Santrock_HumanDevelopment(13thEd.)_Chapter1

Notes/Reviewer on Human Development (UST) Prepared by: Burgos, Assumpta Minette C.

INTRODUCTION

Ted Kaczynski

Sprinted through high school

HS: Made passing efforts at social contact

Attended Harvard University at age 16

Was a loner during his college years

Avoided people by quickly shuffling by them and

slamming the door behind him

Took up his Ph.D. in mathematics at

University of California at Berkeley

Hid from social contact

Moved to a rural area if Montana

Lived in a shack for 25 years

Described as a bearded eccentric

Described himself as a genius in a kids body

and sticking out like a sore thumb in his

surroundings as a child

1996: charged and arrested

Became a notorious Unabomber, Americas

most wanted killer

Sent 16 mail bombs

Wounded and maimed 23 people

3 people dead

Pleaded guilty

Sentenced to life in prison

Alice Walker

Born in 1944

Eight child of Georgia sharecroppers who

earned $300 a year

8 yrs old: brother accidentally shot her in the

left eye with a BB gun

Blind in the left eye

Battled racism in Mississippi

Won her first fellowship

Used the price to put herself into the heart and

heat of civil rights movement

Won a Pulitzer Price for her book The Color

Purple

A novelist, essayist, poet, short-story writer, and

a social activist

1. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE

Development the pattern of movement or change

that begins from conception and continues

throughout the life span.

IMPORTANCE OF LIFE-SPAN

PERSPECTIVE

DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES GROWTH AND

DECLINE

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE-SPAN

PERSPECTIVE

Traditional approach study of development

emphasize extensive change from birth to

adolescence, little or no change in adulthood

and decline in old age

Life span based on oldest age documented

122 years oldest age documented

Life expectancy average number of years that a

person can expect to live

78 years current life expectancy

Note:

Maximum life span of humans has not changed

since the beginning, but life expectancy has.

Life span perspective, views development as:

1. Lifelong

- No age period dominated development.

2. Multidimensional

- Development consists of biological,

socio-emotional and cognitive factors.

3. Multidirectional

- Some dimensions expand, some shrink

Ex.

Children acquiring second or third

language decreases

Adolescence time with friends decrease

Adults- perform more poorly on tasks that

require speed in processing information

4. Plastic

Plasticity capacity for change


5. Multidisciplinary

- Interest of various disciplines

neuroscientists, psychologists,

anthropologists, sociologists, etc.

6. Contextual

- Develop within context

Context changes

- influenced by historical, social,

economic and social factors.

a. normative age-graded influences

- changes that occur in a particular age

group

b. normative history-graded influences

- changes that occur in a particular

generation

c. nonnormative life events

- unusual occurrences that have a major

influence on an individual

7. Involves growth, maintenance and regulation

of loss

8. Co-construction of biology, individual and

cognitive

SOME CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS

1. Health and Well-Being

2. Parenting and Education

3. Socio-cultural Contexts and Diversity

culture patterns/beliefs passed on from

generation to generation

- result of interaction

cross-cultural studies

- compare two or more cultures- similar,

culture-specific, across culture

ethnicity religion, language, races, nationality,

cultural heritage.

socioeconomic status (SES)

- status based on education, position and

economic status

2. NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND

SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES 1. Biological - changes in physical nature

Height and weight gains

Changes in motor skills

Nutrition

Exercise

Hormonal changes

Cardiovascular decline

2. Cognitive - changes in thoughts, knowledge, and

language

Putting together a two-word sentence

Memorizing a poem

Imagining what is it like to live your dream

Solving a crossword puzzle

3. Socio-emotional - changes in relationship,

personality and emotion

Response to touch

Toddlers aggressive attack on playmate

School ages assertiveness

Adolescent enjoying senior prom

Elderly couple reflecting

CONNECTING BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE,

AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

Developmental cognitive neuroscience

links between development, cognitive, and

the brain

Developmental socioemotional neuroscience

links between development,

socioemotional, and the brain.

