycaemic

When a comprehensive examination and clinical study onpotent hypoglycemic plants of different regions from Indiawas undertaken, S. lappa was found effective for obesediabetes[18].

4.11. Spasmolytic activity

From studies, it was proved that S. lappa was significantlyable to relax the contraction induced by carbachol (30 µmol/L). S. lappa has been reported to have antiperoxidativeeffects possibly due to the presence of sesquiterpenelactones. It is known to suppress contractions in guniea-pigaorta. Sesquiterpenes are recognized to stimulate the sGC which stimulates extrusion of K

+ ions and thereby reducesintrinsic Ca++ ions through activation of cGMP and PKG pathway, leading to relaxation of smooth muscles[32].

4.12. Anti-hepatotoxic activity

Aqueous and methanolic extracts of S. lappa root wereinvestigated for hepatotoxic activity in mice againstlipopolysaccharide and D-galactosamine induced hepatitis.With different doses of S. lappa, pretreatment of mice led torise in creatinine plasma levels in a dose dependent mannerand alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferaselevel as well. Whereas post treatment led to the limitedprogression of the hepatic damage which was induced bylipopolysaccharide and D-galactosamine. By the studiesit is proved that the root extract works against hepatotoxicactivity[25].

4.13. Miscellaneous

4.13.1. Antidiarrheal activityMethanol extract of S. lappa roots was investigated for

antidiarrheal activity on Wistar rats and it was observedthat administration of 100, 300 and 500 mg/kg body weight ofdose showed 26.33, 32.28 and 66.77% inhibition of diarrhea,respectively. The standard drug (loperamide) showedsignificant reduction (68.02%) in diarrheal stool at the dose of5 mg/kg body weight. The result of this study showed that thedose of 500 mg/kg body weight showed nearly similar effectto that of standard drug loperamide in reducing diarrhealstool.




The methanol extract of S. lappa roots showed 32.28% inhibition of diarrhea at the dose of 300 mg/kg body weight.

So, these findings clearly showed that the MeOH extract ofS. lappa exhibited significant antidiarrheal activity[45].

4.13.2. Hypolipidaemic Aqueous extract of S. lappa was orally administered totwenty-seven rabbits at a dose of 2 mg/kg body weight and

showed significant hypolipidaemic effect. Reduction inserum cholesterol and serum triglycerides was also found tobe significant[18].

4.13.3. Resistance to pathogenic microorganisms S. lappa or its combination with other herbs could be usedclinically for the treatment of gastritis, gastric ulcer, skindiseases, refux esophagitis, hepatitis, diarrhea and someoral cavity diseases, which may be related to its capabilityto improve resistance to pathogenic microorganisms.

4.13.4. Resistance to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)

H. pylori is an important pathogenic microorganism thatcauses many diseases, including functional diseases of thedigestive tract (e.g., gastric cancer, gastritis and dyspepsia) as well as endocrine disorders and autoimmune[46]. S. lappa extract strongly inhibits all the strains tested with minimuminhibitory concentration value of approximately 40 mg/mL[47-49]. Various extracts of S. lappa was investigated for its

antibacterial potential by using five strains of H. pylori andit showed highest minimum inhibitory concentration at thedosage of 40 µg/mL[50].

4.13.5. Resistance to Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans)

S. mutans is the most important currently recognizedcariogenic bacteria[51], traditionally used for treatingoral cavity diseases such as tooth decay, bad breath, and

periodontitis[27], which proposed that S. lappa may inhibitS. mutans. In another study, the effects of ethanolic extractwere evaluated on the growth and acid production of S.mutans, as well as the synthesis and adherence of water-insoluble glucans[52]. Their results of this study showed that ethanolic extract

(0.5 mg/mL to 4 mg/mL) inhibited the growth and acidproduction of S. mutans, reduced the adherence of S.mutans, and inhibited the synthesis of water insolubleglucans. Results proved that S. lappa astonishinglyinhibited the cariogenic activity of S. mutans.

4.13.6. Resistance to other microorganisms The active ingredients of S. lappa inhibit the transfer andbinding of R plasmids in Shigella fexneri[50]. Moreover, theyinhibit the expression of the HBsAg as well as growth of

other microorganisms and pathogens[38,53]. Ethanolic extract of S. lappa was assessed forantimicrobial potential using S. mutans. The study showedthat the ethanolic extract caused significant ( P<0.05 ) inhibition on the growth. In addition, it also reduced theadherence of S. mutans[52].

The compounds KSR1-KSR4 were isolated by repeated

chromatography (column and high performance liquidchromatography ) of a flavonoid fraction obtained byprocessing of an ethanolic extract of powdered, dry S.lappa roots. Antifungal potential of S. lappa was assessed.

By using microdilution technique, nine fungal strainsi.e. Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus versicolor , Aspergillus flavus , Penicilium ochrochloron, Penicillium funiculosum, Trichoderma viride, Cladosporium

cladosporioides and Alternaria. KSR4 possessed the highestantifungal potential, while KSR3 showed medium activity.

