Sapiens:TheHistoryofourSpecies“Lightwillbethrownontheoriginofmanandhishistory”

C.DarwinOriginofSpecies1868

Mark&SaritaLevinthalWALLAFall2018

OUR HISTORY AND CLOSE RELATIVES

The First 3.7 billion years

2

HumanEvoluGon•  GenusHomo2millionyearsold

– Howmanydifferentkindsofhumans?– Didtheymatewitheachother?– Howdohumanscomparetootherprimates?

•  UniquenessofHomosapiens.– Onlybipedalquadrupeds– Ourlargebrain

•  Abilitytocommunicate,understand,andcreatetools•  InvesGgateourhistoryandnature

– Ourculture,societyandreligion

3

Mammals

•  AncestralTraits–  GeneEvoluGon– Mammals

•  DerivedTraits-Primates–  Intelligence–  CommunicaGon–  OrganizedSociety– MaGngSchemes

ProbelesodonCynodont Adelobasileus-mammalianform

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Primates

•  DerivedTraits•  PrimateTaxonomy

–  Strepsirrhine–  Haplorhini

•  Platyrrhini•  Catarrhini

–  Hominids

5

UsingDNAforPhylogeny

•  MolecularPhylogeny

•  MolecularBarCode6

Paleontology•  Geochronology

–  StraGgraphy–  RadioisotopeDaGng

•  ExposuredaGng–  BiostraGgraphy

•  ThermoluminescencedaGng

•  IncrementaldaGng–  Dendrochronology–  Icecores–  Lichenometry–  Varves

•  PalemagneGcdaGng7

Archeology/Anthropology

•  StraGgraphicSurvey•  Remotesensing•  Fieldsurveys

– ExcavaGons– Analysis

•  Ethnography– SocialorganizaGon– Kinships– Myths

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OUR ANCESTORS AND CLOSE RELATIVES [TRIBE HOMINS]

Extinct animals after the Chimp/Homo split

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HomoDerivedTraits

•  Bipedalism•  Increasedbrainsize•  Decreasedsexualdimorphism•  Anatomical/PhysiologicalChanges

–  UlnaropposiGon–  Smallergut–  Genitaldevelopment–  Lossofbodyhair–  Chin–  EvoluGonofsweatglands–  Cannotbreathanddrinksimultaneously

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HomininTimeline

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Chimp-HomoLastCommonAncestor•  Ageofofsplit-7-10mya

•  Fossilevidence•  Sahelanthropustchadensis

•  Moleculardata•  MolecularClocks

•  Speciesinter-maGngmodel•  Chromosomestudies•  Incompletelineageassortment

12

Orrorintugenensis

•  Livedindryevergreenforest–  6.1-5.7myaKenya

•  DentaGonpabern–  Unique–  Canine-ape-like,smallermicrodont

•  Bipedalclimbedtrees•  ClassificaGon

–  Directhumanancestor

13

Ardipithecusramidus

•  Earliesthominidfossil–  Ethiopia4.4mya

•  Inhabitedwoodedarea–  AteC3plants

•  Anatomy(unlikeape)–  smallcranium:300-350cc–  Teeth-omnivore–  H=4gWt.=110lb.–  PrimiGvehand,foot,limbs–  Pelvis:changestobiped

14

GracileAustralopithecines

Species TemporalRangemya

Habitat Cranialcapacity

anamensis 4.2-3.9 Kenya ?

afarensis 3.9-2.9 SoAfrica 380-430cc

africanus 3.3-2.1 SoAfrica 485cc

garhi 2.5 450cc

•  homoprecursors–  ShortCanineteeth–  ScullplacementandfootprintBipedal

•  Tooluse–  FirsthominidwithduplicatedSGRP2(2.4mya)

•  SexuallyDimorphic

15

RobustAustralopithecines(Paranthropus)

•  EastAfrica2.7-1.3mya•  Derivedtraits

–  Face•  highinneurocranium

–  Shortsnout–  SagibalCrest–  Teeth

•  Incisors/caninessmallMolarsbig

– Massivejaw,molars•  Nuts,seeds,grasses

16

Species:Homo

Temporal(Kya)

Habitat AdultHeight

AdultMass(lb.)