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT birth 2 5 11 21 30s 50s 70s

1. Prenatal period - conception to birth

Tremendous growth

Nine-month period


2. Infancy period - birth to 18-24 month

Extreme dependence on parents

Psychological learning- symbolic thoughts,

sensorimotor coordination, and social

learning- are beginning

3. Early childhood - 2 to 5

Preschool years

More time is spent playing with pears

More self-sufficient and to care for

themselves

*School readiness (following instructions,

identifying letters)

First grade marks the end of early childhood

4. Middle and late childhood - 6 to 11

Elementary years

Fundamental skills writing, reading and

arithmetic skills are mastered

Achievement becomes central theme

*Self-control increases

5. Adolescence 10-12 to 18-21

Rapid physical changes

Pursuit of independence and identity

*thoughts are more logical, abstract and

idealistic.

More time is spent outside the family

6. Early adulthood 20s to 30s

Establishing economic and social

independence

*career development

Selecting a mate

Starting a family

Learning to live with someone in an intimate

way

7. Middle adulthood 40s to 50s

Maintaining and *reaching satisfaction in

career

Mentoring youths

*personal and social involvement and

responsibility

8. Late adulthood 60s to 70s

Life review

Retirement

*adjustment to new social roles

Decreasing strength and health

Longest span

Baltes and Jacqui argued that major changes

happen in an adult lives as they become the oldest

of the old.

Oldest of the old loss in cognitive skills , increase

in chronic stress, more frail

Baltes and Jacqui considerable PLASTICITY and

ADAPTABILITY characterize adults from their 60s

until their mid-80s

FOUR AGES

Four ages developmentalist who focus that adult

development and aging describe life-span

development

1. First

Childhood, adolescence

2. Second

Prime adulthood,

20s to 50s

3. Third

60 to 79

Healthier, more active, more productive

4. Fourth

80 and older

Health and well-being decline

CONNECTIONS ACROSS PERIODS OF

DEVELOPMENT

Development in one period is connected to the

development of another period.


THE SIGINIFANCE OF AGE 1. Age and Happiness

- happiness increases with age

- older adults:

o more content with what they have

o have better relationship with the

people who mattered to them

o less pressured to achieve

o have more time for leisurely pursuits

o have many years of experiences

which helps them to adapt

2. Conceptions of Age

Chronological age is not relevant to understanding

a persons psychological development

Chronological age number of years that have

elapsed since birth

Biological age persons age in terms of biological

health.

*The younger the persons biological age, the longer

the person is expected to live.

Psychological age individuals adaptive capacities

Example: hates groupmate but o well,

continues work, maturity

*older adults who continue to learn, are

flexible, are motivated, have personality

controls, control their emotions, and think

clearly are engaging in more adaptive

behaviors.

Social age social roles and expectations related to

a persons age.

Example: tantrums

Teen pregnancy is not an example of any but is an

offshoot of it, meaning its the consequence/effect

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES 1. Nature and Nurture

- extent to which it is influenced by nature and

by nurture

Nature biological inheritance

*An evolutionary and genetic foundation

produces commonalities in growth and development

Nurture environmental factors/experiences

*Extreme environment represses

development

2. Stability and Change

- degree to which early traits and

characteristics persist through life or change

Stability result of heredity and possibly early

experiences in life.

Change later experiences can produce change

3. Continuity and Discontinuity

- degree to which development involves

either gradual or distinct stages.

Continuity (QUANTITATIVE)

gradual, cumulative change

-- oak growing, puberty

Discontinuity (QUALITATIVE)

distinct stages

-- butterfly

EVALUATING THE DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Development is strongly influenced by these factors

3. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Scientific method:

1. conceptualize a process or problem

2. collect research information (data)

3. analyze data

4. draw conclusion


theory interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps

to explain a phenomena and make predictions

hypothesis specific assertions and predictions

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

Psychoanalytic theories:

1. primarily unconscious

2. heavily colored by emotions

3. behavior is a surface characteristic

4. development requires analyzing of symbolic

meanings

5. development requires analyzing of inner workings

of the mind

6. early experiences extensively affect development

PSYCHOANALYTIC PSCYCHOSOCIAL

5 stages 8 stages

Primary motivation is

sexual in nature

Primary motivation is to

affiliate with other

people

The first five years of an

individuals life is the

crucial to ones

development

Development occurs

throughout the life span

Early experiences are

more important than

later ones


equally important to

later experiences

1. FREUDS THEORY

OAPLG : 1.5 3 6 PUBERTY ONWARDS

Nature Change Discontinuous (L)

DEFINITION:

The two cornerstones for this theory are sex

and aggression.

