Saint Thomas Christians

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Saint Thomas Christians

Nasrani redirects here. Forother uses, seeNasrani (dis-ambiguation).This article is about the Saint Thomas Christian people.For their churches, seeSaint Thomas Christian churches.

The Saint Thomas Christians, also called Syrian

Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Catholic Church at Arakuzha,

Kerala

Christians or Nasrani, is a community of ChristiansfromTamilakamin present dayKerala,India, who tracetheir origins to the evangelistic activity ofSaint Thomasin the 1st century, and is one of the oldest Christian com-munities of the world.[4][5] The community was histori-cally united in leadership and liturgy, but since the 17thcentury have been split into several church denominationsand traditions.

Historically the Saint Thomas Christian community waspart of theChurch of the East, centred inMesopotamia.They were organised as theEcclesiastical Province of In-diain the 8th century, served by bishops and a heredi-

taryArchdeacon. In the 16th century the overtures of thePortuguese padroado to bring the Saint Thomas Chris-tians into theCatholic Churchled to the first of severalrifts in the community and the establishment of CatholicandMalankara Churchfactions. Since that time furthersplits have occurred, and the Saint Thomas Christiansare now divided into severalEastern Catholic,OrientalOrthodox, and independent bodies, each with their ownliturgies and traditions.

The Saint Thomas Christians represent a single ethnicgroup. Saint ThomasChristian cultureis Hindu in originwith influences from East Syrian, West Syrian, Jewish and

later European sources. Their languageis Malayalam,thelanguage of Kerala, andSyriacis used for liturgical pur-poses. Syriac is a dialect ofAramaic,the languageJesus

spoke.[6]

1 Terminology

The Saint Thomas Christians are so called due to theirreverence for SaintThomas the Apostle, who is said tohave brought Christianity toIndia. The name dates tothe period of Portuguese colonization. They are alsoknown, especially locally, as the Nasranior Nasrani Map-

pila. Nasrani is a term meaning Christian"; it ap-pears to be a local pronunciation of Nazarine, derivedfromNazareth, the home town of Jesus. Mappilais anhonorificapplied to members of non-Indian faiths, in-cluding Muslims (Mappila) and theCochin Jews(YudaMappila).[7][8] Some Syrian Christians of Travancorecontinue to attach this honorific title to their names.[9]

The Indian government designates members of the com-munity as Syrian Christians, a term originating with theDutch colonial authoritydistinguishing the Saint ThomasChristians, who usedSyriacas their liturgical language,from newly evangelized Christians who followed the

Latin liturgy.[10]

The term Syrian relates not to theirethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgicalconnection to theChurch of the East, or East SyrianChurch.[7]

2 History

2.1 Early history and tradition

Roman trade with ancient Coastal South West Indiaaccording to

thePeriplus Maris Erythraei 1st century AD

According to longstanding tradition, St. Thomas,one of the 12 apostles, came to Muziris, Tamilakamaround AD 52 which is in the present day Pattanam,

1
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2 2 HISTORY

Kerala). As per most recorded versions of the leg-end, the community began with Thomass conversionofBrahmin Gramamsor families, which are named insome sources asPakalomattom, Sankarapuri, Kaliyankal,Kalli, Kalikay, Kottakali, Kayakkam, Madeipur, Mut-tal, Nedumpally, and Panakkamattam.[11][12][13][14] The

four families Sankarapuri, Pakalomattam, Kalli, andKaliyankal were considered the most preeminent.[14]

ThoughCochin Jewsare known to have existed in Keralaaround that time,[15][16][17] and it was possible for aJewsuch as St. Thomas fromGalileeto make a trip to Keralain the 1st century, there is no contemporary evidence forthis tradition. The earliest known source connecting theapostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written inthe early 3rd century, perhaps inEdessa.[18][19][20]

Further, a numberof 3rd- and4th-century Roman writersalso mention Thomas trip to India, includingAmbrose

of Milan, Gregory of Nazianzus, Jerome, andEphremthe Syrian, whileEusebius of Caesarearecords that histeacherPantaenusvisited a Christian community in Indiain the 2nd century.[21][22]

Thetradition of origin of theChristians in Kerala is foundin a version of the Songs of Thomas or Thomma Par-vam, written in 1601 believed to be a summary of a largerand older work.[23][24] Thomas is described as arrivingin or aroundMaliankaraand foundingSeven Churches,or Ezharapallikal: Kodungallur,Kollam,Niranam, Ni-lackal (Chayal),Kokkamangalam,Kottakkavu (Paravur),Palayoor(Chattukulangara) andThiruvithamcode Arap-pally(a half church).[25][26][27]

TheThomma Parvamalso narrates the conversion of 40Jews, along with the 3000 Hindus, and the local King atKodungallur by St Thomas[13][18][28] TheThomma Par-vam further narrates St Thomass mission in the restof South India and states that before his martyrdomat Mylapore in present-day Chennai, Tamil Nadu, hehad converted 6,850 Brahmans, 2,800 Kshatriyas, 3,750Vaishiyas, and 4,250 Shudras.[29] Legends tend to claimthat many of the converts in other parts of South Indiareverted to Hinduism.

The tradition of the coming of a foreigner by the name

Thoman who debated with the Brahmins and convertedmany prominent people including a king is part ofNambudiri Brahmin folklore and is found in the im-portant Nambudiri Brahmin 17th Century tract, theKeralolpathi. However, in this Brahmin version of thelegend, the Thoman referred to isThomas of Cana.[13]

Though historians doubt the historicity of the Brahminconversion legend, there is evidence that some St ThomasChristians observed Brahmin customs and were grantedprivileges usually reserved for Brahmins in the MiddleAges, i.e. after the 9th century A.D., including the wear-ing of thesacred threadand having akudumi.[30][31][32]

The medieval historian Pius Malekandathil believes thesewere customs adopted and privileges won during the be-

ginning of the Brahmin dominance of medieval Kerala.He argues that the Christians in Kerala, integrated withPersian Christian migrant merchants, in the 9th centuryhad become a powerful trading community and weregranted the privileges by the Hindu rulers to promoterevenue generation and to undermine Buddhist and Jain

traders who rivaled the Hindus for religious and politicalhegemony in Kerala at the time.[33][34]

An organised Christian presence in India dates to the ar-rival ofEast Syriansettlers and missionaries fromPersia,members of what would become theChurch of the East,in around the 3rd century.[35] Saint Thomas Christianstrace the further growth of their community to the ar-rival of theThomas of Canafrom the Middle East, whichis said to have occurred sometime between the 4th and8th century. The subgroup of the Saint Thomas Chris-tians known as theKnanayaor Southists trace their lin-eage to Thomas of Cana, while the group known as the

Northistsclaim descent from Thomas the Apostles in-digenous converts.[22][36]

2.2 Classical period

Tharisapalli Copper plate grant(9th century) - Oneof thereliable

documentary evidences of the privileges and influence that Saint

Thomas Christians enjoyed in early Malabar.[37] The document

contains signatures of the witnesses in Pahlavi, KuficandHebrew

scripts.[38] It is the oldest documentary evidence available to attest

the presence of a Persian Christian community in South India.[39]