CranialCapacity(cm3)5

habilis 2,330-1,440 EastAfrica 4’3” 73-121 550-687

rudolfensis 1900 Kenya 700ergaster 1,800-1,300 .Africa 5’9’’ 750-850erectus 1,900-143 Africa,

Eurasia5’11’ 130 900-1200

antecessor 1,200-800 W.Europe 5’9” 200 1000heidelbergensis 600-300 Europe,

Africa5’11” 200 1100-1400

sapiens 300-Present

Worldwide 4’7”-6’3” 110-220 950-1800

neanderthalensis 240-40 Europe,W.Asia

5’7” 121-154 1200-1900

floresiens 190-50 Indonesia 3’3” 55 400Denisova 40 Siberianaledi 300 S.Africa 4’11” 99 450

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DawnofHomosapiens•  OldestFossils

–  300,000N.Africa–  Faceevolvedbeforebackofskull

•  LivingancestralpopulaGon–  Khoi-San

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MigraGonofsapiens

20

Bab-el-Mandeb

MigraGontotheAmericas•  MigraGon22.7-18.4ka

–  LastGlacialMaximum–  2000females

•  IsolatedinEasternBeringia(15,000yrs.)–  Increaseinfemales–  Coastalentryroutesouth

•  ExGncGonofancientlineagesbyEuropeancolonizaGon

21

EuropeanEarlyModernHumans

•  Paleolithic–  Aurignacian–  Gravema

•  Glacialrefuges–  Solutrean– Magdalenian

•  Mesolithic

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Danube-RhineRiverMigraGonroute

COMPARING THE SAPIEN/APE GENOME

What genes make us human

23

In Memorial: Luigi Cavalli-Sforza 1922-2018

MaGngBetweenHomoSpecies

•  Non-Africanssapiens1-4%NeanderthalDNA–  40,000Romanian6-9%

•  4-6generaGonsago•  1-6%DenisovanDNA

– Melanesians,Aborigines,Polynesians

•  Neanderthal-Denisovan–  Hybridfemale–  90,000yearsago–  Neanderthalmother

24

PopulaGonGenomicsofsapiens:Present/Past

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Comparingourchromosomestochimps

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GeneGcDifferencesbetweenHumansandotherGreatApes

•  Human-Chimpsequences– 35millionsubsGtuGons-3%indel,duplicaGons

•  GeneAddiGons– SegmentalduplicaGons– HumanlineagespecificinserGons

27

ChangesinGeneRegulaGon•  HumanAcceleratedRegions

–  RegulatoryGenes•  EnhancerSequences•  RegulatoryGenesdeleted•  Linagespecificadultchangesingeneexpression– Tissuespecific– Modulespecific

•  Linagespecificdevelopmentalchanges– Timing

28

FOXP2:LanguageGene

•  MutaGoncausesaspeechdisorder•  FOXP2presentinmanyvertebrates•  EcholocaGoninbats

– Differentsequencesfordifferentecholators•  EcholocaGoninCetaceans

– AllcetaceansshareauniquethreeaminoacidsubsGtuGon

•  Songlearningincanaries– AcGvewhenrelearningsong

29

GeneslostintheHominidLine

• Genelossinhumanlineage(80)– 36–olfactoryreceptors– CASPASE16-reducedlethalityofbacterialinfecGon

•  LossofKRTHAP1–Thenakedape•  MYH16Myosingene

30

srGAP2gene

•  1/23genesduplicatedinhumansonly–  3.4myasrGAP2B(Australopithecus)–  2.4myasrGAP2C

•  100%sapiens;shortenedversion–  1myaSRGAP2D

•  Controlgene(RhoGTPaseacGvaGngprotein)•  Involved-neuralmigraGonandmaturaGon

–  srGAP2C(duplicate)slowsmaturaGon,increasesneuralspinedensity

–  Length/abilitybrainneurons31

THE ORIGINS OF CULTURAL TRAJECTORIES

Prehistory and ancient history

32

AnthropoceneEpoch

•  Epoch:sapienimpactongeology/ecosystems– FivepriormassexGncGons(600millionyears)– CurrentExGncGonrate(100fold)/extentincreased

– AgriculturalRevoluGon12-15,000yearsago•  Biodiversity

–  ExGncGonsinPaleolithicera•  ClimateChange

33

sapienIntelligence

•  PercepGonofReality–  Statesofconsciousness

BehavioralModernityWhendidithappen?