Human are naturally sexual and aggressive

beings.

Behavior is caused by hidden disturbances

and controlled by unconscious, instinctual, and

aggressive drives.

Do not have free will.

Problems were the result of experiences

early in life

Focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts

from the mouth to the anus and eventually to

the genitals

Fixated or locked in, if the need for pleasure is

overgratified or undergratified

BEGINNINGS:

Josef Breuer used hypnosis

Bertha Pappenheim

-- Anna O

-- Austrian-Jewish Feminist

-- social pioneer and founder of many institutions

-- suffered hysteric symptoms

-- suffered aphasia, neuralgia, visual

impairments, paralysis of the right side of the

body, extreme mood swings, eating disorder,

and amnesia.

aphasia only being able to talk in English, French

or Spanish

neuralgia facial pain

Studies on Hysteria

-- physical symptoms are caused by deep

conflicts.

THREE LEVELS OF THE MIND:

iceberg there is much to be seen above but what

constitutes the most part of the iceberg is

whats below the water.

1. conscious

-- tip of the iceberg

-- minds mental processes


-- focus of our attention

2. preconscious

-- below the water surface

-- can be easily retrieved

3. unconscious

-- bulk of the iceberg

-- instincts, primitive urges

-- contains significant and disturbing materials

that are the real causes of our behavior.

THE PSYCHE:

1. id

It

Inherited component of personality

Internal and basic needs

hunger

thirst

sleep

sexual

aggressive drives

newborn child example of such

Pleasure Principle every wishful thinking

impulse must be satisfied immediately despite

the consequences

Primary process thinking irrational, illogical,

impulsive

2. ego

I

Second element

Decision-making part

Directly influenced by the outside world

Helps separate what is the realistic of the egos

standards

Rationalizes ids instinct

riding a horseback id is the powerful force,

while the ego is what the reins the power in.

Reality Principle works out realistic ways to

follow the ids demands to avoid bad

consequences.

Secondary process thinking realistic,

rational, logical.

3. superego

Above I

Last to develop

Ages 3 to 5

Higher thoughts and actions

Incorporates values and morals from family and

society

Controls ids impulses

Orient the ego to create moralistic solutions

2 systems: (developed during childhood)

1. Conscience employs guilt whenever the

ego succumbs to ids demands.

2. Ideal-self imaginary picture of ourselves

-- includes goals and aspirations

DEFENSE MECHANISMS:

1. Repression

First defense mechanism that Freud

discovered.

Keeps disturbing thoughts from entering the

consciousness.

E: repress thoughts that could result to

guilt.

2. Projection

Attributing your thoughts and feelings to

another person.

E: aggressive or sexual fantasies.

3. Displacement

Redirection of an impulse to an object

E: sexual frustration

4. Regression

Going back to a psychological time

E: sucking your thumb, wetting the bed


5. Sublimation

Displaces your emotions to something more

constructive

E: art artwork

6. Denial

Block out the events from your awareness

E: smoker refusing that smoking is bad

for ones health

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES:

1. Psychosexual Stages

Libido have various erogenous zones

Has 5 stages

Fixation may occur when not completed

2. Neo-Analytic

Development does not stop at age 6

Development is a lifetime

Jung, Horney, Erikson, Anna Freud

5 PSYCHOANALYTIC STAGES

OAPLG : 1.5 3 6 PUBERTY ONWARDS


1. Oral

Birth to 1.5 years

Pleasure point: mouth

Satisfies by putting things inside the mouth

E: tasting, licking, sucking, and

swallowing

Rooting and sucking reflexes

Child learns to be less dependent

Go through process of weaning

Weaning infants starts to take food from a

different source other than the breast

Incomplete stage: nail biting, smoking,

chewing objects, drinking and/or eating

problems.