As the community grew and immigration by East Syr-ians increased, the connection with the Church ofthe East, centred in the Persian capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, strengthened. From the early 4th centurythe Patriarch of the Church of the East provided In-dia with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastruc-ture, and around 650 PatriarchIshoyahb IIIsolidified theChurch of the Easts jurisdiction over the Saint ThomasChristian community.[40] In the 8th century PatriarchTimothy Iorganised the community as theEcclesiastical

Province of India, one of the churchs Provinces ofthe Exterior. After this point the Province of Indiawas headed by a metropolitan bishop, dispatched from
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2.4 Division and defiance 3

Persia, the Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of SaintThomas and the Whole Christian Church of India.[22]

His metropolitan seewas probably in Cranganore, or(perhaps nominally) in Mylapore, where the shrine ofThomas was located.[22] Under him were a varying num-ber of bishops, as well as a nativeArchdeacon, who had

authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amountof secular power.[22]

Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the SaintThomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West,even after the rise of theIslamic empires.[41] Byzantinetraveller Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote of East SyrianChristians he met in India and Sri Lanka in the 6thcentury.[42] In 883 the English kingAlfred the Greatre-portedly sent a mission and gifts to Saint Thomas tomb inIndia.[41] During theCrusades, distorted accounts of theSaint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gaverise to the European legend ofPrester John.[43]

The great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoilof the period caused India to be cut off from the churchsheartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11thcentury the province was suppressed by the church en-tirely, as it had become impossible to reach,[44] but ef-fective relations were restored by 1301.[45] However, fol-lowing the collapse of the Church of the Easts hierar-chy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India waseffectively cut off from the church, and formal contactwas severed. By the late 15th century India had had nometropolitan for several generations, and the authoritytraditionally associated with him had been vested in the

archdeacon.[46]

In 1491 the archdeacon sent envoys to the Patriarch ofthe Church of the East, as well as to theCoptic Pope ofAlexandriaand to theSyriac Orthodox Patriarch of An-tioch, requesting a new bishop for India. The Patriarchof the Church of the EastShemon IV Basidirespondedby consecrating two bishops, Thoma and Yuhanon, anddispatching them to India.[46] These bishops helped re-build the ecclesiastical infrastructure and reestablish fra-ternal ties with the patriarchate, but the years of sep-aration had greatly affected the structure of the Indianchurch. Though receiving utmost respect, the metropoli-

tan was treated as a guest in his own diocese; the Archdea-con was firmly established as thereal power in theNasranicommunity.[47]

2.3 Portuguese contact

Further information: Goa Inquisition and PortugueseInquisition

The Saint Thomas Christians first encountered thePortuguesein 1498, during the expedition ofVasco da

Gama. At the time the community was in a tenuous posi-tion: though thriving in thespice tradeand protected bytheir own militia, the local political sphere was volatile

and the Saint Thomas Christians found themselves underpressure from therajasofCalicutandCochinand othersmall kingdoms in the area. The Saint Thomas Chris-tians and the Portuguese newcomers quickly formed analliance.[48]

The Portuguese had a keen interest in implanting them-selves in the spice trade and in spreading their version ofChristianity, which had been forged during several cen-turies of warfare in theReconquista.[49] Facilitating theirgoals was thePadroado Real, a series of treaties and de-crees in which the Pope conferred upon the Portuguesegovernment certain authority in ecclesiastical matters inthe foreign territories they conquered. They set up inGoa, forming acolonial governmentand aLatin churchhierarchy under the Archbishop of Goa, and quicklyset to bringing the Saint Thomas Christians under hisauthority.[50]

The Portuguese subjection of the Saint Thomas Chris-tians was relatively measured at first, but they becamemore aggressive after 1552, the year of the death ofMetropolitan Mar Jacob and of aschism in the Churchof the East, which resulted in there being two rivalPatriarchsone of whom entered communion with theCatholic Church. Both patriarchs sent bishops to India,but the Portuguese consistently managed to outmaneuverthem, and effectively cut off the Saint Thomas Christiansfrom their hierarchy in 1575, when the Padroado legis-lated that neither patriarch could send representatives toIndia without Portuguese approval.[51]

By 1599 the last Metropolitan, Abraham, had died, andthe Archbishop of Goa, Aleixo de Menezes, had se-cured the submission of the young Archdeacon George,the highest remaining representative of the native churchhierarchy.[52] The Archbishop convened the Synod of Di-amper, which implemented various liturgical and struc-tural reforms in theIndian church. TheSynod brought theparishes directly under the Archbishops purview; anathe-matised certain superstitious social customs character-istic of their Hindu neighbors, including untouchabilityand acastehierarchy; and purged the indigenous liturgy,theMalabar Rite, of elements deemed unacceptable ac-cording to the Latin protocol.[53][54][55] A number of

texts were condemned and ordered burnt, including thePeshitta, the Syriac version of the Bible.[56] Some ofthe reforms, especially the elimination of caste sta-tus, reduced the Saint Thomas Christians standing withtheir socially stratified Hindu neighbors.[54] The Synodformally brought the Saint Thomas Christians into theCatholic Church; however, the actions of the Portugueseover the ensuing years fueled resentment in segments ofthe community, and ultimately led to open resistance totheir power.[57]
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Tomb of Francis Roz, first Jesuit Metropolitan of Kodungalloor

Archeparchy, insideKottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pil-

grim Church, North Paravur.

2.4 Division and defiance

Over the next several decades, tensions seethed betweenthe Portuguese and the remaining native hierarchy, andafter 1641 ArchdeaconThomas, the nephew and succes-sor to Archdeacon George, was often at odds with the

Latin prelates.[58] In 1652, the escalating situation wasfurther complicated by the appearance inMylaporeof amysterious figure namedAhatallah, who claimed to havebeen sent by the Pope to serve as Patriarch of the Wholeof India and of China.[58][59]

Ahatallah made a strong impression on the native clergy,but the Portuguese quickly decided he was an impostor,and put him on a ship bound for Europe by way of Goa.Archdeacon Thomas, desperate for a new ecclesiasticalleader to free his people from the Padroado, travelled toCochin and demanded to meet Ahatallah andexamine hiscredentials. The Portuguese refused, stating the ship had

already left for Goa.[59] Ahatallah was never heard fromin India again, inspiring rumours that the Portuguese hadmurdered him and inflaming anti-Portuguese sentiments

even more.[60]

This was the last straw for the Saint Thomas Christians,and in 1653 Thomas and community representatives metat the Church of Our Lady inMattancherryto take boldaction. In a great ceremony before a crucifix and lighted

candles, they swore a solemn oath that they would neverobey Garcia or the Portuguese again, and that they ac-cepted only the Archdeacon as their shepherd.[60] TheMalankara Churchand all its successor churches regardthis declaration, known as theCoonan Cross Oathaf-ter the outdoor cross in the churchyard, as the momentwhen their church regained its independence.[60] Shortlyafter, the leaders of this newly independent church de-cided Thomas should be elevated to bishop. Thomaswas consecrated in a ceremony in which twelve priestslaid handson him, and he became themetropolitan ofMalankara.[61]

