Pacific NorthwestForest and RangeExperiment Station

General TechnicalReport PNW-152March 1983

William R. Meehan and John F. Thilenius

h

WILLIAM R. MEEHAN is fisheriesresearch project leader, and JOHN F.THILENIUS is a research wildlifebiologist, Pacific Northwest Forest andRange Experiment Station, ForestrySciences Laboratory, PO. Box 909,Juneau, Alaska 99802.

The use of trade, firm, or corporationnames in this publication is for theinformation and convenience of thereader. Such use does not constitutean official endorsement or approval bythe U.S. Department of Agriculture ofany product or service to the exclusionof others that may be suitable.

Meehan, William R.; Thilenius, John F.Safety in bear country: protectivemeasures and bullet performance atshort range. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-152. Portland, OR: US. Departmentof Agriculture, Forest Service,Pacific Northwest Forest and RangeExperiment Station; 1983.16 p.

Bears are frequently encountered bypeople working in or enjoying the out-doors. Some government agencies haveregulations concerning the firearmstheir personnel carry for protectionagainst bears.

Guidelines to prevent hazardousencounters with bears are presented,and the performance of commonlyused weapons and ammunition is dis-cussed. The ballistic performance ofbullets at short range is often consider-ably different from performance of thesame bullet at the longer ranges gener-ally encountered while hunting.

Recommendations are made for weap-ons and ammunition used as protec-tion from bears.

Keywords: Safety, safety equipment,bears, ballistics, Alaska.

Brown bears (Ursus arctos) are foundfrom the seashore to the alpine zoneon the islands and mainland alongmost of the Pacific coast of Alaska.’The brown bear is a large, fast-movinganimal, unpredictable in its response tohumans, and a definite hazard to thosewho must work in areas inhabited bybears.

The USDA Forest Service in Alaskarequires at least one member of eachwork party to carry a rifle.2 The mostcommon weapon issued is a bolt-action magazine rifle chambered forthe .375 H&H Magnum cartridge. Com-mercial ammunition is used exclusively.For handiness in the dense brush coverof the Alaska coast, most of these rifleshave barrels shortened to 20 inches.Receiver (peep) sights or factory-installed open sights are used; recoilpads and slings are usually present.

In the past, most Forest Service pro-fessionals working where brown bearsoccur had personally acquired experi-ence with firearms. In recent years,however, the Forest Service hasemployed many persons with little orno experience with firearms, and somewith a strong aversion to them. TheForest Service provides training pro-grams in the use of firearms for employ-ees who must work in bear country.The extent and quality of these pro-grams vary from a cursory session onhow to load and fire a rifle to a ratherintensive course in nomenclature, main-tenance and handling of rifles, marks-manship under field conditions, andanatomy and behavior of bears. Therifles used for training are like those tobe carried in the field (that is, short-barreled, bolt-action, .375 Magnum).Shooting this rifle may be very un-pleasant for some inexperienced per-sons. They become more apprehensiveof the rifle (a known effect) than of thebear (an unknown effect).

’ The same precautions apply to blackbears (Ursus americanus). The grizzly bearis considered to be the same species as thebrown bear.2 The policies of other agencies or insti-tutions may differ. Some agencies do notrequire firearms to be carried; othersprohibit them.

The difficulties of training inexperi-enced persons to properly use large-caliber rifles might be lessened byusing smaller caliber weapons. Recoil,muzzle blast, and rifle weight could bedecreased, but possibly at the expenseof killing power. To provide aninadequate weapon just because it wasmore pleasant to shoot would be un-wise. What, then, constitutes an ade-quate weapon for protection againstbears in the coastal regions of Alaska?

Much has been written about the per-formance of various cartridges andbullets on big game animals. Most testshave been conducted at ranges of 50 or75 yards to 300 yards or more, rangesat which hunted game is usually shot.

Little information is available on the per-formance of cartridges and bullets atranges that could be considered criticalin a life-threatening situation. Distancesgreater than 15 to 20 yards probably donot constitute a dangerous situation,and some other way to avoid a conflictis probably available.