2. Anal

1.5 years to 3

Pleasure point: anus (potty training)

Taught to control bowel movement

Ability to pass or withhold feces

Anal-retentive personality forcing the

child to control their bowel movement

Effects of anal-retentive personality:

stubborn, obsessively tidy, punctual

and very careful over their money.

Anal-expulsive adults soiled their pants

whenever they pleased.

Effects of anal-repulsive personality:

messy, disorganized, and rebellious

3. Phallic

3 to 6

Pp: genitals

Sexual desires for parent

Oedipus Complex boy unconsciously

hates and wishes for the death of his father.

Desires mother

Castration punishment of the boy

Electra complex girl hates mother and

wishes to have a penis.

4. Latency

7 to puberty

Child represses sexual interest and develops

social and intellectual skills

Dormant stage

Parents discourage sexual activities

5. Genital

Puberty onward

Sexual reawakening

Sexual urges are directed towards engaging

in sexual intercourse with the opposite sex.

Sexual instincts are directed towards

opposite sex.

Fixation: inability to maintain a stable

relationship.


2. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

TAGICISI : 1 3 5 PUBERTY 20s 30s 50s

death

Nurture Change Discontinuous( L)

8 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

TAGICISI : 1 3 5 PUBERTY 20s 30s

50s death

Nurture Change Discontinuous( L)

1. TRUST vs MISTRUST

Birth to one

World as a good place to live in

+

Children are provided with their basic needs

Constantly experience the pleasant voice of

caregiver

World is loving

too little trust makes them gullible and vulnerable

-

Caregiver constantly fails to provide the child with

his/her basic needs.

World is ignorant.

too much trust leads to frustration, depression,

hostility and aggression.

2. AUTONOMY vs SHAME AND DOUBT

1 to 3

Discover their own behavior.

+

The caregiver gave the child the independence to

explore their own surroundings, believe in their

selves.

-

Shame and doubt are instilled when they are not

given the liberty to make their own choices.

3. INITIATIVE vs GUILT

3 to 5 : Preschool years

Children are active, purposeful, and responsible.

+

When the child is given the chance to explore and

try his own ideas and try out new things.

-

When people reject their efforts.

4. INDUSTRY vs INFERIORITY

6 to puberty

Mastering the childs basic fundamental (reading,

writing, and arithmetic) skills.

+

When the child is encouraged by his to teacher,

the child gains confidence and feels empowered.

-

When the child is ignored or scolded, the child

starts to doubt himself and his capabilities.

5. IDENTITY vs ROLE CONFUSION

puberty to early 20s

Find out who they are, what they are all about,

and where they are going.

What do I want to become?

Will I fit in?

How will I stand out?

+

If successful, the adolescent has a strong sense

of identity and less prone to anxiety.

-

If unsuccessful, adolescent becomes confused

and may result to blending in.

6. INTIMACY vs ISOLATION

20s to 30s

Forming intimate relationships

Am I loved and wanted?

Shall I share my life with someone or live alone?

+

In order to create a relationship, one must

establish an identity

-

The person lacking the ability to form reciprocal

exchanges based on understanding, support and

empathy.

7. GENERATIVITY vs STAGNATION

40s to 50s

Helping the younger generation to live a useful

life

What may I offer?

Will I be of value or fail to be?

+

Help the younger generation

-

Adults who are averse to contribute to the

younger generation


8. INTEGRITY vs DESPAIR

60s to death

Reflection of the past

+

An individual is proud of what he or she has

accomplished.

Integrity leads to the attainment of wisdom.

-

An individual manifest regret, bitterness, and loss

of hope.

This leads to ceasing the meaning of life.