After the Coonan Cross Oath the Portuguese missionar-ies attempted for reconciliation with Saint Thomas Chris-tians but was not successful. Later Pope Alexander VIIsent the Roman bishop Joseph Sebastiani at the headof a Carmelite delegation who succeeded in coercingsome of Saint Thomas Christians, includingPalliveettilChandy Kathanarand Kadavil Chandy Kathanar. As areward for his submission, Palliveettil Chandy Kathanarwas consecrated as the bishop for the Latinized SyrianCatholics.[62][63][64] This led to the first permanent splitin the Saint Thomas Christian community. Thereafter,the faction affiliated with the Catholic Church underParambil Mar Chandy was designated the Pazhayakut-

tukar, or Old Party, while the branch affiliated withMar Thoma was called the Puthankuttukar, or NewParty.[65][66][67][68] These appellations have been some-what controversial, as both groups considered themselvesthe true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition, and saw theother as heretical.[69]

After the Coonan Cross Oath, between 1661 and 1662,out of the 116 churches, the Latinized Syrian Catholicsclaimed eighty-four churches, and Archdeacon MarThoma Ithirty-two churches. The eighty-four churchesand their congregations were the body from which theSyro-Malabar Catholic Church and Chaldean Syrian

Churchhave descended. The other thirty-two churchesand their congregations were the body from which theSyriac Orthodox (Jacobites & Orthodox), Thozhiyur(1772), Mar Thoma (1874), Syro-Malankara CatholicChurchhave originated.[70]

In 1665,Mar Gregorios Abdul Jaleel, a Bishop sent bythe Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch arrived in In-dia and the St.Thomas Christians who stayed loyal to theCoonan Cross Oath, under the leadership of the Archdea-con, welcomed him.[71][72] Thisvisit gradually introducedtheWest Syrian liturgy, customs andscript to theMalabarCoast.[65]

The Old Party, who continued with the Latin theolog-ical and liturgical tradition and stayed faithful to the Ro-
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2.5 British period 5

man Catholic Church were given the nameSyro-MalabarCatholic Churchby the Roman masters from the sec-ond half of the 19th century onward. They were finallygranted a Hierarchy was established on 21 December1923 with the MetropolitanMar Augustine Kandathilasthe Head of their Church.[65][73][74]

The Jacobite prelate Mar Gregorios who came to Ker-ala in 1751 AD, consecrated Rev. Kurian Kattumangatas bishop Abraham Mar Koorilose in 1772 AD at Mat-tancherry church, Cochin.[75] He was driven into exilefrom the states of Travancore and Cochin where the ma-jority of St. Thomas Christians lived, to Anjoor in thestate of Malabar. He spent his days in prayer and med-itation in a hut. A few relatives and friends joined himthere.[71][76][77][78][79] This group was known as Thozhy-oor Church later named asMalabar Independent SyrianChurch, after a court verdict on 28 May 1863.[80]

2.5 British period

In 1795, the kings of Travancore and Cochin enteredintotributary alliancewith theBritish East Indian Com-panyto repel the attacks fromTipu Sultan. The statessoon became client regimes of the Company: both wereforced to disband their military. The political order ofthe states also began to collapse. Saint Thomas Chris-tians were hit hard by the loss of their privileged mili-tary role, theirkalarinetwork was dissolved and manyfamilies lost their livelihood.[81] The trading class, as

well as the office bearers, also suffered the setback andmany Europeans who visited the states between 1801 and1820 noted the poor and depressed condition of SaintThomas Christians of thePuthiyakoottukar. Some parti-san fund allocation for thechurches by the British officialstriggered a breakdown in the relationship between SaintThomas Christians and prominent Hindu castes, at leasttemporarily.[82] In 1815, the British Resident, ColonelJohn Munro, founded a seminaryin Kottayam, for thetheological education of Jacobite Christian priests and in-vited theAnglican missionaries to teach there. This couldbe regarded as the beginning of the relationship betweenthe CMS (Church Mission Society) and the Saint ThomasChristians of thePuthiyakoottukar.[83]

2.5.1 Further divisions

As a protest against the interference of the AnglicanChurchin the affairs of the Puthiyakoottukarfaction ofthe Malankara Church, the Metropolitan, Cheppad MarDionysius, convened a Synod at Mavelikaraon 16 Jan-uary 1836. There it wasdeclared that Malanakara Church(Puthencoorfaction) would be subject to the Syrian tra-ditions andPatriarch of Antioch.[84] The declaration re-

sulted in the separation of theCMS missionaries from thecommunion with the Malankara Church (Puthencoorfac-tion). However a minority from the Church, who were

in favor of the reformed ideologies of the missionar-ies, stood along with them and joined theCMS. TheseSyrian Anglicans, were the firstReformedgroup fromamong the Saint Thomas Christians. They joined themissionaries in their evangelical activities among the non-Christians andworked along with themissionaries in their

reformative and educational activities.[85] In 1879, theAnglican diocese of Travancore and Cochinwas estab-lished, inKottayam.[86] On 27 September 1947, a littleover a month after theIndian independence, the AnglicanChurchin South India united with similar otherreformedChurches in the region and formed theChurch of SouthIndia(CSI);[87] an autonomous Indian church within theAnglican Communion.[88][89] Since then, the Syrian An-glicans have been members of the CSI, in which theypractically stay ethnically distinct.

By June 1875, there were two factions in the MalankaraChurch (Puthencoorfaction); Jacobite Party (Bava)and

Reform (Methran) Party. Mathews Mar Athanasiuswasthe Malankara Metropolitan approved by the Govern-ments of Travancore and of Cochin[90] and the groupwith him was known as Reform Party since MathewsMar Athanasius was supportive to the reformation of Ja-cobite church with evangelistic ideologies.[91] The Syrianfaction, under the leadership of MetropolitanPulikkottilJoseph Mar Dionysious II, opposed the attempts to doaway with age-old traditions of the church, which re-sulted in a stir in the community.[91] Being invited bythis faction, the Antiochene Patriarch Moran Mar Ig-natius Peter III arrived in Kerala.[92] In June 1876, at

the synod of Mulanthuruthy, presided over by the Patri-arch, theSyrianfaction formally came under theAntioch-ene Patriarchate.[93] The synod condemned Mathews MarAthanasius for abstaining from it, but his followers stayedfirm with him.[91] His successorThomas Mar Athanasiusand the bishops faction lost the lawsuit to the Patriar-chal faction in the Royal Court ofTravancoreon 12 July1889.[94] Nonetheless, the Reform Party continued as anindependent, Malankara Church and thereafter a seriesof suits arose on the rights over churches and associatedproperties. Later they chose the nameMalankara MarThoma Syrian Church.[91]

In 1912, due to attempts by the Antiochean Patriarchto gain temporal powers over the Malankara Church(Puthencoor faction), there was another split in theWest Syrian community when a section declared it-self an autocephalous church and announced the re-establishment of the ancientCatholicateof the East in In-dia. This was not accepted by those who remained loyalto the Patriarch, and this group, popularly known as Patri-archs Party recognized the temporal power of the Patri-arch over the assets of their church, while the other side,known as Metropolitan Party, accepted the supremacy ofPatriarch only over the spiritual matters. The two sidesfiled a series of lawsuits in the civil courts and some paral-

lel attempts to reconcile both the parties also took place.In 1958, bishops of both the parties sealed their recon-
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6 2 HISTORY

ciliation and signed a treaty which in turn recognizedthe autonomy of reunited factions, with its own synod ofbishops under the presidency of the Catholicos.[95] Theverdict of Supreme Court of India in 1959, legitimiz-ing the autonomy of Kerala church, was also instrumen-tal to keep this formal reconciliation between two sides.