Our purpose was to evalute the com-monly used and readily availablecartridges (and weapons) for pro-tection from bears at short range. Weselected a distance of 15 yards as the“point of no return”-the distance atwhich an obviously aggressive bearmust be stopped or a person riskspersonal injury or death. We stress“obviously aggressive,” a term for abear that is charging, with the assumedintent of doing bodily harm.

We selected a range of weapons and ammunition, including those issued by some government agencies to em- ployees working in bear country or carried by the average outdoor person. Other combinations of weapons and ammunition are available, and they may compare favorably with those tested. Interested persons can conduct tests similar to those described here to arrive at their own conclusions for their particular equipment. They will have a better understanding of the capabilities of the weapon and ammunition, and the testing will force the individual to shoot more.

Familiarization with a weapon is at least as important as performance of the bullet in instilling confidence in a person. A person who knows the capa- bility of a firearm is more likely to hold fire until a life-threatening situation is unavoidable or, in a sudden encounter, will react instinctively for defensive purposes.

Methods

Most of our testing was done with rifles, but we also evaluated handguns and the 12-gauge shotgun. Handguns are often carried by people working in bear country because they are much more portable and convenient than rifles, especially when work requires both hands. The short-barreled 12. gauge shotgun also has a reputation as a good weapon at close range. We tested both slugs and buckshot loads in the shotgun. In some instances, weapons firing a give” cartridge were available with different barrel lengths. We tested these to evaluate the effects of barrel length on bullet performance.

We used ammunition manufactured by several companies, chosen solely on the basis of availability, and made no attempt to compare similar loads of different manufacturers. The ammu- nition and barrel length of the weapons tested are included in table 1 in the “Results“ section.

We fired three shots in random order

bullet weight (or type), and barrel length. This testing method allowed us to measure the penetration of each bullet in a relatively uniform medium, to recover the bullet, and to determine its striking energy. We also measured retained bullet weight and expansion.

To determine penetration and recover fired bullets, we used the testing medi- um recommended by Hagel (1978), who found that recovered bullets shot into a moistened mixture of 50 percent fine silt and 50 percent fine sawdust (by volume) were similar to bullets removed from various big game animals, including brown bears.

We built a” open-end wooden box 12 by 12 by 24 inches to hold the slit- sawdust mixture, covering the open ends wth scrap pieces of indoor- outdoor carpet to prevent spillage through bullet holes. To facilitate locating bullets, we placed the mixture in 4. by lo- by 12.inch cardboard file wallets. Six of these tightly filled wallets

2

After each shot, we located the bullet by sequentially liftmg the wallets (fig, 2). We then carefully removed the silt- sawdust mixture from the wallet con- taining the bullet until the bullet was exposed and measured the distance from the bullet to the front of the box to the nearest 0.5 inch. We removed the bullet, including adjacent fragments, from the medium and placed it in a paper envelope for future examination.

We replaced the silt-sawdust mixture III the wallet where the bullet nad stopped and repaired all bullet holes with plastic packaging tape. To avoid bias, we re- arranged the front-to-back sequence of all six wallets according to a preselect- ed random sequence after recovering each bullet. We shook the wallets be- fore replacing them and added mixture if needed to keep the content relatively constant. It was necessary tcl replace all wallets after each six to eight shots. We replaced badly damaged wallets immediately.

We evaluated each cartridge-bullet weight-barrel length combinatmn tested by four ballistic categories: striking energy, penetration, retained bullet weight, and bullet expansion. We also measured bullet velocity because energy is a function of bullet weight and velocity.

We fired all shots through the sky- screens of a Ballistocraft chronograph to determine bullet velocity (fig, 3).3 We used a 5-ft screen spacing with the first Screen at IO ft The velocity recorded was considered to be at 12.5 ft. The three-shot average velocity was con- verted to average velocity at 15 yards from tables provided by Hatcher (1962). Striking energy in foot-pounds (ft.lb) was determined from the formula E = WV2/450,240, where W is the bullet weight in grains (gr), V is the velocity in feet per second, and 450,240 = 2 x 32.16 fffs2 x 7000 gr/lb (Hatcher 1962).