ISSUES

NURTURE CHANGE DISCON

QUALITATIVE

Related to

experiences

and the

environment

No absolute

change occurs

throughout a

persons

development

They go

through a

cycle

DIFFERENCES

PSYCHOANALYTIC PSCYCHOSOCIAL

5 stages 8 stages

Primary motivation is

sexual in nature

Primary motivation is to

affiliate with other

people

The first five years of an

individuals life is the

crucial to ones

development

Development occurs

throughout the life span


more important than

later ones


equally important to

later experiences

OAPLG TAGICISI

1.5 3 6 puberty

onwards

1 3 5 puberty 20s

30s 50s death

Nature Nurture

Change Change

Discontinuous (L) Discontinuous (L)

COGNITIVE THEORIES Cognitive theories:

1. primarily conscious

DIFFERENCES

Piaget Vgotsky Info-Pro

Focused on

children

Focused on

development

on children

Focused on

development

across

cultures.

Focused on the

role of

language.

Focused on

social factors.

Based on the

verbalization

of devt.

Focused

process of

memory and

thinking

Proposed

stages

Cognitive

development is

a continuous

process.

Focused on

basic cognitive

process

Information is

processes,

manipulated,

and stored.

Nature Nurture Nature

Change Change Change

Discon. (L) Contin. (N) Contin (N)

Non Reduc Non Reduc

Mechanistic Mechanistic

1. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

(PIAGET)

SPCF: 2 7 11 15


Schema basic building block

FOUR PROCESSES

1. assimilation adopt the ways of another

culture


2. accommodation look for a common

ground

3. equilibrium state of cognitive balance

4. disequilibrium

FOUR STAGES

SPCF: 2 7 11 15

1. SENSORIMOTOR

Birth to 2

Coordinating sensory experiences to motoric

actions

Actions are discovered by accident and are

done repeatedly

a. Reflexive

0 to 2 months

Infants responds to a particular stimuli

Reflexes are vital to ones survival

Sucking the pacifier

b. Primary circular reactions

2 to 4 months

Accidentally discover new actions and

coordinating them with sensations

Actions give pleasure

Sucking (oral stage)

c. Secondary circular reactions

4 to 8 months

Do more intentional actions

More responsive

Realize that their actions affects the objects

around him

Grabbing the toy and putting it in his mouth

d. Coordination of secondary reactions

8 to 12 months

Goal-oriented behavior

Does things for their own credit

OBJECT PERMANENCE is the awareness

that a certain object exists even if it is not in

sight.

Peek-a-boo

e. Tertiary circular reactions

12 to 18 months

Behavior becomes more flexible

They crave for attention by creating

sounding and moving.

Experimenting with objects leads to new

outcomes

Dropping the ball at different heights

f. Invention of New Means through Mental

Combination

18 to 24 months

Symbolic thought mental representation

Deferred imitation when a child

remembers an past action and imitates them

at a later time rather than on the spot

2. PREOPERATIONAL

2 to 7

Lack of understanding concrete logic

Symbolic thoughts use symbols to

represent things

Egocentrism they can only see and

understand things in their own perspective

Do not have a sense of conservation

3. CONCRETE

7 to 11

Logical thinking

Inductive logic deriving a conclusion form

a particular principle to a general one.

Reversibility actions can be preserved.

Recognize his dog a Labrador, that a

Labrador is a dog, that a dog is an animal.

Conservation when something changes its

shape or appearance it still remains the

same.

Disappearance of egocentrism.

Decentration ability to focus on different

things at the same time

Sociocentric understand that people have

thoughts of their own.

4. FORMAL

11 to 15

Abstract thoughts ability to develop

images of ideal circumstances

Logical reasoning solves the problem in

a scientific method.


2. SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY

(VGOTSKY)

Nurture Change Continuous (N)

Nonreductionist Mechanistic

Socioemotional

DEFINITION:

Connections between people and the

sociocultural context in which they act and interact in

shared experiences.

Community plays a central role in the

process of making meaning

Speech and thought becomes

interdependent.

Speech and though become verbal and

representational.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES

1. Interaction = changes

Social interaction will lead to changes in a childs

mind and manner of conducting ones self.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Problem solving under the guidance of a more

knowledgeable other.

Consequently, the individual becomes more

socialized.

