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Exosphere

Main article:Exosphere

The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from theexobase upward. It is mainly composed of hydrogen and

helium. The particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another.

Since the particles rarely collide, the atmosphere no longer behaves like a fluid. These free-moving particles follow

ballistic trajectories and may migrate into and out of themagnetosphereor the solar wind.

Thermosphere

Main article:Thermosphere

Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant

with height. Unlike in the stratosphere, where the inversion is caused by absorption of radiation by ozone, in the

thermosphere the inversion is a result of the extremely low density of molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise

to 1,500 C (2,700 F), though the gas molecules are so far apart thattemperature in the usual senseis not well

defined. The air is so rarefied, that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometer

between collisions with other molecules.[3]TheInternational Space Stationorbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km

(200 and 240 mi). Because of the relative infrequency of molecular collisions, air above the mesopause is poorly mixed

compared to air below. While the composition from the troposphere to the mesosphere is fairly constant, above a

certain point, air is poorly mixed and becomes compositionally stratified. The point dividing these two regions is known

as theturbopause. The region below is the homosphere, and the region above is the heterosphere. The top of the

thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called theexobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from

about 350800 km (220500 mi; 1,100,0002,600,000 ft). [citation needed]

Mesosphere

Main article:Mesosphere

The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000280,000 ft). It is the layer where

mostmeteorsburn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere.

The mesopause, the temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and has

an average temperature around 85C (120 F; 190K).[4]At themesopause, temperatures may drop to 100

C (150 F; 170 K).[5]Due to the cold temperature of the mesosphere, water vapor is frozen, forming ice clouds

(orNoctilucent clouds). A type of lightning referred to as eitherspritesorELVES, form many miles above thunderclouds

in the troposphere.

Stratosphere

Main article:Stratosphere

The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height

due to increased absorption ofultraviolet radiationby theozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. While the

temperature may be 60 C (76 F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be

near freezing[citation needed]. Thestratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is

at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is 1/1000 sea level.

Troposphere

Main article:Troposphere

The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at

the equator,[6] with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the

surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. This

promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word "", trope, meaning turn or overturn). The

troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the atmosphere.[7]Thetropopauseis the boundary between the

troposphere and stratosphere.

Technically, an aerosol is acolloidsuspensionof fine solid particles orliquid droplets in agas. Examples are clouds,

andair pollutionsuch as smog and smoke. In general conversation, aerosolusually refers to anaerosol spray can or

the output of such a can. The word aerosol derives from the fact that matter "floating" in air is a suspension (a mixture in

which solid or l iquid or combined solidliquid particles are suspended in a fluid). To differentiate suspensionsfrom

true solutions, the termsolevolvedoriginally meant to coverdispersions of tiny (sub-microscopic) particles in a liquid.

With studies of dispersions in air, the term aerosol evolved and now embraces both liquid droplets, solid particles, and

combinations of these. TheEarth atmospherecontains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including

quantities of:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucent_cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucent_cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELVEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELVEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELVEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(colloid)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(colloid)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exobasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahrenheithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noctilucent_cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(lightning)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELVEShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropopausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(colloid)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropletshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_atmosphere

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naturalinorganic materials: dust, smoke, sea salt, water droplets.

naturalorganic materials:pollen,spores,bacteria

anthropogenicproducts of combustion such as: smoke,ashes oder dusts

By far the most common aerosols in the atmosphere areclouds, which normally consist of suspensions

ofwaterdroplets or ice particles of greater or lesser density.

Aerosols can be found in urban Ecosystems in various forms, for example:

Dust,

Cigarette smoke,

Mist fromaerosol spraycans,

Soot or fumes in car exhaust.

The composition of aerosols and particles depends on their source. Wind-blownmineral dust[3]tends to be made of

mineral oxidesand other material blown from the Earth's crust; this particulate islight-absorbing. Sea salt[4]is

considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly ofsodium

chlorideoriginated from sea spray; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reflect the composition ofsea water, andthus includemagnesium,sulfate,calcium,potassium, etc. In addition, sea spray aerosols may contain organic

compounds, which influence their chemistry. Sea salt does not absorb.[citation needed]

Secondary particles derive from theoxidation of primary gases such assulfurandnitrogen oxidesintosulfuric

acid(liquid) andnitric acid (gaseous). The precursors for these aerosolsi.e. the gases from which they originate

may have an anthropogenic origin (from fossil fuel or coal combustion) and a naturalbiogenicorigin. In the presence

ofammonia, secondary aerosols often take the form ofammoniumsalts; i.e. ammonium sulfate andammonium

nitrate (both can be dry or in aqueoussolution); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take anacidic form

as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas). Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are

stronglight-scatterers.[5]This is mainly because the presence of sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a

size that scatters light effectively.

Organic matter(OM) can be either primary or secondary, the latter part deriving from the oxidation ofVOCs; organicmaterial in the atmosphere may either be biogenic oranthropogenic. Organic matter influences the

atmospheric radiation field by both scattering and absorption. Another important aerosol type is constitute ofelemental

carbon (EC, also known asblack carbon, BC): this aerosol type includes strongly light-absorbing material and is

thought to yield large positive radiative forcing. Organic matter and elemental carbon together constitute

thecarbonaceousfraction of aerosols.[6] Secondary organic aerosols, tiny "tar balls" resulting from combustion products

of internal combustion engines, have been identified as a danger to health.[7]

The chemical composition of the aerosol directly affects how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical constituents

within the aerosol change the overallrefractive index. The refractive index will determine how much light is scattered

and absorbed.

The composition of particulate matter that generally causes visual effects such as smog consists of sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, organic matter, and elemental carbon also known as black carbonorsoot. The particles are hydroscopic due to the presence of sulphur, and SO2 is converted to sulphate when high

humidity and low temperatures are present. This causes the reduced visibility and yellow color.[8]

The Mie solution toMaxwell's equations(also known as the LorenzMie solution, the LorenzMieDebye

solution orMie scattering) describes thescatteringofelectromagnetic radiation by asphere. The solution takes the

form of an analytical infinite series.

The term Mie theoryis used on occasion; however, it is misleading because it does not refer to an independent physical

theory or law. The phrase "the Mie solution (to Maxwell's equations)" is therefore preferable. Currently, the term "Mie

solution" is also used in broader contexts, for example when discussing solutions of Maxwell's equations for scattering

by stratified spheres or by infinite cylinders, or generally when dealing with scattering problems solved using the exact

Maxwell equations in cases where one can writeseparate equationsfor the radial and angular dependence of solutions.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of

about 4% per decade in the total volume ofozoneinEarth'sstratosphere (theozone layer), and a much larger

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_dusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_dusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_dusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-NYTSOA-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-NYTSOA-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-Mongolia-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-Mongolia-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_variableshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_variableshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly_ashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol_sprayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_dusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_crusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammoniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-NYTSOA-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#cite_note-Mongolia-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_variableshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer

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springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as

the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polartropospheric

ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both

is catalyticdestruction of ozone by atomic halogens.[1] The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere

is photodissociation of man-madehalocarbon refrigerants (CFCs,freons,halons). These compounds are transportedinto the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. [2] Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as

emissions of halo-carbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer

prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280315 nm) ofultravioletlight (UV light) from passing through the Earth's

atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of

theMontreal Protocolthat bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such ascarbon

tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin

cancer,cataracts,[3] damage to plants, and reduction ofplankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from

the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataractshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataractshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-Dobson2005-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-Dobson2005-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone_depletion_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodissociationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkaneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tetrachloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,1,1-Trichloroethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataractshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion#cite_note-Dobson2005-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_zone