Nonetheless, in 1975, both the parties split again withthe decision of Universal Syrian Synod, held in Damas-cus, to depose the Catholocos in Kerala. Today the EastSyrian community is divided intoMalankara OrthodoxSyrian Church(in Oriental Orthodox Communion, auto-cephalous),Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church(in Orien-tal Orthodox Communion, under Antioch).[65]

In 1930 a section of the Malankara Church (Puthencoorfaction) under the leadership of Mar Ivanios and MarTheophilus left the Church[96] and came into commu-nion with the Catholic Church. They are known asSyro-Malankara Catholic Church.

In 1961, there was a split in the Malankara Mar ThomaSyrian Church which resulted in the formation of St.Thomas Evangelical Church.[97][98]

Since the later 20th century, neo-charismatic churcheshave attracted some St. Thomas Christians. These aretypically churches with doctrines and practices similar totraditionalPentecostalorCharismaticchurches but with-out a formal denominational tie. The neo-charismaticmovement can be found both within established St.Thomas Christian churches, such as the Charismatic andgospel ministries of Syro-Malabar, Syro Malankara &Mar Thoma Syrian Church, andin newer independent de-nominations, including theNew Apostolic Church, theAssemblies of God, the Indian Pentecostal Church ofGod(IPC), theNew Life Fellowship, and theManna FullGospel Churches.[99]

2.5.2 Involvement in politics

Participation based on caste and communitydivisions andsympathies has been a feature of politics in the presentday state of Kerala and its predecessor entities. Until themid-20th century the primary cause of the divisions be-tween the various communities was competition for rightsand resources, rather than any dislike of each other, butin more recent times there has been a rise in violence andantagonism that has coincided with a promotion of Hindupolitics.[100]

Like other communities, Saint Thomas Christians havebeen involved in regional politics on a community ba-sis. In 1888, Travancore became the firstprincely state

in India to establish a Legislative Council, which was re-formed as theSree Moolam Popular Assemblyin 1904.A few Saint Thomas Christian leaders were elected to theLegislative Council but there was resentment that theirshare of the available seats was proportionately less thanthat of other prominent castes. This resentment led to aseries of campaigns for equal representation both in thelegislature and in government positions.[101] Newspaperssuch as Malayala Manoramaand Nasrani Deepika dis-seminated the grievances.[102]

In 1918, Saint Thomas Christians formed the Leaguefor Equal Civic Rights, which sought the opening of all

branches of government service to Christians, MuslimsandavarnaHindus, as well as an end to the practice ofuntouchability. Their demands were partially met in 1922
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untouchabilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avarnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepika_(newspaper)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayala_Manoramahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sree_Moolam_Popular_Assemblyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_statehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_politicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_politicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna_Full_Gospel_Churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manna_Full_Gospel_Churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Life_Fellowshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Pentecostal_Church_of_Godhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Pentecostal_Church_of_Godhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assemblies_of_Godhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Apostolic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_Thoma_Syrian_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charismatic_Movementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostalismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-charismatic_churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Thomas_Evangelical_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Thomas_Evangelical_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Malankara_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Malankara_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobite_Syriac_Orthodox_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malankara_Orthodox_Syrian_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malankara_Orthodox_Syrian_Church


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7

when the Revenue Department was separated from theDevaswom, a semi-government organization that man-aged the Hindu temples, thus removing the restriction onnon-Hindus and avarnas in the executive service. In the1920s, Saint Thomas Christian leaders such as GeorgeJosephwere advised byMahatma Gandhito detach from

Vaikom Satyagraha, an agitation for the temple entryrightsof avarna Hindus, as he considered the issue to beone of concern to Hindus alone.[102][103]

With the institution in 1932 of abicamerallegislature inTravancore, four Saint Thomas Christians found a placein among the 24 seats of thelower house, but not com-parable with other forward castes.[101] The partisan andoppressive behaviour of Diwan Sir C. P. RamaswamyIyer, especially towards the Saint Thomas Christians, fur-ther provoked the community members. Iyer reflecteda concern among Hindus that the Christian populationwas rising and that there was a consequent danger of

Travancore becoming a Christian state. The 1931 cen-sus recorded over 31 per cent of the population as beingChristian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820.[104]

Some restrictions were imposed on Saint Thomas Chris-tian parishes to start new schools and later on the Di-wan attempted to take over the schools owned by thecommunity.[102] In 1933, some prominent Saint ThomasChristians, includingT. M. Varghese, worked to orga-nize other communities on a common platform calledthe Joint Political Congress, which then decided to ab-stain from participation in the assembly elections, an ac-tion that hasbecome known as theAbstention Movement.

There followed a period of fierce confrontation betweenthe Diwan and Saint Thomas Christiansmany lead-ers were arrested, prominent news papers were bannedand large banks owned by the community members wereliquidated.[102][105] But the agitations continued and to re-solve the issue, government appointed a franchise anddelimitation commissionerto solve the problem of repre-sentation in the legislator with special reference to back-ward communities. Though there was no definite assur-ance to Saint Thomas Christians, Joint Political Congressdecided to withdraw the agitation. According to the rec-ommendations of commissioner, franchise power was ex-tended beyond the caste bars. In 1937, general elec-

tions were held and Joint Political Congress played a sig-nificant role to attain much better representation for al-lied communities.[106] T.M. Varghese was elected as theDeputy President of the Assembly where Iyer was the exofficio President. But in 1938, he was ousted by Iyerfor cooperating with rebels, which led to a worsening ofrelation between the Saint Thomas Christians and Iyer.On the collapse of Joint Political Congress due to inter-nal conflicts, Saint Thomas Christian leaders allied withNairsin a common platform-Travancore State Congresswhere they fought together for responsible governmentand also to oust Iyer.[101] Many Saint Thomas Chris-

tian bishops like Metropolitans Abraham Mar Thoma,Yuhanon Marthoma,Mar James Kalaserry supported thenationalistic movements in 1930s and 1940s.Abraham

Marthoma mobilised Syrian Christians against divansmove not to unite with free India.[107] Following intenseagitations by the Travancore State Congress, the Ma-haraja of Travancore announced plans to establish a re-sponsible Government. As per the announcement on 4September 1947, the new Assembly called the Repre-sentative Bodywas formed to function as a ConstituentAssembly. The Assembly held its first sitting on 20March 1948 with President A. J. John, Anaparambil,a Saint Thomas Christian leader in the chair. In thethree-member Cabinet of Travancore formed after thefirst general elections in 1948, Varghese was a Cabi-net Minister.[108] However the first Saint Thomas Chris-tian to become a minister in the central government ofIndiawasPadma Vibhushan John Mathai, who served asIndia's firstRailway Ministerand subsequently as IndiasFinance Minister,[109] taking office shortly after the pre-sentation of Indias first Budget, in 1948. Thevarthundiyil

Titus was the only Christian among the 72 persons whomGandhiji selected for Dandi march to break salt law.Heserved as the secretory in Sabarmathi ashram for a longperiod along with Gulzarilal Nanda. Barrister georgeJoseph was the person who mobilised the masses to breakcaste laws in Guruvayoor. Later he himself withrawnfrom the leadership on wishes of Gandhiji. He was alsoinstrumental in upliftment of many tribes in madhuraiwhich were earlier derogated as KALLARS by Britishlegislation.He was called affectionetly as Rosappu Doraiby them.