Compounds KSR1 and KSR2, showed good activity[12].

4.13.7. Antiparasitic The activity of S. lappa against Trypanosoma cruzi,Clonorchis sinensis, and some nematodal infectionswere determined. Decoction of plant was given orallyinto Clonorchis sinensis infected rabbits and found to beeffective up to some extent[54]. In the children infected withthe respective worms, the efficacy of S. lappa was studiedon the basis of percentage reductions in the faecal eggs/

gram counts. In the doses, tested S. lappa did not produceany adverse side effects [55,56]. The methanolic extractof S. lappa was investigated in axenic cultures with theepimastigote form of Trypanosoma cruzi, clone Bra C15 C2,at 27 °C in F-29 medium at a concentration of 100 mg/mL.

It is proved that S. lappa extract exhibited antiparasiticactivity.

4.13.8. Antiviral activity S. lappa root extract was investigated for its potentialagainst HBV in human hepatoma Hep3B cells. Activecompounds isolated from S. lappa such as costunolideand dehydrocostus lactone suppressed the expression of

HBsAg with IC50 values of 1.0 and 2.0 mmol/L respectively.By northern blotting analysis, the suppression wasalso observed in HepA2 cell line, so it was confirmed

that compounds present in S. lappa root extract hadconsiderable activity against HBV[38].

5. Other uses

5.1. Perfumery

The fragrant oil obtained from S. lappa is very valuable inperfumery. Its odour slightly resembles with the oil of orris.It is also blends with other oriental perfumes in a lastingmanner [57].

5.2. Pesticidal

The root, containing both the essential oil and the

alkaloid, is a reliable insect repellant. In China, it is thebasis of incense, made into sticks which are burned in homeand in the temples for worship, and also serve through theirsmoke to keep gnats, mosquitoes, and other flying insects ata space. In India, the dried root yields brilliant fumigatorypastilles, which burn fairly well and as the Chinese joss-

sticks, it serves the same insectifugal function[58,59].




6. Traditional uses

6.1. Ethnomedicinal uses

S. lappa is one of the most commercially viable species

among all the species of genus Saussurea. It is widely

utilized in various indigenous system of medicine all around

the world for treating variety of disorders such as tenesmus,

diarrhea, vomiting, dyspepsia, inflammation[60,61]. It is

also prescribed in irregular menstruation, tenesmus and

abdominal pain[20,62].

Medicinal properties of this plant are well documented

in traditional Chinese medicine, ayurvedic medicine and

the Tibetan system of medicine[63]. In the Handbook of

Traditional Tibetan Drugs, out of the 175 formulations it

was reported that S. lappa was one of the main ingredients

in 71 formulations[64]. The roots of S. lappa have a strong

and sweet aromatic odour with a bitter taste, and are used

in controlling bronchial asthma and as an antiseptic.

Preparations made from this species are also reported to

cure various diseases and conditions including ophthalmicconditions, fever, cough, paralysis, asthma, deaf, tridosha,

hysteria and headache[65,66].

The plant is prehistoric and well known about 2 500 years

ago. It is used in various ancient system of medicine such

as Unani, Ayurveda and Siddha[67]. In Indian traditionalsystems of medicine, S. lappa is used either in combination

with other drugs or as a single drug. The dried roots are

somewhat bitter in taste and grey to yellow in colour.

The essential oil obtained from roots is mostly used in

medicine[68]. Its roots are mainly used in asthma, cough

and also in treatment of chronic skin diseases, rheumatism

and cholera[69,70]. Different preparations of roots are used

by Ayurvedic physicians for the treatment of a range of

ailments like cold, flatulence, pruritus, gout, epilepsy,

headache, itching and leucoderma[71,72]. S. lappa is used as

an important medicine for gout, erysipelas and promotesspermatogenesis. In Tibetan medicine, the roots are

considered to have an acrid, sweet and bitter taste with a

neutral potency. S. lappa is one of the important ingredients

in several traditional Tibetan formulae that are used for

chronic inflammation of the lungs, chest congestion e.g.

hippophae and eliminator of lung inflammation[73]. The

roots possess carminative, anthelmintic, analgesic and

emmenagogic properties. It stimulates the brain and cures

blood, liver and kidney disorders. Different preparations

of S. lappa are prescribed in helminthic infestations,

convulsions, gas, leprosy, cold, persistant hiccups,

tuberculosis, quartan malaria, rheumatism, intestinal

carcinogenesis and edema[26,74]. It is also used traditionally

to cure skin diseases such as scabies, ringworm, bruises and

cuts[75-77].

6.2. Ethnoveternary uses

Locally, it is used against the heart diseases of cattle[78].