2 dispositions:

1. subjectivity

- beginning a task with a different

understanding

2. scaffolding

- change in social assistance over the

course of a teaching session

3. Language as mans greatest tool.

2 Critical Roles:

1. Manner/methods of an adult in transmitting

information to children.

2. Language as a powerful tool of intellectual

adaptation.

3 Forms of languages:

1. Social speech

external communication. In other words,

communication with others.

2. Private speech

-- internal communication used to self.

Serves intellectually

3. Private inner speech

diminishes in audibility as it transforms

to silent inner speech.

-- monologues

Pilipinas Estados Unidos

Spoon and fork Spoon and knife

Titio, tita First name basis

Extended family Nuclear family

2. INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Nature Change Continuous (N)

Nonreductionist Mechanistic

Biological

DEFINITION:

Human mind receives information,

processes it and stores.

Emphasizes a continuous pattern of

development.

3 PROCESSES:

1. input analysis of stimuli

2. storage coding and manipulation of a stimuli

3. Output preparation for an appropriate response

to a stimuli.

NOTE:

Information that is received can go to

different paths depending on attention, encoding,

recognition, and storage.

SYSTEM:

1. Information is processed by the Working Memory

or Short Term Memory

*working memory is where information are

temporarily held before discarding or transferring to

the long term memory.

2. Information is transferred and stored to the Long

Term Memory.


*long term memory provide unlimited

repository for all facts and knowledge acquired. It

gradually expands. It also allows easy retrieval of

information once it is needed.

DIFFERENCES

Piaget Vgotsky Info-Pro

Focused on

children

Focused on

development

on children

Focused on

development

across

cultures.

Focused on the

role of

language.

Focused on

social factors.

Based on the

verbalization

of devt.

Focused

process of

memory and

thinking

Proposed

stages

Cognitive

development is

a continuous

process.

Focused on

basic cognitive

process

Information is

processes,

manipulated,

and stored.

Nature Nurture Nature

Change Change Change

Discon. (L) Contin. (N) Contin (N)

Non Reduc Non Reduc

Mechanistic Mechanistic

BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE

THEORIES

Behaviorism we can only study scientifically what

can be directly understand and observed and

measured.

Skinner Bandura

Nurture Nurture

Change Change

Continuous

Cognitive Cognitive

Socioemotional Socioemotional

1. SKINNERS OPERANT CONDITIONING


Cognitive - Socioemotional

1. SKINNERS OPERANT CONDITIONING



DEFINITION:

Method of learning that associates behavior

and certain consequences to that behavior.

Operant meaning any active behavior that

operates upon the environment to generate

consequences.

EXPERIMENT:

Skinner created a box that had a lever

that when pulled would release food and

momentarily stops electric shock. This box

would contain a small animal (rat). The rat then

accidentally pulled the lever, consequently

releasing food (positive reinforcement) and

stopping electric shock (negative

reinforcement). Once the rat realizes the patter,

it would repeatedly do it.


TERMS:

Reinforcement strengthens or increases behavior.

Positive reinforcement adding something to

increase the behavior. (giving reinforcers)

Negative reinforcement taking away something to

increase behavior. (

Punishment decreases or weakens behavior

Positive punishment adding an unfavorable

stimulus to decrease behavior (pay bail)

Negative punishment removing something to

decrease behavior (confiscation of phones)

SCHEDULE:

Continuous reinforcement reinforced every time

a specific behavior occurs.

Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforced after the

behavior is done for a certain number of times.

Fixed interval reinforcement reinforced in a fixed

time interval but at least one correct answer has been

made.

Variable ratio reinforcement reinforced after

unpredictable number of times.

Variable interval reinforcement giving reinforcers

at changing and inconsistent periods of time.

2. BANDURAs SOCIAL COGNITIVE



DEFINTION:

Learning by observing (observational

learning).

EXPERIMENT:

Observer (child) were asked to watch a video

wherein a woman hits a bobo doll aggressively. After

watching the video, the observer plays in a room with

the same object. Here, the child either imitates what

he/she has observed or not.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS:

1. Observational learning.

2. Internal processes may lead to the behavior- it all

depends on the observer.