•  Theoryofthemind–  Selfawareness–  Awarenessofmindsofothers

•  EvoluGonoftheMind

34

StoneTools

•  Manufacture:lithicreducGonbyknapping•  ModeI:OldowanIndustry•  ModeII:AcheuleanIndustry•  ModeIII:MousterianIndustry•  ModeIV:AurignacianIndustry•  ModeV:MicrolithicIndustry•  NeolithicIndustry

35

SpeechandSymbols

•  AnatomicalExapGons–  Tongue–  Lips–  Respiratorycontrol–  Larynx

•  NeurologicaladapGon–  Broca’sArea– Wernicke'sarea

•  LanguageevoluGontheories

36

OriginsofReligion

•  AnthropologicTheories–  CausalConnecGons–  Socialcohesion

•  PaleolithicEvidence•  OrganizedReligion

–  FormaGonofStates–  BicameralBrain

37

OriginofVisualArt

•  EarliestArt•  ArtoftheMiddlePaleolithic

– NeanderthalArt•  ArtoftheUpperPaleolithic

– RockandCavePainGng–  Jewelry– Sclputure

38

SocialEvoluGonofsapiensPeriod-yearsbeforePresent

SocietyType NumberofIndividuals

WorldPopulaGon

100,000-10,000 Bands 10s-100s 100,000

10,000-5,000 Tribes 100s-1000s 2million

5000-3000 Chiefdoms 1,000-10,000 18million

3000-1000 States 10,000-100,000 45million

2000-Present Empires 100,000-1,000,000 7.4billion

39

NeolithicRevoluGon

•  FounderGrains•  DomesGcaGonofAnimals

•  CulturalFicGons

FerGleCrescent40

WhyEuropeans?

•  TheScienGficRevoluGonTheory(Harari)•  Europewasresourcepoor(Diamond)

41

Linked slides

AncestralTraits

Linkedslide4.1

TECHNIQUES

44

AnimalCell/MaternalInheritance

Linkedslide6.1

MitochondrialEve

•  Lived140-200kya•  CommonFallacies

–  Shewasnottheonlywoman–  mt.evecanchange–  Notacontemporaryof“Adam–  NottheMRCAofallsapiens

Linkedslide6.2

PrimatemtDNAtree

Linkedslide6.3

YchromosomeAdam

•  Y-MRCAforsapiens275,000–  sapiens-Neanderthal588,000

•  Uncoverpreviouslyunknowndivergentlineages:–  Y-chromosomelineageswouldconvergeonanindividualwholivedfurtherbackinGme.

•  ThediscoveryofaddiGonaldeeprooGngmutaGonsinknownlineagescouldleadtoarearrangementofthefamilytree.

•  RevisionoftheY-chromosomemutaGonratecanchangetheesGmateoftheGmewhenhelived

Linkedslide6.4

Whatareisotopes?•  Allatomshaveauniqueatomicnumber

–  Equalnumberofprotons(mass)andelectrons(chemicalproperGes)

–  Containneutronsequaltoormorethanprotons•  Isotopesareversionsofatomscontainingmorethan

normalneutrons–  Someisotopesareunstable–  DecayatacharacterisGcrate

•  ExponenGal-asetproporCondecaysperunitGme– Half-life:Timespaninwhichhalftheisotopicatomshavedecayed