6.3. Other uses

The powdered roots are sprinkled over crops as

insecticides. The roots are used as insecticide to protect

woollen fabrics, and as incense. The upper parts of its plants

are used as fuel and fodder and dried leaves are smoked as

tobacco[43]. It is also used to improve complexion, as a hair

wash to kill lice and to turn grey hair to black[62,79]. Other

traditional applications of S. lappa are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Traditional methods of application of S. lappa.

Conditions Method of applications

Stomachache Root powder is taken with water. Decoction of root is taken. Root powder is roasted in mustard oil and the paste is applied on stomach

Headache Oil heated with root is applied

Cough and cold Root powder is taken with warm water

Throat infection Root is chewed

Backache and chest pain Root powder is taken with milk/decoction of root powder. Oil heated with root is massaged the affected area

Rheumatism and painful joints Root is roasted in ghee/butter, powdered and taken with milk. The above mentioned ghee/ butter is rubbed on the affected area

and bandaged to keep warm.

Scanty urination Jaggery is mixed in the decoction of root powder which is then taken. Paste of root powder is applied on the stomach below the naval.

Skin rashes formed after

insect bite

Root powder is roasted in ghee/butter and the ghee/butter is applied on the affected area

Exhaustion Pieces of root are burnt in hookah and the smoke inhaled

Lustre and growth of hair Hair is washed with decoction. Mustard oil is heated with root powder and the oil used as topical application on hair

Pustules Fine root powder is dusted on the wound. Mustard oil is heated with root powder and the oil is applied and bandaged

Fainting spells Root is rubbed in water and the water is used a nasal drops Fine powder of root is used for sneezing.

General weakness fatigue Root is boiled in milk and the milk is taken twice daily

Piles Root are taken along with the ‘Vacha’ (Acorus calamus) roots

Epilepsy The roots are taken with honey

Headache Paste of the root is applied

General weakness (as Rasayana) Root powder ingested with cow’s milk and cow’s ghee

Scalp scabies Essential oil of root is applied

Typhoid fever Decoction of root is taken

Persistant hiccups Root powder is ingested

Leprosy Root powder is ingested

Cold Decoction of root is taken




7. Trade of S. lappa

In the Himalaya along with the dominant high altitudegenera for high number of endemic species, Saussurea isthe second largest genera (35 spp.)[70]. As already mentionedS. lappa has great demand in pharmaceutical industry butduring the last decade, the species for its threatened statushas been more popularized globally. In past, due to high

market demand and unchecked exploitation, the specieswas reported to be extinct in many pockets in the wild[75]. Inorder to conserve the species and to fulfil the growing traderequirements, commercial cultivation of S. lappa was takenup in various regions. It is now commercially grown on aextensive scale, from Kashmir to Garwhal in Uttar Pradesh(United Provinces) in the forested areas similar to where itgrows naturally.

It has been introduced and cultivated in threesouthernmost provinces of China. Trade has been significantover a long period. For shipment to Arabia and the RedSea ports, large amount of the root have customarily beenexported from Kashmir to Bombay and Calcutta for use

chiefly in perfumery and medicine. There has also beensubstantial movement of the product within China. Globally,China has exported a total of 1 024 tons of roots and derivatesoverall since 1983 to 2009 and India exported a total of 266 tons during the same period.

Presently, France is one of the leading importers of theroot. Medicinally, the drug is known as radix saussureaelappae and the product has been marketed under the namescostus root and costus root oil, Putchuk or Patchak (theBengali name), and now in India as Kuth.

8. Challenges in conservation and sustainable use of S.lappa

S. lappa is an important plant, used widely in traditionaland herbal medicine, also utilized in modern medicine.Due to high demand, most of the natural populations ofthe species are either have been extirpated or are underdestructive harvesting, therefore availability of this importantplant is decreasing in the wild day by day. S. lappa isendemic to a geographically limited part of the Himalayas,and grows on moist slopes at altitudes of 2 600-4 000 m[80].Apart from the restricted distribution, the harvesting ofwhole plant is one of the reasons for being threatened. Thiscritically endangered species is enlisted in Appendix I ofConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). S. lappa is one of the 37 Himalayan endangered medicinal plants that have beenprioritized for in situ and ex situ conservation[81]. Because of an endemic species to the Himalaya,the distribution of this species is fairly restricted totremendously narrow geographical range[82], which makesit more vulnerable to extinction. Being an endangeredspecies[56,83], it was enlisted in Appendix I of CITES. Tradeof S. lappa is strictly prohibited under Foreign TradeDevelopment Act-1992. It is first listed in Appendix II ofCITES on 1.7.1975 as S. lappa and afterward up listed toAppendix I in 1985. Due to the various known uses, S. lappa is in high demand

both internationally and at the local level. It is one of the

most commercially used Appendix I CITES species forvarious complaints in numerous indigenous systems ofmedicine[2,84]. Saussurea costus has been in high demandin the pharmaceutical industry. During the last decade,the species has been even more popularized due to itsthreatened status globally. Due to uncontrolled exploitationof the species and high market demand, it was reported tobe extinct in many pockets in the wild.