3 Names of products are for tnformation only; the chronograph was fhe persona, property of one of the authors.

Results and Discussion

We washed recovered bullets and bulletfragments in hot water and detergent toremove silt-sawdust medium. We rinsed,dried, and weighed each to the nearestgrain. To determine expansion, we mea-sured to the nearest 0.01 inch themaximum diameter of the bullet (or thelargest fragment) and the diameter at90O to the maximum diameter. Thecross-sectional area of this ellipse wasdetermined by the formula A=3.1416 ab,where a = maximum diameter and b= diameter at 90o to a. Both retainedbullet weight and expansion were ex-pressed as a percentage of the weightand cross-sectional area of an unfiredbullet pulled from a cartridge identicalto that fired in the tests.

We determined the free recoil energyusing the method described by Mannes(1981). Although recoil is not directlyinvolved in short-range terminal ballis-tics, it is a significant factor in the over-all evaluation of rifles used forprotection from bears.

Because we had no unbiased way todetermine the relative importance ofeach ballistic category, we consideredeach to be equally important. Our firststep in evaluating overall ballistic per-formance was to calculate the averagevalue in each category for the threeshots fired from each test combination.We then divided each average by themaximum average value in its categoryto convert it to a relative proportion ofthe maximum value encountered duringthe tests. We rounded the quotient totwo significant decimal places and mul-tiplied by 100 to eliminate decimals.This transformation also eliminated thedifferent category units and allowed allfour to be arithmetically combined intoa single performance score. We calcu-lated this score by multiplying the fourrelative scores of each test combina-tion. To eliminate the use of unwieldyeight-digit numbers as scores, we divid-ed the product by 100,000 and roundedthe quotient to the nearest whole num-ber. This provided a two- or three-digitscore for each test combination, whichwe ranked in highest to lowest order.

Results of the tests are presented intable 1 and figure 4. We discuss eachcartridge tested in the followingcategories: (1) large-, medium-, andsmall-caliber magnum rifle cartridges;(2) large-, medium-, and small-caliberstandard rifle cartridges; (3) large- andmedium-caliber magnum and standardhandgun cartridges, and (4) the 12-gauge shotgun.

Large-Caliber Magnum RifleCartridges

.458 Winchester Magnum. - In overallballistic performance, the .458 rankedfirst. Bullet penetration was the deepestof all the cartridges tested - averagedepth, 19 inches. Striking energy was79 percent of the .460 Weatherby (rank-ed second), part of which may be attrib-uted to the extra 10 gr of bullet weightin the .458. The bullet expanded well(4.6 times) and retained 82 percent ofthe unfired weight. The 510-gr Winches-ter factory bullets used in the .458 didnot fragment, but the 500-gr bullets ofthe .460 Weatherby did. This was themajor reason for the first-place ranking.

Recoil in the 9.4-lb rifle was 54.7 ft-lb orabout 71 percent of that of the .460 in arifle that was 1.3 lb heavier. The lesserrecoil in a lighter rifle and better bulletperformance make the .458 Winchesterpreferable to the .460 Weatherby. Ashort-barreled, bolt-action .458 wouldbe an excellent rifle for an experiencedrifleman. Shortening the barrel to 22 oreven 20 inches should not reduce ballis-tic performance much. Any weight re-duction, however, would increaserecoil.

.460 Weatherby Magnum. - The .460Weatherby Magnum cartridge rankedsecond in overall performance. Thelarge-caliber, heavy bullet at relativelyhigh velocity had good, but not the deep-est, penetration. Although the chrono-graphed velocity did not approach theadvertised velocity, bullet energy ex-ceeded that of the .458 Winchester byover 1300 ft-lb. Average retained bulletweight was 65 percent of the unfiredweight. The bullets had a tendency tofragment. It appears the high strikingenergy exceeded the design limits ofthe bullet at the short test range.Cross-sectional area expansion wasadequate and overall bullet perform-ance good, but not the best.

The high overall performance of the.460 Weatherby was obtained in aheavy-recoiling, 10.7-lb rifle with a26-inch barrel. We used a WeatherbyMark V rifle equipped with a receiversight. It was very difficult to use thissight because of the high comb’ of theWeatherby stock. This plus the heavyrecoil made it very uncomfortable toshoot. The stock shape, heavy weight,and long barrel detract from the utilityof the rifle in the heavy bush of coastalAlaska. This could be ameliorated if therifle were remodeled, but shorteningthe barrel to 20 inches would lowervelocity and energy. This might bebeneficial if it also reduced thetendency of the bullet to fragment;however, there is little reason to reducethe .460 if a .458 is available.