3. Goal-directed behavior.

4. Self- regulating people regulate their own

behavior.

5. Reinforcements and punishments have indirect

effect to behavior.

TYPES OF MODELS:

1. live models observational models

2. symbolic models fictional characters that can

influence ones behavior

DIAGRAM:

Reciprocal determinism - important relationship

between observing other and learning.

Triadic reciprocal causation interplay between

environmental factors, personal and cognitive factors

which lead to certain behaviors.


DIFFERENCES

Skinner Bandura

Nurture Nurture

Change Change

Continuous

Cognitive Cognitive

Socioemotional Socioemotional

LIFE COURSE THEORY EEASMEL : 22 28 33 40 45 50 above

Nurture Change Discontinuous

Socioemotional

DEFINITION:

Life course interaction between historical events,

personal decisions, and individual opportunities.

-- concrete character of life in its evolution

from beginning to end

Course indicates sequence, temporal flow

Life structure underlying patter or design of a

persons life at a given time

-- develops through an orderly

sequence of age-linked periods during adult years.

2 KEY CONCEPTS:

1. Structure-building (stable period)

Crucial choices are made

Build life structure around those choices

Pursue goals within that life structure

2. structure-changing (transitional period)

Signifies the end of a stage

Creation of new possibilities that will lead to

a beginning stage in life

7 ADULT DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES:

EEASMEL : 22 28 33 40 45 50 above

Nurture Change Discontinuous

Socioemotional

1. Early Adulthood (17 to 22)

Transitional stage from adolescence to

adulthood

Young people make initial choices for adult

life.

First gain independence

E: go to college, leave home, or join

workforce

2. Entering the adult world (22 to 28)

Young adults make more concrete choices

Presence of a mentor can be a great

influence.

E: occupation, values, relationships

3. Age 30 transition (28 to 33)

Changes occur in adults life.

E: marriage or having children.

Young adults reflects on his life.

Make changes or modifications or sets the

ground for next stage.


4. Settling down (33 to 40)

Marks the end of the era of early adulthood.

Person starts behaving more like an adult

Becomes parent.

Realizes youthful aspiration.

Establishes a niche in the society.

5. Mid-life transition (40 to 45)

Crucial stage

Adult begins to reflect on his life

Drastic changes occur

E: career change or divorce

Begins to think more of death and legacy

6. Entering middle adulthood (45 to 50)

Makes new choices about the future

Commit oneself to new tasks

Think about legacy

7. Late Adulthood (60 and above)

Boundary between middle and late adulthood

Begin to reflect on their life and the choice

theyve made.

ETHOLOGICAL THEORIES PACF: 6 weeks 6 to 8 months 18 months 2

years onwards

Biological - Socioemotional

DEFINITION:

Behavior is influence by biology, tied to

evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive

periods.

There are specific time frames.

1. KONRAD LORENZ

DEFINITION:

Ethology is the study of animal behavior.

Behavior is influence by biology, tied to

evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive

periods.

EXPERIMENT:

Ducklings (graylag geese) follow the first

moving object they see. (imprinting rapid, innate

learning that involves attachment to the first moving

object seen). Done with Nikolas Tinbergen

4 PHASES OF ATTACHMENT:

PACF: 6 weeks 6 to 8 months 18 months 2

years onwards

Biological - Socioemotional

1. Pre-attachment Phase

Birth to 6 weeks

Built-in signals

Cyring

Cooing

Gazing into adults eyes

Smiling

Comfortable with being left with unfamiliar

person

2. Attachment in the Making phase

6 weeks to 6-8 months

Respond differently to familiar people than do

to strangers

Parents continue to build attachment by

meeting the basic needs

3. Clear-cut Attachment Phase

6-8 months to 18 months

Separation anxiety

Craves for caregivers attachment

Being receptive to the child

Meeting the basic needs

Playing with the child strengthens the

attachment

4. Formation of Reciprocal Relationship

18 months to 2 years onwards

Rapid language growth

Understanding of new concepts


Begin to understand a parents coming and

going

2. JOHN BOWLBY

DEFINITION:

Attachment to a caregiver plays over the first

year of life has important consequences.