On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed

and theCommunist Partyformed the first government ofthe state in 1957 on winning the assembly elections.[110]

Though the government initiated the legislation processfor reforming the land and the education sectors, thesewere considered as infringements over the rights by theschool managements and landowners, who were predom-inantly Saint Thomas Christians andNairs. The disagree-ments of the Saint Thomas Christians further widenedand they allied with Nair Service Society to mobilizeagainst the government, which culminated in a violentstruggle, called theLiberation Struggle, in 1958.[111] TheCommunist government was dismissed on 31 July 1959and thePresidents rulewas imposed in the state under

Article 356of theConstitution of India.

3 Socio-cultural and religious iden-

tity

St. Thomas Christians are a distinct community, both interms of culture and religion. Though their liturgy andtheology remained that of East-Syrian Christians of Per-sia, their life-style customs and traditions were basically

Indian. It is oft-quoted: Nazranis are Indian in culture,Christian in faith and Syrian in liturgy.[112]

Jewish influence has been observed in Malabar Nas-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_356https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%2527s_rulehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_Strugglehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nair_Service_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism_in_Keralahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finance_Ministerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Railwayshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mathaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_Vibhushanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._J._John,_Anaparambilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T._M._Varghesehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Ramaswamy_Iyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Ramaswamy_Iyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diwan_(title)#Titlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_househttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Entry_Proclamationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Entry_Proclamationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikom_Satyagrahahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Joseph_(Kerala)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Joseph_(Kerala)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devaswom_boards_in_Kerala


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8 4 CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

Nasranis or Syrian Christians of Kerala in ancient days (from an

old painting). Photo published in the Cochin Government Royal

War Efforts Souvenir in 1938

rani liturgy and traditions.[3] The community maintainedsome of the original Jewish rituals, such as covering theirheads while in worship. Their ritual services were andstill are called theQurbana, which is derived from theAramaictermQurbana(), meaning sacrifice.Nasrani Qurbana used to be held in Syriac.[3]

Saint Thomas Christians typically followed the social cus-toms of their Hindu neighbors, and the vestiges of Hindusymbolism could be seenin their devotional practices.[113]

Social sins likeUntouchabilityentered their practices andthe Synod of Diamper abolished it.[114] The rituals relatedto birth,Vidyarambham, marriage, pregnancy, death etc.were also similar in both communities. Now also, tyingThaali, a Hindu symbol of marriage is the most importantrite in the Christian marriages too. They used to learntemple arts likeKathakali,KoothandThullaland theirown art forms likeMargam Kaliand Parichamuttukalihave some resemblance to Yathra kali Pattu ofBrahminsin Kerala.[113] In 1519, a Portuguese travelerDuarte Bar-bosaon his visit to Malabar commented on the practiceof Saint Thomas Christian priests usingKudumisimi-lar to that of Hindus, in his manuscript Book of DuarteBarbosa.[115]

In the social stratification of medieval Malabar, SaintThomas Christians succeeded in relating their social sta-tus with that of upper-caste Hindus on account of theirnumerical strength and influence and observance of manyBrahmin and upper caste customs.[114][116] In the 13thand 14th centuries, many Saint Thomas Christians wereinvolved in the pepper trade for the local rulers and manywere appointed as port revenue officers. The local rulersrewarded them with grants of land and many other priv-ileges. With growing numerical strength, a large numberof Saint Thomas Christians settled in the inland pepper-growing regions.[117] They had the right to recruit andtrain soldiers and Christian trainers were given with thehonorary title Panikkar like their Naircounterparts.[118]

They were also entitled with the privilege to collect thetax, and the tax-collectors were honored with the titleTharakan. Like Brahmins they had the right to sit be-

fore the Kings and also to ride on horse or elephant, likethe royals.[114] They were protectors of seventeen under-privileged castes and communities and hence they werecalledLords of Seventeen Castes.[114][119] They did not al-low the lower-castes to join their community for fear thatit could imperil their upper-caste status.[119][120] Between

the 9th and 15th centuries, Saint Thomas Christians hada kingdom of their own,Villarvattom,[121] but this regalperiod ended when the community fell under the powerof theRajasof Cochin and Travancore.[122] They owneda large number ofKalaripayattutraining centers and theRajasof Travancore and Cochin, including the renownedMarthanda Varma, recruited trained Christian warriors todefend their kingdom.[123] The upper-caste Hindus andSaint Thomas Christians took part in one anothers festi-val celebrations and in some places in Kerala, the HinduTemples and Saint Thomas Christian Churches were builton adjoining sites by the Hindu Kings. Until the 19th

century, Saint Thomas Christians had the right of accessto Hindu temples and some leading Saint Thomas Chris-tians held the status of sponsors at Hindu shrines and tem-ple festivals.[124] But in the 19th century, Saint ThomasChristian integration with theHindu castesystem was dis-rupted: their clean-caste status was questioned in somelocalities and they were denied access to many Hindutemples. They tried to retaliate by denouncing Hindufestivals as heathen idolatry. Clashes between upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians occurred fromthe late 1880s, especially when festivals coincided. In-ternecine violence among various Saint Thomas Christiandenominations aggravated their problems.[125]

4 Church architecture

A Syro-MalabarCatholic Church with itsMadbahaveiled by ared curtain

The earliest documentary evidence is Tharisapally Cop-

per Plate, which refers to the construction of the churchof Tharisapally in Quilon between 823 and 849 AD. An-tonio Gouvea, Portuguese envoy to Malabar, mentions
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in his 16th-century work Jornada that almost all thechurches of Saint Thomas Christians followed the modelsof Hindu temples of that period, but were distinguishedby the huge granite cross in the front yard of the church.Despite the external similarity with temples, the structur-ing of the interior space of the church always followed

the East Syrian architectural theology. Thus the con-temporary style is formed as an amalgamation of Indianarchitecture and Chaldean liturgical concepts.[126] Thechurch is arranged east-to-west, with the interior struc-tured into three levels: themadbaha(sanctuary), theqe-stroma(choir) and thehaykla(nave).