9. The way forward

A multi-branched approach to maintain the resource basethat includes in situ and ex situ conservation and selection ofbetter-quality genotypes followed by their multiplication (byboth biotechnological and conventional approaches) couldwell provide available solution to the problem.

9.1. Biotechnological interventions

Since the value of medicinal plants depends on the amount

of the active principle present in it, it would be enviableto carry out cultivation of superior clones (recognized as‘elite’). These elites can be acknowledged by chemo-profiling and by the use of different molecular markertechniques. Thereafter, either or both conventional methodsof propagation and tissue culture techniques can be used tomultiply the plant for raising commercial plantations as wellas for conservation. For the species which are difficult to regenerate byconventional methods and due to over exploitation bydestructive harvesting, their populations have decreased.Micropropagation can be used as a feasible alternative. It isalso useful in terms of the active principles present. There islots of variability, and elites have been recognized based ontheir potential for yielding higher amount of active principle.

This technology can successfully be used to meet upthe growing demand for clonally uniform elite plants ofS. lappa. For large-scale production of plant cells fromwhich secondary metabolites could be extracted besidesmicropropagation, cell suspension culture systems could beused. Cell culture systems have numerous major advantagesas it is independent of space constraints, geographical andseasonal variations and offers a defined production systemensuring an uninterrupted supply of good quality productsof high yield. It also allows for preset management of cellgrowth and regulation of metabolite processes which in turn

will improve productivity and lessen labour costs.

9.2. Cultivation practices

Cultivation has several advantages over collection fromthe wild. Due to environmental and genetic differences, wildharvested plants usually vary in quality and consistencywhich dangerously compromise economic returns. Similarly,local environmental conditions strongly control the efficacyof medicinal plants. A plant might fail to produce the activeconstituents of concern since temperature, day length,rainfall and soil characteristics are some of the factors thathave serious effects on the potency of medicinal plants.

Before arriving at suitable agro-techniques, these are some




parameters that need to be studied well. Biopesticides,better-quality planting material produced throughmicropropagation in combination with use of bio-fertilizers(mycorrhiza) and improved agro-techniques would enhancethe yields even further and generate constantly higherfinancial returns to the growers.

9.3. Post-harvest handling

The quality of medicinal plants also depends on themanner of post-harvest handling. It is observed that duringharvesting, handling and storage, the collectors of herbalmaterial pay less consideration to quality of material. Ithas been reported that stored herbal drug samples veryfrequently harbour mycotoxin producing fungi.

Above the acceptable limit fixed by the World HealthOrganization for human consumption, such herbal drugscontaining mycotoxins above would be rejected in theglobal market. Therefore, efforts should be made in order toencourage sustainable management of medicinal plants atthe community level itself by highlighting the improvement

of collection, cultivation and marketing practices.

10. Conclusion

S. lappa is a renowned medicinal plant that is oftenprescribed in various indigenous systems of medicineschiefly those of India, China, Tibet and Korea. It is usedfor treatment of many ailments in allopathic and herbalsystem of medicine such as chronic skin diseases,rheumatism, cholera, cough and cold, persistant hiccups,stomachache, toothache, typhoid fever, rheumatism,quartan malaria, leprosy etc. Various active compoundsisolated from S. lappa are reported to have medicinalproperties. The major components are sesquiterpenelactones such as costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone. Ithas various biological activities such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-ulcer and cholagogic,anticonvulsant, imunomodulator, gastroprotective,angiogenesis, hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic, anti-hepatotoxic,antidiarrheal, hypolipidaemic, antiparasitic, antimicrobialand antiviral activity. It is also considered as an importantplant in terms of veterinary medicine and used againstthe heart diseases of cattle. The oil obtained from S.lappa is very valuable and used in perfumery. The root isconsidered as a reliable insect repellant as their smoke tokeep gnats, mosquitoes, and other flying insects at a space.

The preliminary experiments justify the reputation of thedrug as a useful remedy against cancer [26-29]. The resultsof the different studies have empirically designated thatS. lappa is effectual as an anti-inflammatory agent. Totalmethanol extract of S. lappa showed compelling inhibitoryeffect on the formation of TNF-alpha, a pro-inflammatorycytokine, in murine macrophage-like cell (RAW 264.7 cells).The activity guided purification resulted in the isolation ofthree sesquiterpene lactones, reynosin, cynaropicrin andsantamarine, which in a dose dependent manner inhibitedTNF-alpha production. Inflammation has been closelyrelated to rheumatism. Therefore, the anti-inflammatoryproperties of S. lappa may be the reason for its ethnomedical

use in rheumatism. Some of the chemical constituents of S.

lappa have been found to have the potential to be developedas bioactive molecules. Costunolide and cynaropicrinhave been identified as latent anticancer agents. Similarly,cynaropicrin has been identified as the principal inhibitorof TNF-alpha. Dehydrocostus lactone and costunolidehave been reported to display strong suppressive effect onthe expression of HBsAg in human hepatoma Hep3B cellsand therefore have the potential to be developed as anti-

