Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga...
Transcript of Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga...
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Chapter 7
Memory
© 2014 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology in Your Life
FIRST EDITION
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Section 7.1
How Do We Acquire Memories?
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7.1 How Do We Acquire
Memories?
• Memory
– The nervous system’s capacity to acquire
and retain skills and knowledge for later
retrieval
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We Acquire Memories by
Processing Information
• Encoding
– The processing of information so that it can
be stored
• Storage
– The retention of encoded representations
over time
• Retrieval
– The act of recalling or remembering stored
information when it is needed
• See figure 7.2 next slide
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Attention Allows Us to Encode a
Memory
• Attention
– Focusing mental resources on information;
allows further processing for perception,
memory, and response
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Attention Allows Us to Encode a
Memory
• Visual attention
– We automatically pay attention to and
recognize basic visual features in an
environment, including color, shape, size,
orientation, and movement
• Auditory attention
– Selective-listening studies examine what we
do with auditory information that is not
attended to
• See figures 7.3, 7.4 next slide
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Selective Attention Allows Us
to Filter Unwanted Information
• Filter theory
– Filter theory attempts to explain how we
selectively attend to the most important
information
• Change blindness
– An individual’s failure to notice large visual
changes in the environment
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Section 7.2
How Do We Maintain Memories
over Time?
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7.2 How Do We Maintain
Memories over Time?
• Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed
that we have three different types of
memory stores: sensory storage, short-
term storage, and long-term storage
• Each of these memory stores retains
different encoded input, and each has the
capacity to maintain information for a
certain length of time
• See figure 7.5 and table 7.1 next slide
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Sensory Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Information Very Briefly
• Five types of sensory stores
– Sensory storage: A memory storage system
that very briefly holds a vast amount of
information from the five senses in close to
their original sensory formats
– One type of sensory storage very briefly
maintains visual input. Four other types of
sensory stores maintain all the other sensory
input: auditory, smell, taste, and touch
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Sensory Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Information Very Briefly
• Duration and capacity of sensory storage
– Sperling concluded that participants
maintained many of the 12 items in sensory
storage for about one-third of a second
– By maintaining a large amount of information
for a fraction of a second, sensory storage
enables us to experience the world as a
continuous stream of information rather than
as discrete sensations
• See figure 7.7 next slide
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Working Memory Allows Us to Actively
Maintain Information in Short-Term
Storage • Short-term storage
– A memory storage system that briefly holds a
limited amount of information in awareness
• Working memory
– An active processing system that allows
manipulation of different types of information
to keep it available for current use
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Working Memory Allows Us to Actively
Maintain Information in Short-Term
Storage • Duration of short-term storage
– Short-term storage may be a “location” for
maintaining memories. Working memory
allows for manipulation of sounds, images,
and ideas for longer maintenance in short-
term storage
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Working Memory Allows Us to Actively
Maintain Information in Short-Term
Storage • Capacity of short-term storage
– George Miller noted that the capacity limit of
short-term storage is generally seven items
(plus or minus two), which is referred to as the
memory span
– Chunking: Using working memory to
organize information into meaningful units to
make it easier to remember
• See figure 7.8 next slide
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Long-Term Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Memories Relatively
Permanently • Long-term storage
– A memory storage system that allows
relatively permanent storage, of a probably
unlimited amount of information
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Long-Term Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Memories Relatively
Permanently • Encoding for long-term storage
– Maintenance rehearsal: Using working
memory processes to repeat information
based on how it sounds (auditory
information); provides only shallow encoding
of information
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Long-Term Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Memories Relatively
Permanently • Encoding for long-term storage
– Elaborative rehearsal: Using working
memory processes to think about how new
information relates to ourselves or our prior
knowledge (semantic information); provides
deeper encoding of information for more
successful long-term storage
• See figure 7.9 next slide
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Long-Term Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Memories Relatively
Permanently • Long-term storage versus short-term
storage
– Long-term storage lasts longer, has a far
greater capacity, and depends on deep
encoding of information
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Long-Term Storage Allows Us to
Maintain Memories Relatively
Permanently • Long-term storage versus short-term
storage
– The primacy effect refers to the better
memory people have for items presented at
the beginning of the list
– The recency effect refers to the better
memory people have for the most recent
items, the ones at the end of the list
• See figure 7.10 next slide
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Our Long-Term Storage Is Organized
Based on Meaning
• Schemas
– Decisions about how to chunk information
depend on schemas, ways of structuring
memories in long-term storage that help us
perceive, organize, process, and use
information
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Our Long-Term Storage Is Organized
Based on Meaning
• Association networks
– Meaning of information is organized in long-
term storage based on networks of
associations
– Spreading activation models of memory.
According to these models, information that is
heard or seen activates specific nodes for
memories in long-term storage
• See figure 7.11 next slide
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Section 7.3
What Are Our Different Long-Term
Storage Systems?