The madbaha, arranged in the topmost platform at theeastern side of the building, representsHeaven. The pri-maryaltaris attached to the eastern wall. To the north ofthe madbahais the diaqonikon(sacristry); to the southis thebaptistery. The madbaha is protected with railsand is veiled by a red curtain most of the time; this is

opened during theHoly Qurbana (Eucharist). An oillamp within the sanctuary is kept glowing at all timesto represent the presence of God. The madbahais con-nected to theqestromaand hayklaby a low-walled pathcalled the sqaqona. The qestromacontains seats for thechoirand lower clergy. Thehayklacontains an elevatedplatform orbema, which includes analtar, twolecternsfor reading, and chairs for higher clergy. Worshipersstand before the altar, with separate seating for men andwomen. The main entrance is on the western side of thebuilding; avestibule,pillars, pilasters, and other archi-tectural ornaments adorn the front end, and a flag mast

stands in the front yard. One or two bells are installedin the back yard to signal the timing of ritual services,the death of a church member, or to inform the public ofcalamities.[127][128]

5 Nasrani symbol

The Latinized faction of the St. Thomas Christianshave accepted theSaint Thomas Crossas their symbol.They call it the Nasrani Menorah[129] or Mar Thoma

Sliba.[130] There are several interpretations for the la-tinized St. Thomas Christian Symbol. The interpreta-tion based on Christian Jewish tradition assumes that itsdesign was based on Jewishmenorah, an ancient symbolof the Hebrews, which consists of seven branched lampstand (candelabra).[131]

The interpretation based on local culture states that theCross without the figure of Jesus and with flowery armssymbolizing joyfulness points to the resurrection theol-ogy of St. Paul, the Holy Spirit on the top represents therole of Holy Spirit in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Thelotus symbolizing Buddhism and the Cross over it shows

that Christianity was established in the land of Buddha.The 3 steps indicate Calvary and the rivulets, channels ofgrace flowing from the Cross.[132]

Saint Thomas Cross or Mar Thoma Sliva

Note that theChristian crosswas not adopted as a symbolby Mediterranean and European Christianity until severalcenturies had passed.

6 Saint Thomas Christians today

Writing in 2010, Devika and Varghese noted that "[TheSt. Thomas Christians] are at present a substantial minor-ity, a powerful presence in all fields of life in Kerala. [133]

6.1 Socioeconomic status

Even though the Saint Thomas Christians had to com-promise their social and religious privileges in the after-math of Portuguese subjugation, they started reemergingas a powerful community from the 19th century onward.They played a pioneering role in many spheres such asBanking, Commerce, Cash crops etc.[134] Among SaintThomas Christians, 17.4% of the adult population areself-employed - the highest rate statistically among allthe communities in the state of Kerala.[135] Saint ThomasChristians lead all others with respect to per capita own-ership of land, with many of them owning largeestates.With changing conditions, they have shifted from theagriculture of rice and coconut to plantation based agri-culture and the trading ofrubber, spices andcash crops.They also take a prominent role in the educational insti-tutions of Kerala and throughoutIndia.[136] They werequick to understand the benefits of academic educa-

tion and in their educational achievements Saint ThomasChristians stand second to none. The educational accom-plishments of the community have helped its members to
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_cropshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_rubberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estate_(house)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_crosshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Crosshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilasterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columnhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibule_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecternhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choirhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Qurbanahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptisteryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacristryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir_(architecture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctuary


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10 6 SAINT THOMAS CHRISTIANS TODAY

attain a good proportion of the Central and State Govern-ment jobs.[134] With their level of education and limitedemployment opportunitieswithin the stateof Kerala, theybecame the community with the highest rate of migra-tion. Their resultant foreign remittances have also helpedthe socioeconomic progress of the community. Accord-

ing to the Kerala Migration Survey (1998) by the Centerfor Developmental Studies, Kerala, Saint Thomas Chris-tians top all other communities in Kerala with respect tothe Socioeconomic Development Index which is based onparameters such as the possession ofland,housing & con-sumer durables, education and employment status.[137]

6.2 Existing traditions, rituals and social

life

Crowning during a Nasrani wedding

Nasrani minnu (pendant) with 21 beads used by Saint Thomas

Christians

Saint Thomas Christians still retain many of their ancienttraditions and rituals, both in their social and religiouslife. Saint Thomas Christian services have many uniquecharacteristics compared to others. Until the 1970s the

NasraniQurbanawas sung in Syriac. Many of the tunesof the Saint Thomas Christian worship in Kerala areremnants of ancient Syriac tunes of antiquity.[138] The

Baptismis still known by the Aramaic term Mamodisaamong Saint Thomas Christians and follows many of theancient rituals of the ceremony. It is referred to in Malay-alam asNjana Snanam(Bath of Wisdom).

Saint Thomas Christians observe Holy Thursdaywith high reverence. This day is referred to as Pe-saha, a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaicor Hebrew word for PassoverPasha or Pesahcommemorating the Last Supper of Jesus Christduring Passover in Jerusalem. The tradition of con-sumingPesaha Appamafter the church service isobserved by the entire community under the leader-ship of the head of the family. Special long servicesfollowed by the Holy Qurbana are conducted duringthePesahaeve in the churches.[139][140]

The community observes Lent, locally called the

fifty days fast, from Clean Monday to the day beforeEaster, abjuring all meat, fish and egg. They alsotraditionally observethe 25 days fastwhich ends onthe day of Christmas.[141]

Generally, footwear is removed before entering thechurchand women cover their heads during worship.

The ritual service (liturgy) is called the Holy Qur-bana, which is derived from the Hebrew Korban( ), meaning sacrifice.

The Holy Qurbana is mostly conducted and prayersrecited in Malayalam. However, some parts of the

Holy Qurbana are sung in Syriac. During the 20thcentury, the 'Qurbana-kramam' i.e. the 'book con-taining the order of worship', was translated into En-glish, for the benefit of worshipers who lived outsideKerala, and did not know to read or write Malay-alam.

Another surviving tradition is the use ofmuthukoda(ornamentalumbrella) for church celebrations, mar-riages and other festivals. Traditional drums, archdecorations and ornamental umbrellas are part ofthe church celebrations. Their use has become pop-ular all over Kerala.

The rituals and ceremonies of Saint Thomas Chris-tians related to house building, astrology, birth andmarriage have close similarity with those of Hindusin Kerala. Death rituals express Christian canoni-cal themes very distantly and the influence of Hinduculture is quite noticeable. Much stress is given toideas concerning life after death and the anticipationof final judgment.[142]

Saint Thomas Christians do not marry close rela-tives. The rule is that the bride and groom must notbe related for at least five generations.

Saint Thomas Christians generally prefer arrangedmarriages and the prospective partners see each
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella#Indian_subcontinenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korbanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Mondayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesaha_Appamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Supperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Thursdayhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendant


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other in the Pennukanal (Bride Viewing) ceremonyat brides home.[143]

Saint Thomas Christians did not use any iconogra-phy or statues of Jesus or the saints in their churchesuntil after the arrival of the Portuguese, prior towhich time the use of such symbols was deemedidolatrous.

Saint Thomas Christians widely use Nilavilakku(a lighted metal lamp) in their houses andchurches.[144]

Saint Thomas Christians use terms like Eeesho(Jesus name in Aramaic[145]), Yeshu (HebrewnameYeshua) to denote Jesus Christ.