HBV drugs. Although the published confirmation to datesupports the safety and perhaps the efficiency of S. lappa, the quality of the evidence is limited; active constituents,physiological pathways, pharmacokinetics, bioavailability,and importance to human health are not known withsufficient detail or assurance. Since S. lappa has variousmedicinal applications, that’s why more in vitro, clinicaland pathological studies are required to investigate theunexploited potential of this plant. As already mentioned, S. lappa has great demand inpharmaceutical industry. So due to high demand, mostof the natural populations of the species are either havebeen extirpated or are under destructive harvesting. It is

endemic to a geographically limited part of the Himalayas.This critically endangered species is enlisted in AppendixI of CITES. However, a multi-branched approach includingin situ and ex situ conservation and selection of better-quality genotypes followed by their multiplication could wellprovide available solution to the problem.

Conflict of interest statement

We declare that we have no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Rao RN, Raju SS, Babu KS, Vadaparthi PRR. HPLC determination

of costunolide as a marker of Saussurea lappa and its herbal

formulations. Int J Biochem 2013; 3(1): 99-107.

[2] Pandey MM, Rastogi S, Rawat AK. Saussurea costus: Botanical,

chemical and pharmacological review of an ayurvedic medicinal

plant. J Ethnopharmacol 2007; 110(3): 379-390.

[3] Yang H, Xie JL, Sun HD. Resarch progress on the medicinal plant-

Saussurea lappa. Nat Prod Res Dev 1998; 10(2): 90-98.

[4] Sun CM, Syu WJ, Don MJ, Lu JJ, Lee GH. Cytotoxic sesquiterpene

lactonesfrom the root of Saussurea lappa. J Nat Prod 2003; 66(9):

1175-1180.

[5] Choi EM, Kim GH, Lee YS. Protective effects of dehydrocostuslactone against hydrogen peroxide-induced dysfunction and

oxidative stress in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. Toxicol In Vitro

2009; 23: 862-867.

[6] Cho JY, Park J, Yoo ES, Baik KU, Jung JH, Lee J, et al. Inhibitory

effect of sesquiterpene lactones from Saussurea lappa on tumor

necrosis factor-alpha production in murine macrophage like cells.

Planta Med 1998; 64(7): 594-597.

[7] Yoshikawa M , Hatakeyama S , Inoue Y , Yamahara J .

Saussureamines A, B, C, D, and E, new antiulcer principles from

Chinese Saussureae Radix. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1993; 41(1):

214-216.

[8] Zhao F, Xu H, He EQ, Jiang YT, Liu K. Inhibitory effects of

sesquiterpenes from Saussurea lappa on the overproduction of




nitric oxide and TNF-alpha release in LPS-activated macrophages.

J Asian Nat Prod Res 2008; 10(11-12): 1045-1053.

[9] Robinson A, Kumar TV, Sreedhar E, Naidub VG, Krishna SR,

Babua KS, et al. A new sesquiterpene lactone from the roots of

Saussurea lappa: structure-anticancer activity study. Bioorg Med

Chem Lett 2008; 18(14): 4015-4017.

[10] Julianti T, Hata Y, Zimmermann S, Kaiser M, Hamburger M,

Adams M. Antitrypanosomal sesquiterpene lactones from

Saussurea costus. Fitoterapia 2011; 82(7): 955-959.[11] Talwar KK, Singh IP, Kalsi PS. A sesquiterpenoid with plant

growth regulatory activity from Saussurea lappa. Phytochemistry

1992; 31(1): 336-338.

[12] Rao KS, Babu GV, Ramnareddy YV. Acylated favone glycosides

from the roots of Saussurea lappa and their antifungal activity.

Molecules 2007; 12(3): 328-344.

[13] Jung IH, Kim Y, Lee CO, Kang SS, Park JH, Im KS. Cytotoxic

constituents of Saussurea lappa. Arch Pharm Res 1998; 21: 153-

156.

[14] Maurer B, Grieder A. Sesquiterpenoids from Costus root oil

(Saussurea lappa Clarke). Helv Chim Acta 1997; 60(7): 2177-2190.

[15] Dhillon RS, Kalsi PS, Singh WP, Gautam VK, Chhabra BR.

Guaianolide from Saussurea lappa. Phytochemistry 1987; 26: 1209-

1210.

[16] Marotti M, Piccaglia R, Giovanelli E, Deans SG, Eaglesham E.

Effects of planting time and mineral fertilization on peppermint

essential oil composition and its biological activity. Flavour

Fragr J 1994; 9: 125-129.

[17] Barrero AF, Oltra JE, Alvarez M, Raslan DS, Saude DA, Akssira

M. New sources and antifungal activity of sesquiterpene

lactones. Fitoterapia 2000; 71: 60-64.