– Measuredbyphysio-chemicaltechniques

Linkedslide7.1

STONE TOOLS Lithic Industry

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LithicReducGon

Hammerstone

scrappersLinkedslide35.1

ModeItoolsOldowan

•  Manufacture-Hammerstonestruckonedgeofcore

•  Uses–  Heavydutymostlycoreschoppers

–  Lightduty-flakesscrappers,awls

•  ToolUsers–  A.garhi,H.habilis,H.erectus

Linkedslide35.2

ModeII:Acheulean

•  LowerPaleolithic•  ToolTypes

–  Stages– Manufacture–  Uses

•  DistribuGon•  Users

Linkedslide35.3

ModeIIIMousterian

•  MiddlePaleolithic•  Toolkit

–  Types– Manufacture–  Uses

•  Users•  LocaGons

Linkedslide35.4

ModeIV:Aurignacian•  UpperPaleolithic•  Toolkit

–  Types– Manufacture–  Uses

•  LocaGons•  Users

slide35.5

MicrolithicIndustry•  Toolkit•  UpperPaleolithic

–  Types–  Manufacture

•  Uses•  LocaGons•  Users

Linkedslide35.6

TruncatedBlades

BackededgeBladeDufourpoints

GravemaMicropoint

NeolithicIndustry

•  NeolithicPeriods•  LithicTechnology•  OtherArGfacts

Linkedslide35.7

DERIVED TRAITS HOMO

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Bipedalism

•  Earliesthominids•  AdapGvevalue•  AnatomicalChanges

–  Foot–  Knee–  Limbs–  Hips–  Vertebralcolumn–  Skull

Linkedslide10.1

BrainSize

•  Post-natalbraingrowth•  Changesinbrainstructure–  Temporallobe–  Pre-frontalcortex–  neocortex–  cerebellum

•  Changesinskullmorphology

Linkedslide10.2

SexualDimorphism

•  Malechanges– ReducGonofmalecanineteeth– Reducedmalebrowridges

•  Femalechanges– Hiddenestrus– YearroundferGlity– Menopause

•  NeotonyLinkedslide10.3

PRIMATES

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Strepsirrhine

Colugos

GalagosLoris

TreeShrew

LemurEu-Primatefossil

Linkedslide5.1

•  Ancestraltraits–  Nocturnal–  doublechambereduterus

•  Derivedtraits–  Eyesandvision–  Auditory–  Anatomy–  Ecology

Tarsier

Tarsier

Linkedslide5.2

NewWorldMonkeys

•  Small-mid-size–  120g-15kg

•  Flat-nose•  Prehensiletail•  Arboreal•  Formmonogamouspairbonds–  Parentalcare

•  Intelligence

Linkedslide5.3

Catarrhini

•  DerivedTraits•  EvoluGon•  Groups

– Cercopithecidea(OldWorldMonkeys)– Hominoidea(Apes)

Linkedslide5.4

OldWorldMonkeys

•  Derivedtraits–  Tail–  Size–  Teeth

•  Naturalhistory–  Habitat–  Diet–  ReproducGon

•  Tooluse

Linkedslide5.4.1

•  Hylobates•  Ponginea•  Gorilla•  Chimps

Linkedslide5.4.2

Hylobates

•  SexualDimorphic–  pairbond

•  Small,tailless•  Swingbetweenbranches

•  Diverged16.8mya–  Generadiverge5-7mya–  chromosomerearrangement

Gibbons Linkedslide5.4.2.1

Pongo(orangutans)•  Pongosplit8.5-12.5mya•  OriginatedinAfrica

–  human-apeclade–  16.9-19mya

•  CurrentlyliveinBorneo–  Arboreal,solitary

•  Highlyintelligent–  SophisGcatedtools–  Elaboratesleepingnests–  Possiblecultures

Linkedslide5.2.2.2

Gorilla•  Largestprimate

– Knuckle-walk/bipedal•  Buildnests-architecturaltools•  SocialGroupings•  CommunicaGon

– Ritualizedaggression•  Intelligence

Gorilla

Linkedslide5.4.2.3

Chimps

BonobosChimps

TwodifferentspeciesEasternChimpshaveBonobosgenes

NaturalHistoryIntelligence

Linkedslide5.4.2.3

HOMININ SPECIES

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ConstrucGonofthemolecularclock

•  Comparethesequencedifferencebetweenindividualproteins•  Sumdataforallhomologousproteinsfromdifferentspecies•  Plotsequencedatavs.Lmeofdivergencedatafromfossilrecord