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7.3 What Are Our Different
Long-Term Storage Systems?
• Henry Molaison (H.M.)
• Retrograde amnesia
– A condition in which people lose the ability to
access memories they had before a brain
injury
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7.3 What Are Our Different
Long-Term Storage Systems?
• Anterograde amnesia
– A condition in which people lose the ability to
form new memories after experiencing a brain
injury
• See figures, 7.12, 7.13, 7.14a and 7.14b
next slide
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Our Explicit Memories Involve
Conscious Effort
• After the surgery, H.M. could not encode
new memories in long-term storage
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Our Explicit Memories Involve
Conscious Effort
• Amnesia and explicit memory
– Explicit memory: The system for long-term
storage of conscious memories that can be
verbally described
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Our Explicit Memories Involve
Conscious Effort
• Episodic and semantic memory
– Episodic memory: A type of explicit memory
that includes personal experiences
– Semantic memory: A type of explicit memory
that includes knowledge about the world
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Our Implicit Memories Function
Without Conscious Effort
• Implicit memory and amnesia
– Implicit memory: The system for long-term
storage of unconscious memories that cannot
be verbally described
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Our Implicit Memories Function
Without Conscious Effort
• Classical conditioning and procedural
memory
– Classical conditioning employs implicit
memory
– Procedural memory: A type of implicit
memory that involves motor skills and
behavioral habits
• See figure 7.17 next slide
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Prospective Memory Lets Us
Remember to Do Something
• Prospective memory
– Remembering to do something at some future
time
– Remembering to do something takes up
valuable cognitive resources
• See figure 7.18 next slide
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Memory Is Processed by Several
Regions of Our Brains
• Memory’s physical location
– Not all brain areas are equally involved in
memory; a great deal of specialization occurs
• Consolidation of memories
– Consolidation: A process by which
immediate memories become lasting through
long-term storage
• See figures 7.19, 7.20 next slide
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Memory Is Processed by Several
Regions of Our Brains
• Reconsolidation of memories
– Once memories are activated, they need to
be consolidated again for long-term storage;
this process is known as reconsolidation
– Retrieved memories can be affected by new
circumstances, so reconsolidated memories
may differ from their original versions
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Memory Is Processed by Several
Regions of Our Brains
• Reconsolidation of memories
– Researchers have shown that using the
classical conditioning technique of extinction
during the period when memories are
susceptible to reconsolidation can be an
effective method for altering bad memories
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Section 7.4
How Do We Access Our
Memories?
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7.4 How Do We Access Our
Memories?
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Retrieval Cues Help Us Access
Our Memories
• Retrieval cue
– Anything that helps a person access
information in long-term storage
• Context and state aid retrieval
– Context-dependent memory effect
– State-dependent memory
• See figure 7.22 next slide
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Retrieval Cues Help Us Access
Our Memories
• Mnemonics aid retrieval
– Mnemonics are learning aids or strategies
that use retrieval cues to improve access to
memory
– Method of loci
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We Forget Some of Our
Memories
• Forgetting
– The inability to access a memory from long-
term storage
– Hermann Ebbinghaus examined how long it
took him to relearn lists of unfamiliar
nonsense syllables and used these data to
develop the forgetting curve
• See figure 7.23 next slide
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We Forget Some of Our
Memories
• Interference
– Retroactive interference: When access to
older memories is impaired by newer
memories
– Proactive interference: When access to
newer memories is impaired by older
memories
• See figures 7.24a, 7.24b next slide
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We Forget Some of Our
Memories
• Blocking
– Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
– Blocking often occurs because of interference
from words that are similar in some way, such
as in sound or meaning, and that are
repeatedly experienced
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We Forget Some of Our
Memories
• Absentmindedness
– Absentmindedness is the inattentive or
shallow encoding of events. The major cause
of absentmindedness is failing to pay
attention
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Our Unwanted Memories May
Persist
• Persistence
– The continual recurrence of unwanted
memories from long-term storage
– Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
– Erasing memories leads to many ethical
questions
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Our Memories Can Be Distorted
• Distortion
– Human memory is not a perfectly accurate
representation of the past; it is flawed
• Memory bias
– Memory bias is the changing of memories
over time so that they become consistent with
our current beliefs or attitudes
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Our Memories Can Be Distorted
• Flashbulb memories
– These vivid memories seem like a flash
photo, capturing the circumstances in which
we first learned of a surprising and
consequential or emotionally arousing event
• See figures 7.26a and 7.26b next slide
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Our Memories Can Be Distorted
• Misattribution
– Misattribution occurs when we misremember
the time, place, person, or circumstances
involved with a memory
– In cryptomnesia, we think we have come up
with a new idea but really have retrieved an
old idea from memory and failed to attribute
the idea to its proper source
• See figure 7.27 next slide
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Our Memories Can Be Distorted
• Suggestibility
– When people are given misleading
information, this information affects their
memory for an event