[18] Upadhyay OP, Singh RH, Dutta SK. Studies on antidiabetic

medicinal plants used in Indian folklore. Aryavaidyan 1996; 9:

159-167.

[19] Seki K, Hashimoto A, Kobayashi H, Kawahara Y. Yamahara J.

Motility inhibitory effect on Anchusan and Jintan and its active

components in Anisakis type larvae. Yakuri to Chiryo 1991; 19:

265-289.

[20] Ko SG, Kim HP, Jin DH , Bae HS, Kim SH , Park GH , et al.

Saussurea lappa induces G2-growth arrest and apoptosis in AGS

gastric cancer cells. Cancer Lett 2005; 220: 11-19.

[21] Sutar N, Garai R, Sharma US, Singh N, Roy SD. Antiulcerogenic

activity of Saussurea lappa root. Int J Pharm Life Sci 2011; 2: 516-

520.

[22] Khalid A, Uzair-ur-Rehman, Sethi A, Khilji S, Fatima U, Khan

MI, et al. Antimicrobial activity analysis of extracts of Acacia

modesta, Artimisia absinthium, Nigella sativa and Saussurea

lappa against Gram positive and Gram negative microorganisms.

Afr J Biotechnol 2011; 10: 4574-4580.

[23] Hamilton AC. Medicinal plants, conservation and livelihoods. Biodivers Conserv 2004; 13: 1477-1517.

[24] Yashvanth S, Robinson A, Babu KS, Naidu VGM, Vishnuvardhan

MVPS, Ramakrishna S, et al. Anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic

activity of chloroform extract of roots of Saussurea lappa Clarke. J

Pharm Res 2010; 3(8): 1775-1778.

[25] Yaeesh S, Jamal Q, Shah AJ , Gilani AH . Antihepatotoxic

activity of Saussurea lappa extract on D-galactosamine and

lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis in mice. Phytother Res

2010; 2: S229-S232.

[26] Lee MG, Lee KT, Chi SG, Park JH. Costunolide induces apoptosis

by ROS-mediated mitochondrial permeability and cytochrome C

release. Biol Pharm Bull 2001; 24: 303-306.

[27] Kim RM, Jeon SE, Choi Y. EuiBangRuChui. Vol 6. Seoul: Yeokang

Publications; 1991, p. 385.

[28] Cho JY, Kim AR, Jung JH, Chun T, Rhee MH, Yoo ES. Cytotoxic

and pro-apoptotic activities of cynaropicrin, a sesquiterpene

lactone, on the viability of leukocyte cancer cell lines. Eur J

Pharmacol 2004; 492: 85-94.

[29] Fukuda K, Akao S, Ohno Y, Yamashitab K, Fujiwara H. Inhibition

by costunolide of phorbol ester-induced transcriptional activation

of inducible nitric oxide synthase gene in a human monocyte cell

line THP-1. Cancer Lett 2001; 164: 7-13.[30] Choi JY , Na MK , Hwang IH , Lee SH , Bae EY , Kim BY , et

al. Isolation of betulinic acid, its methyl ester and guaiane

sesquiterpenoids with protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitory

activity from the roots of Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke. Molecules

2009; 14(1): 266-272.

[31] Hung JY, Hsu YL, Ni WC, Tsai YM, Yang CJ, Kuo PL, et al.

Oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling are

involved in dehydrocostuslactone-mediated apoptosis in human

non-small cell lung cancer cells. Lung Cancer 2010; 68: 355-365.

[32] Hsu YL, Wu LY, Kuo PL. Dehydrocostuslactone, a medicinal

plant derived sesquiterpene lactone induces apoptosis coupled to

endoplasmic reticulum stress in liver cancer cells. J Pharmacol

Exp Ther 2009; 329: 809-819.

[33] Taniguchi M, Kataoka T, Suzuki H, Uramoto M, Ando M, Arao

K, et al. Costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone as inhibitors of

killing function of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Biosci Biotechnol

Biochem 1995; 59: 2064-2067.

[34] Jeong SJ, Itokawa T, Shibuya M, Kuwano M, Ono M, Higuchi R, et

al. Costunolide, a sesquiterpene lactone from Saussurea lappa,

inhibits the VEGFR KDR /Flk-1 signaling pathway. Cancer Lett

2002; 187: 129-133.

[35] Lee GI, Ha JY, Min KR, Nakagawa H, Tsurufuji S, Chang I M, et

al. Inhibitory effects of oriental herbal medicines on IL-8 induced

in lipopolysacharide activated rat macrophages. Planta Med 1995;

61: 26-30.

[36] Gokhale AB, Damre AS, Kulkarni KR, Saraf MN. Preliminary

evaluation of anti-infammatory and anti-arthritic activity of S.

lappa, A. speciosa and A. asoara. Phytomedicine 2002; 9: 433-437.