Linkedslide12.1

Australopithecusanamensis

•  Lived4mya– Wetwoodlandnearlake

•  ComparetoArdipithecus–  retainedape-likecraniaanddenGGon

–  advancedhominid-likepostcranial

•  Bipedal

Linkedslide15.1

Australopithecusafarensis•  Lucy-Fossilrecord

–  Sexuallydimorphic•  Re-organizedBrain

–  parietalcerebralcortex•  Enlarged(Homotype)

•  Faceprojectsforward–  Largecanines–  Ape-likedentaGonpabern

•  Post-cranial-ape/homo–  Femurlong–  Forearmsshort–  Fingerscurved

Linkedslide15.2

Australopithecusafricanus

•  Bipedal-morehuman-like–  Iliacbladeshort/wide–  SciaGcnotch

•  Flaberface–  Jawmuscleschange–  Smallercanines–  Lesssexualdimorphism

Linkedslide15.3

Australopithecusgarhi

•  Anatomy–  DentaGonpabern

•  Largepre-molars

–  Human-likelimbproporGons

•  Toolmakeranduser•  Livedattheedgeoflake,grasslandarea

Linkedslide15.4

HOMO SPECIES

79

Linkedslide17.1

Homohabilis•  AncestralTraits•  Derivedtraits•  Bipedalability•  ClimateChange(2.5mya)•  TaxonomicposiGon•  AppearenceinEurope

Linkedslide17.2

Homorudolfensis

•  Africanorigin1.9Mya•  Cranialstructure•  TaxonomicPosiGon

82Linkedslide17.3

Homoergaster•  Africanversionerectus

•  Derivedtraits•  Differencefromheidelbergensis

•  Differencefromerectus•  Tooluse•  Harnessedfire•  Anatomicallycapableoflanguageuse

Linkedslide17.4

Homoerectus

•  TaxonomicposiGon•  ExpansionoutofAfrica•  Tooluse•  FireUse•  Hunter-GathererSociety

•  AncestralHeritage

Linkedslide17.5

H.habilis/H.erectus

Linkedslide17.5.2

Homoantecessor

–  ClassificaGon–  EarlyHumanpresenceinEurope

–  Physiology–  TransiGonfossils

Linkedslide17.6

Homoheidelbergensis

•  Taxonomy–  DerivaGon–  Gaveriseto

•  Tools•  Genomeanalysis

Linkedslide17.6

Homoneanderthalensis

•  GenomiccomparisontosapiensSharedwithsapiens

Differentfromsapiens

•  Morphology•  Tooluse•  Art•  Behavior•  ExGncGon

Linkedslide17.7

D Reich et al. Nature 468, 1053-1060 (2010) doi:10.1038/nature09710

Aneighbour-joiningtreebasedonpairwiseautosomalDNAsequencedivergencesforfiveancientandfivepresent-dayhominins.

NeanderthalsCroaGa

NeanderthalCaucus

Kalahari

Nigeria

Linkedslide17.8

Homofloresiensis

•  Discovered:islandofFlores(Indonesia)–  DeanFalk

•  Age:50,000to100,000yearsold.•  Nicknamed“hobbit”•  Otherdwarfismexamples-Pygmyelephants–  Hunted

Linkedslide17.9

Homonaledi

•  DaGng236-325kya•  DinalediChamber-Burialspot

•  Brain–smallbutcomplex

•  Anatomy–  ancestral–  derived

Linkedslide17.10

Supraorbitalforamen

Linkedslide17.4.1

OutofAfrica

•  HumansinGeorgianSteppes1.77yearsago

•  Homohabilisorerectus–  Smallstatureandbrain

•  650cm3

– WalkedlikeChimps– Mode1toolkit

•  HuntedEurasianmammals

Linkedslide17.2.1

Humangenomes

Linkedslide17.7.1

ExpansionfromAfricaH.erectus

Linkedslide17..5.1

Khoi-San

Linkedslide19.1

Earlyart

Linkedslide39.1

EngravedShell-holenotshown

AbstractDrawing-RedOchre

NeanderthalArt

Linkedslide39.2

CaveArt

Linkedslide39.3

RhinoFrance

AurochFrance

HandsIndonesia

Sculpture

Linkedslide39.4