Critical period - period of imprinting and

promoting optimal development of social

relationships.

ECOLOGICAL THEORY Nurture Change Continuous

Socioemotional

DEFINITION:

Defines complex layers of the environment,

each having an effect on a childs development

Also called bioecological systems theory

The child isnt just a passive recipient

As people affect the child, so the child has an

influence on them

Nothing ever remains static

The child, system and environments are ever

changing.

Milestone and life events occur as time

passes, the child grows and contexts change.

DIAGRAM:

5 SYSTEMS:

Nurture Change Continuous

Socioemotional

1. microsystem

Activities or roles that child directly

participates in.

The younger the child, the smaller the

microsystem.

Immediate family members

Childcare

School teachers

Peers

Neighborhood play area

2. mesosystems

Relations between microsystems or

connections between contexts

Develops sense of belonging

The child may not be indirectly involved, but

could still be affected.

Relationship between family and school

3. exosystems

Links between social settings

Though the child may not have dire contact

with it the systems affect the chids development

and socialization because the people in the

childs life are affected by the exosystems and the

mesosystems.

Extended family

Family networks

Mass media

Workplace

Neighbors

Community health systems


4. macrosystems

Societal blueprint

Contains the attitudes, ideologies, values,

laws and customs of a culture.

5. chronosystem

Time dimension as it relates to a childs

environment

Either internal (physiological changes

aging) or external (timing of parents death)

4. RESEARCH IN LIFE SPAN

DEVELOPMENT

METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA 1. OBSERVATION

Have to be systematic

Where?

1. Laboratory controlled setting

2. Naturalistic in real world settings

2. SURVEY AND INTERVIEW

Best and quickest way to get information

Survey (questionnaire)

-- useful when information is from many

people

-- questions are clear and unbiased

3. STANDARDIZED TEST

Uniform procedures for administration and

scoring.

-

Persons behavior is consistent and stable,

yet personality and intelligence can vary with the

situation.

4. CASE STUDIES

In-depth look at a single individual

Must be cautious at generalizing

Involve judgments of unknown reliability.

5. PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES

Study development at different points in life

span.

RESEARCH DESIGNS 1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Aims to observe and record behavior

Reveal important information about peoples

behavior

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES

Help predict how people will behave

Describe the strength of the relationship

between two or more characteristics.

Correlational coefficient

-- a number based on statistical analysis

-- degree of association between variables

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Regulated procedure where other factors are

manipulated while others are held constant.

Independent variables

-- manipulated, influential factor

-- potential cause

Dependent variable

-- response to changes caused by independent

variable

Experimental group

-- experience is manipulated

Control group

-- baseline

-- effects of the manipulated will be compared

Random Asssignment

-- researchers assign participants to experimental

and control groups by chace

TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH 1. CROSS-SECTIONAL APPORACH

Simultaneously compares individuals at

different ages

Advantage:

Time saving


2. LONGITUDINAL APPROACH

Same individuals studied over a period of

time.

3. COHORT EFFECTS

Cohort group of people who are born at a

similar point in history and share similar

experiences

Cohort effects due to a persons time of birth,

era or generation but not actual age.

Additional:

Informed consent

-- all participants must know what he research

participation will involve and what risks might

develop

Debriefing

-- after the study, participants should be informed of

the studys purpose and methods that were used

Deception

-- researchers must ensure that deception will not

harm participants, and that participants are fully

debriefed.

MINIMIZING BIAS 1. GENDER BIAS

Preconceived notions about the abilities and

women and men

Research can affect how people think about

gender differences.

2. CULTURAL AND ETHNIC BIAS

Life-span research needs to include more people

from diverse ethnic groups.

Ethnic gloss using an ethnic label in a

superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as

being more homogenous than it really is.


REFERENCE:

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Life-Span development (13th

ed.). New York, USA: McGraw Hill.

Santrock_HumanDevelopment(13thEd.)_Chapter1

Documents

Transcript of Santrock_HumanDevelopment(13thEd.)_Chapter1