[37] Kang JS, Yoon YD, Lee KH, Park SK, Kim HM. Costunolide

inhibits interleukin-1beta expression by down-regulation of

AP-1 and MAPK activity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells.

Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 313: 171-177.

[38] Chen SF, Li YQ, He FY. [Effect of Saussurea lappa on gastric

functions]. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi 1994; 14: 406-

408.

[39] Yamahara J, Kobayashi M, Miki K, Kozuka M, Sawada T, Fujimura

H. Cholagogic and antiulcer effect of Saussurea radix and its

components. Chem Pharm Bull 1985; 33: 1285-1288.

[40] Mitra SK, Gopumadhavan S, Hemavathi TS, Muralidhar TS,

Venkataranganna MV. Protective effect of UL-409, a herbal for-mulation against physical and chemical factor induced gastric

and duodenal ulcers in experimental animals. J Ethnopharmacol

1996; 52: 165-169.

[41] Venkataranganna MV, Gopumadhavan S, Sundaram R, Mitra SK.

Evaluation of possible mechanism of anti-ulcerogenic activity of

UL-409, a herbal preparation. J Ethnopharmacol 1998; 63: 187-

192.

[42] Yuuya S, Hagiwara H, Suzuki T, Ando M, Yamada A, Suda K, et

al. Guaianolides as immunomodulators, synthesis and biological

activities of dehydrocostus lactone, mokko lactone, eremanthin,

and their derivatives. J Nat Prod 1999; 62: 22-30.

[43] Butola JS, Samant SS. Saussurea species in Indian Himalayan

Region: diversity, distribution and indigenous uses. Int J Plant




Biol 2010; 1: 43-51.

[44] Kumar N, Kumar A. Durlabh hoti chamatkaric aushadhi-Kuth.

Sachitra Ayurveda 1989; 1: 25-29.

[45] Hemamalini K, Vasireddy U, Nagarjun GA, Harinath K, Vamshi

G, Vishnu E, et al. Anti-diarrhoeal activity of leaf extracts

Anogessius accuminata. Int J Pharm Res Dev 2011; 3(6): 55-57.

[46] Furuta T, Delchier JC. Helicobacter pylori and nonmalignant

diseases. Helicobacter 2009; 14: 29-35.

[47] Ohta M. Helicobacter pylori infection and autoimmune diseasesuch as immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Kansenshogaku

Zasshi 2010; 84(1): 1-8.

[48] Papamichael KX, Papaioannou G, Karga H, Roussos A, Mantzaris

GJ. Helicobacter pylori infection and endocrine disorders: is

there a link? World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15(22): 2701-2707.

[49] Li Y, Xu C, Zhang Q, Liu JY, Tan RX. In vitro anti- Helicobacter

pylori action of 30 Chinese herbal medicines used to treat ulcer

diseases. J Ethnopharmacol 2005; 98(3): 329-333.

[50] Li YH, Gong T, Yang QM, Miao ZL, Cheng GQ, Huo QP. In vivo

study of the inhibition of R plasmid transfer by conjugation in

rats taking extracts of Radix aucklandiae and Polygonatum

cyrtonema. Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Bing Fang Zhi Za Zhi

2010; 5(2): 108-110, 166.[51] Banas JA. Virulence properties of Streptococcus mutans. Front

Biosci 2004; 9: 1267-1277.

[52] Yu HH, Lee JS, Lee KH, Kim KY, You YO. Saussurea lappa

inhibits the growth, acid production, adhesion and water-

insoluble glucan synthesis of Streptococcus mutans. J

Ethnopharmacol 2007; 111(2): 413-417.

[53] Hasson SS A, Al-Balushi MS , Alharthy K, Al-Busaidi JZ ,

Aldaihani MS, Othman MS, et al. Evaluation of anti-resistant

activity of Auklandia (Saussurea lappa) root against some human

pathogens. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2013; 3(7): 557-562.

[54] Rhee JK, Back BK, Ahn BZ. Structural investigation on the

effects of the herbs on Clonorchis sinensis in rabbits. Am J Chin

Med 1985; 13: 119-125.[55] Akhtar MS, Riffat S. Field trail of Saussurea lappa roots against

nematodes and Nigella sativa seeds against cestodes in children.

J Pak Med Assoc 1991; 4: 185-187.

[56] Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. The wealth of

India. 1st ed. New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research; 1973, p. 333-337.

[57] Nautiyal S, Maikuri RK, Rao KS, Saxena KG. Ethnobotany of the

Tolcha Bhotia tribe of the buffer zone villages in Nanda Devi

Bioshpere Reserve India. J Econ Taxon Bot 2003; 27: 119-142.

[58] Kapoor LD . Handbook of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants.

Washington D. C: CRS Press; 2001.

[59] Chopra RN , Chopra IC , Handa KL , Kapur LD . Chopra’ s

indigenous drugs of India. 2nd ed. Calcutta: U.N. Dhur & SonsPrivate Ltd; 1958, p. 402-407.