The traditional dress of a Saint Thomas Chris-tian woman is the Chatta and Mundu, a seamlesswhite garment, which is now limited to older fe-male adherents. Following the general trend, theSari and Churidar have become predominant amongthe younger generations.[141][146]

6.3 Demographics

Kunniparampil Zachariah notes that the 20th cen-tury was period of significant transition for the SaintThomas Christians in terms of its demographic andsocioeconomic status. Around 1900, the community wasconcentrated in a few areas, was geographically static and"... was characterised by very high death rate, very highbirth rate, very early age at marriage, and 10 to 12 chil-dren per married woman. The population had increasedeight-fold during the preceding century, from a base fig-ure of about 100,000, and comprised nearly 50 per centchildren. But, the population growth of Saint ThomasChristians came down drastically after 1960s, with thelowest birth rate, highest age at marriage, highest familyplanning user rate, and lowest fertility rate compared toother communities in Kerala. The proportion of children

has come down to less than 25%. The absolute and rela-tive size of the community is in a diminishing trend andis approaching a Zero Population Growth regime.[147]

As of 2001, in Kerala, more than 85 per cent of the SaintThomas Christian population live in the six central dis-tricts of the state -Pathanamthitta,Alapuzha,Kottayam,Idukki,ErnakulamandTrissur. They have also migratedto other cities in India likeOoty,Mangalore,Bangalore,Chennai,Pune,Delhi,Mumbai,Coimbatore,HyderabadandKolkata.[137] Migration steeply increased in the post-independence period and major destinations were UnitedStates of America, Canada, Western Europe, Australia

and the Middle East. According to a rough estimate, 2025% of the Saint Thomas Christians live outside the stateof Kerala.[137]

7 Caste status

Despite the sectarian differences, Saint Thomas Chris-tians share a common social status within theCaste sys-tem of Keralaand is considered asForward Caste.[148]

Saint Thomas Christians historically have claimed a highcaste status on the basis of the tradition that they aredescended from the upper-caste Hindus, particularlyNambudiri Brahmins. Historically in theKingdoms ofCochinand Travancoreand other Kingdoms in Kerala,they were granted caste privileges that put them at leaston the same level asSavarnaHindus, such as theNairs.Anthropologist,L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, recorded theywere given privileges in addition to those granted togroups such asNairs, such as the right to have enclosuresin front of their houses, which was otherwiseonly grantedto the Brahmins, and were placed almost on par withtheSovereigns".[149]

Historically, Saint Thomas Christians followed the samerules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus andsometimes they were even considered as pollutionneutralizers.[119] Decree II of Action IX of the Synodof Diamper enforced by the Portuguese Inquisition in1599 prohibited the practice of untouchability by theSt Thomas Christians except in practical circumstanceswhen required by law and when it was necessary to en-sure social contact with the Savarna Hindus such asNairs.The same decree noted that some St Thomas Christiansin the southern regions practiced untouchability againsttheNairseven though this was not required by the law.This practice was abolished by the decree.[150]

They tend to be endogamous, and tend not tointermarryeven with other Christian groupings.

Internal division of Saint Thomas Christians into Nor-thists and Southists and also into a number of sects basedon the ecclesiastical orientation makes the pattern of seg-mentation an exceedingly complex one.[148]

Forrester suggests that the Northist-Southist divisionforms two groups within the Saint Thomas Christiancommunitywhich are closely analogous to sub-castes.[148]

At the same time, different Saint Thomas Christian de-nominations like Catholic, Jacobite, Mar Thomite, etc.are better regarded as sects, rather than sub-castes, sincethe recruitment to these sects cannot be strictly ascribedto birth.[149] Also, internal mobility is allowed amongthese Saint Thomas Christian sects and the caste statusis kept even if the sect allegiance is switched (for exam-ple, fromSyrian OrthodoxtoSyrian Catholic).[149]

8 See also

List of Saint Thomas Christians

Suriyani Malayalam
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriyani_Malayalamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Saint_Thomas_Christianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Malabarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Orthodoxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exogamyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Diamperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod_of_Diamperhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantha_Kshatriyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samantha_Kshatriyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.K._Ananthakrishna_Iyerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savarnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travancorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cochinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambudirihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_Castehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_of_Keralahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste_system_of_Keralahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkatahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_Telanganahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coimbatorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangalorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ootyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trissurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernakulamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idukkihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kottayamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alapuzhahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathanamthittahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic_statushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churidarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshua_(name)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilavilakku


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12 9 NOTES

Rock crosses of Kerala

Saint Thomas Christian Churches

Throne of St. Thomas

Marthoma Metrans

9 Notes

[1] Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Chicago (Syro-Malabarese)". Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney.Retrieved 23 January 2015.

[2] http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/STCEI.htm

[3] Ross, Israel J. (1979) Ritual and Music in South India:Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala. Asian Mu-

sic. 11 (1): 8098

[4] The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5 by ErwinFahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing - 2008. p. 285.ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.

[5] The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communitiesby OrpaSlapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27.ISBN 965-278-179-7.

[6] Tharoor, Ishaan (2014-05-27).What language did Jesusspeak? The pope and Israels prime minister disagree..The Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-09-06.

[7] upanov, Ines G. (2005). Missionary Tropics: TheCatholic Frontier in India (16th17th centuries), p. 99 andnote. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11490-5

[8] Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Mid-summer Nights Dream: European Encounters with theMappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume95 Issue 2 page 300

[9] The Mappila fisherfolk of Kerala: a study in inter-relationship between habitat, technology, economy, society,

and culture (1977), P. R. G. Mathur, AnthropologicalSur-vey of India, Kerala Historical Society, p. 1

[10] Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity inIndia: a Historiographical Critique, p. 52. Media HouseDelhi.

[11] L.Krishna Ananthakrishna Iyer: Anthropology of SyrianChristians

[12] Leslie Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas

[13] Thoma, P. J. The South Indian Tradition of the ApostleThomas. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of GreatBritain & Ireland (New Series) 56.S1 (1924): 213-223.

[14] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present], p. 101. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5

[15] Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) Jewish colonies of Indiapaved the way for St. Thomas, The Saint Thomas Chris-tian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol.II., Trichur.

[16] Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p.103. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[17] Bayly, SusanSaints, Goddesses and Kings in South IndianSocietyCambridge University Press 22 April 2004ISBN978-0-521-89103-5

[18] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present], p. 99. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[19] Bornkamm, G. The Acts of Thomas in E. Hennecke,New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 2. London: Lutter-worth, 1965.

[20] Klijn, Albertus Frederik Johannes (2003). The Acts ofThomas: Introduction, Text, and Commentary. BRILL. p.15.ISBN 90-04-12937-5. Retrieved 7 May 2012.

[21] Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p.103. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[22] Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). TheChurch of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 52.ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 6 February 2012.

[23] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present, p. 92. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[24] The Song of Thomas Ramban in Menachery G (ed);

(1998) The Indian Church History Classics, Vol. I, TheNazranies, Ollur, 1998. [ISBN 81-87133-05-8]

[25] James Arampulickal (1994). The pastoral care of theSyro-Malabar Catholic migrants. Oriental Institute of Re-ligious Studies, India Publications. p. 40.

[26] Orientalia christiana periodica: Commentaril de re orien-tali ...: Volumes 1718. Pontificium Institutum Oriental-ium Studiorum. 1951. p. 233.

[27] Adrian Hastings (15 August 2000). A World History ofChristianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-8028-4875-8.

[28] Mundadan, A. Mathias, and Joseph Thekkedath. Historyof christianity in India. Published for Church History As-sociation of India by Theological Publications in India,1982. pages 30-32

[29] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present], p. 99. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5

[30] Leslie Brown,The Indian Christians of St. Thomas.

[31] Nazrani Christians and the Social Processes of Kerala,800-1500 | Nasranis. Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2015-09-06.