[60] Irshad S, Mahmood M, Perveen F. In-vitro anti-bacterial

activities of three medicinal plants using agar well diffusion

method. Res J Biol 2012; 2(1): 1-8.

[61] Xiao QN, Kuo YH, Zhang Y, Barker DM, Won DJ. A tropical

cyclone bogus data assimilation scheme in the MM5 3D-Var

system and numerical experiments with typhoon Rusa (2002) near

landfall. J Meteorol Soc Jpn 2006; 84: 671-689.

[62] Sarin YK. A survey of vegetable raw material resources of Lahul.

Indian Forester 1967; 93: 459-462.

[63] Singh SK. Ethnobotanical study of useful plants of Kullu districts

in north western Himalayas, India. J Econ Taxon Bot 1999; 23:

185-198.

[64] Tsarong TJ . Handbook of traditional Tibetan drugs, their

nomenclature, composition, use and dosage. India: Tibetan

Medical Publications; 1986, p. 101.

[65] Jain SP. Ethnobotany of Morni and Kalesar (Ambala, Haryana). J

Econ Taxon Bot 1984; 5: 809-813.

[66] Basu BD, Kirtikar KR. Indian medicinal plants. Derhadun:

International Book Distributors; 1987, p. 915.

[67] Madhuri K, Elango K, Ponnusankar S. Saussurea lappa (Kuth

root): review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry andpharmacology. Orient Pharm Exp Med 2012; 12: 1-9.

[68] Indian Drug Manufactures’ Association. The Indian herbal

pharmaco po eia. Revised edition. Mumbai: Indian Drug

Manufacturers’ Association; 2002, p. 376-383.

[69] Chopra RN, Nayar SL, Chopra IC. Glossary of Indian medicinal

plants. New Delhi: Publication and Information Directorate; 1956.

[70] Dhar GH , Virjee J, Kachroo P, Buth GM . Ethnobotany of

Kashmir —I. Sind Valley. J Econ Taxon Bot 1984; 5: 668-675.

[71] Koul SC. Some wild flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use.

J Bombay Nat Hist Soc 1941; 42: 452-454.

[72] Awasthi P, Sood I, Syal S. Isolating diesel-degrading bacteria

from air. Curr Sci 2008; 94: 178-180.

[73] Tsarong TJ. Tibetan medicinal plants. India: Tibetan MedicalPublications; 1994.

[74] Malik AH, Khuroo AA, Dar GH, Khan ZS. Ethnomedicinal uses

of some plants in the Kashmir Himalaya. Indian J Tradit Knowl

2011; 10(2): 362-366.

[75] Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. The wealth of

India: a dictionary of Indian raw materials and industrial

produc ts . New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research; 1972.

[76] Mishra A, Bapat MM, Tilak JC, Devasagayam TPA. Antioxidant

activity of Garcinia indica (kokam) and its syrup. Curr Sci 2006;

91: 90-93.

[77] Shah NC . Herbal folk medicines in northern India. J

Ethnopharmacol 1982; 6: 293-301.[78] Sharma S, Rathi N, Kamal B, Pundir D, Kaur B, Arya S.

Conservation of biodiversity of highly important medicinal plants

of India through tissue culture technology-a review. Agric Biol J

N Am 2010; 1(5): 827-833.

[79] Matsuda H, Kageura T, Inoue Y, Morikawa T, Yoshikawa M.

Absolute stereo structures and syntheses of saussureamines A, B,

C, D and E, amino acid-sesquiterpene conjugates with gastro-

protective effect from the roots of Saussurea lappa. Tetrahedron

2000; 56: 7763-7777.

[80] Shah R. Nature’ s medicinal plants of Uttaranchal: herbs, grasses

& ferns. Uttarakhand: Gyanodaya Prakashan; 2006.

[81] Kuniyal CP, Rawat YS, Oinam SS, Kuniyal JC, Vishvakarma SCR.

Kuth (Saussurea lappa) cultivation in the cold desert environmentof the Lahaul valley, northwestern Himalaya, India: arising

threats and need to revive socio-economic values. Biodivers

Conserv 2005; 14: 1035-1045.

[82] Siddique MAA, Wafai BA, Riya AM, Sheikh AS. Conservation of

Kuth (Saussurea costus). A threatened medicinal plant of Kashmir

Himalaya. In: Samant SS, Dhar U, Palni LMS, editors. Himalayan

medicinal plants: potential and prospects. India: Gyanodaya

Prakashan; 2001, p. 197-204.

[83] Nayar MP , Shastry ARK. Red data book of Ind ian plants .

Calcutta: Botanical Survey of India; 1987.

[84] Kulkarni S, Desai S. Immunostimulant activity of inulin isolated

from Saussurea lappa roots. Indian J Pharm Pharm Sci 2001;

63(4): 292-294.

Saussurea Lappa Review 1

Documents

Transcript of Saussurea Lappa Review 1