[32] MLA Malekandathil, Pius. Maritime India: trade, reli-gion and polity in the Indian Ocean. Primus Books, 2010.pp.38-61
http://www.nasrani.net/2011/03/07/nazrani-christians-and-the-social-processes-of-kerala/http://www.nasrani.net/2011/03/07/nazrani-christians-and-the-social-processes-of-kerala/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4875-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4875-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8187133058https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775http://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsChttp://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-29770-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=yt0X840SjpEChttp://books.google.com/books?id=yt0X840SjpEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775http://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-12937-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=MuVHh60YC4UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%2522Acts+of+Thomas%2522#v=onepage&q=date&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/?id=MuVHh60YC4UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%2522Acts+of+Thomas%2522#v=onepage&q=date&f=falsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521891035https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521891035https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775http://books.google.com/books?id=sOrglHSX6rsC&dq=%2522Malankara+Church%2522&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_navlinks_shttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198263775http://books.google.com/books?id=pAncGlpGW8wC&pg=PA91&dq=Malankara&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=Malankara&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=pAncGlpGW8wC&pg=PA91&dq=Malankara&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a&cd=7#v=onepage&q=Malankara&f=falsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472114905https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0472114905http://books.google.com/books?id=Nix4M4dy7nQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.com/books?id=Nix4M4dy7nQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/05/27/what-language-did-jesus-speak-the-pope-and-israels-prime-minister-disagree/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/05/27/what-language-did-jesus-speak-the-pope-and-israels-prime-minister-disagree/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9652781797https://books.google.co.in/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5q6VKj1F4yJuASKnIKADQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=St.%2520Thomas&f=truehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802824172http://books.google.co.in/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=FqQhVL6gCMnjuQSKrYKYDw&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=Muziris&f=truehttp://www.indianchristianity.com/html/STCEI.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic-Hierarchy.orghttp://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dchsm.htmlhttp://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dchsm.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marthoma_Metranshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne_of_St._Thomashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Christian_Churcheshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_crosses_of_Kerala


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[33] Nazrani Christians and the Social Processes of Kerala,800-1500 | Nasranis. Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2015-09-06.

[34] MLA Malekandathil, Pius. Maritime India: trade, reli-gion and polity in the Indian Ocean. Primus Books, 2010.pp38-61

[35] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present, pp. 102107; 115.. Oxford Uni-versity Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[36] Swiderski, Richard Michael (1988). Northists andSouthists: A Folklore of Kerala Christians. Asian Folk-lore Studies(Nanzan University) 47 (1): 7680, 8083.doi:10.2307/1178253.JSTOR 1178253.

[37] Burjor Avari India, the ancient past, Taylor & Francis,2007, p.221,ISBN 0-415-35615-6

[38] S.G. Pothan (1963) The Syrian Christians of Kerala,

Bombay: Asia Publishing House pp.102105

[39] Werner Sundermann; Almut Hintze; Franois de Blois(2009). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour ofNicholas Sims-Williams. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 38.ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4. Retrieved 11 August 2012.

[40] Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). TheChurch of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 53.ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 5 April 2010.


[42] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present, p. 105 & 110. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[43] (a) Silverberg, Robert (1996). The Realm of PresterJohn, pp. 2934. Ohio University Press. ISBN 1-84212-409-9.

[44] Fiey, J. M. (1993). Pour un Oriens Christianus novus;rpertoire des diocses Syriaques orientaux et occidentaux,p. 96. Beirut: Orient-Institut.

[45] Wilmshurst, D. J. (2000). The Ecclesiastical Organisationof the Church of the East, 13181913, p. 343 and 391.Louvain.

[46] Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). TheChurch of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 105.ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 6 February 2012.


[48] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: fromBeginnings to the Present, 122124. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[49] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: fromBeginnings to the Present, 125127. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[50] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present, pp. 127128. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[51] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-ginnings to the Present, pp. 130134. Oxford UniversityPress.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.

[52] Neill, Stephen(2004). A History of Christianity in India:The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press.pp. 208210. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 Jan-uary 2012.

[53] Neill, Stephen(2004). A History of Christianity in In-dia: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge UniversityPress. p. 214. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 Jan-uary 2012.

[54] Prasad, Rajendra (2009). A Historical-DevelopmentalStudy of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Historyof Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civiliza-

tion. Volume XII, part 2. Delhi, India: Concept Publish-ing Company. p. 484. ISBN 81-8069-595-6. Retrieved1 February 2011.


[56] Van der Ploeg, J. P. L., O.P.The Christians of St. Thomasin South India and their Syriac Manuscripts. Rome andBangalore: Center for Indian and Inter-Religious Studiesand Dharmaram Publications, 1983.

[57] Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Be-

ginnings to the Present, p. 136. Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-826377-5.


[59] Neill, Stephen(2004). A History of Christianity in India:The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press.pp. 316317. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April2012.

[60] Neill, Stephen(2004). A History of Christianity in India:The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press.

p. 319.ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April 2012.

[61] Neill, Stephen(2004). A History of Christianity in India:The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press.pp. 320321. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April2012.

[62] Joseph Thekkedathu, pous cit pp96-100

[63] Rev Dr Placid Podipara, The Hierarchy of Syro MalabarChurch, in Collected works of Rev Dr Placid PodiparaCMI, Vol I p 719

[64] Christians of Saint Thomas (Christian groups, India) -Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica.com. Retrieved2013-11-18.

[65] Vadakkekara, p. 84; 86.
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14 9 NOTES

[66] Frykenberg, p. 361.

[67] Fernando, p. 79.

[68] Chaput, pp. 78.

[69] Vadakkekara, p. 84 and note.

[70] Catholic Encyclopedia- St. Thomas Christians TheCarmelite Period, Dr. Thekkedath, History of Christian-ity in India

[71] Claudius Buchanan 1811; Menachery G; 1973, 1982,1998; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956; Tis-serant, E. 1957; Michael Geddes, 1694;

[72] Dr. Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India

[73] Fr. George Thalian:The Great Archbishop Mar AugustineKandathil, D. D.: the Outline of a Vocation, Mar LouisMemorial Press, 1961.

[74] "History of Ernakulam Diocese". Ernakulamarchdio-cese.org. Retrieved 2012-06-16.

[75] Puthezhathu Ramon Menon, Sakthan Thampuran,(Malayalam) Kozhikode, Mathrubhumi, 1989 (3rd ed.)p.286.

[76] N. M. Mathew,History of the Marthoma Church (Malay-alam), Volume 1.(2006). Page 205-207.

[77] Kochumon M.P.Saintly bishops of Kattumangat (Malay-alam) p. 42-44.

[78] K.C. Varghese Kassessa. History ofMalabar IndependentSyrian Church(Malayalam) p.45

[79] John Fenwick. The Forgotten Bishops, Georgias Press, NJ,USA. 2009. p.200-246.

[80] Michael Burgess The Eastern Orthodox Churches, Mc-Farland, 2005,ISBN 0-7864-2145-2, p.175

[81] Susan Bayly Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims andChristians in South Indian Society ISBN 0-521-89103-5, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 281286

[82] George Joseph, The life and times of a Kerala Christiannationalist, Orient Blackswan, 2003, pp. 3339, ISBN 81-250-2495-6

[83] Stephen Neill (2 May 2002). A History of Christianity inIndia: 1707-1858. Cambridge University Press. p. 241.ISBN 978-0-521-89332-9. Retrieved 31 August 2012.

[84] Cherian, Dr. C.V.,Orthodox Christianity in India. Aca-demic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 20

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