A short-barreled .460 would have tre-mendous muzzle blast, and the recoilof a .460 Weatherby less than 10 lb inweight would be so severe that it wouldbe difficult for the shooter to recoverfrom the recoil and operate the bolt torapidly chamber a second cartridge.For these reasons, we think the .460Weatherby rifle is generally a poorchoice for protection from bears incoastal Alaska.

4 The comb is the top portion of the stockwhere the shooter’s cheek rests.

4

Table1 -Short-range ballistic performance

Ranking Bullet Ballistic performance

Cartridge score Rank Weight TYPO Brands

Rifle: ?I ,458 Win. Msg. 536 ,460 Why. Msg. 467 ,315 H a H Msg. (L) Y 30, ,338 win. tvtag. (S) 260 .375H a H Ma!&(L) 239 .336Win.Maa, IS1 .336 Win, Mai. iSj ,336 Win. Mag. (L) .338Wi".Mag. (L) ,375 H 8 H Msg. (S) .30-06 U.S. .3O-06 U.S. ,444 Marlin .358Winchester 7 mm Rem. blag. .375H BH M.q(S) .45-7OU.S (S) ,308 Winchester .45-7OU.S (L) .358Norma btag. 8 mm Rem. Msg. .300 Why. rvtag. ,338 Win. Mag. (L) ,350 Rem.Mag. 7x57 mm MauSer 12-p x 2% inch .45-70 U.S. (L) ,300 Win. Msg. ,300 Wby. Msg. .45-70 ",S. (S) 8 mm Rem. Msg. .44Rem.Mag. (L) ,300 Win Mag.

213 197 191 186 185 157 153 146 142 141 137 133 126 124 115 107 104 100 93 67 74 65 60 59 50 49

?I 47 44

HWldg”“: ,44 Rem. blag. (L) .44Rem.Mag.(M) .44 Rem. Msg. (L) .44 Rem.Mag. (S) .44 Rem. Magi (S) ~44 Rem, blag, (M) .357S&Wtvw3 .45 Colt (L) .45 Auto ~41 Rem.Mag. .45 Colt .45 Colt (S, 44 saw spec.

Y 77 64 63 60 59 57 27 13 12 11 11 10 9

1 510 2 5w 3 300 4 300 5 270 6 200 7 250 8 200 9 300

10 300 11 220 !2 180 13 240 14 200 15 175 16 270 17 303 18 160 19 300 20 250 21 185 *2 180 23 250 24 200 25 175 26 436 27 405 26 200 29 220 30 405 31 220 32 240 33 160

: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13

240 LGC R-P 240 LGC R-P 240 JSP w-w 240 LGC R-P 240 JSP w-w 240 JSP w-w 158 JSP cc, 255 LRN w-w 230 SMJ R-P 210 LFN R-P 225 LHP FED 255 LRN w-w 246 LRN w-w

-

RSP RSP SSP RSP RSP PSP SSP PSP RSP SSP RSP RSP FSP SSP PSP RSP HSP RSP HSP PSP PSP PSP SSP SSP RSP LRN RSP PSP RSP RSP PSP

LGC PSP

-

w-w WBY w-w w-w

R-P w-w w-w w-w w-w w-w

R-P R-P R-P

w-w w-w

R-P FED FED FED

NOR R-P

WBY w-w

R-P FED FED R-P

FED WBY

R-F R-P R-P

FED

-

- Firearm

“e!O- E*pa”- city. Energy, Pen&a- Retained sion Recoil

15yd 15Yd tion weight ratlo -

FMS

2074 2364 2541 2314 2659 2699 2507 2634 2360 2401 2261 2456 2237 2366 2709 2456 ,573 2430 ,666 2730 2991 3033 2594 2566 2419 ,398 1322 2699 2798 ,211 2779 1401 2959

,401 1317 1383 1265 1370 1348 ,226 625 619 952 613 796 745

Ff-lb

4871 6204 4903 3568 4241 3235 3491 3563 3710 3843 2496 241, 2666 2466 2653 3735 1649 2360 1649 4139 3676 3676 3735 2931 2274 1902 1572 3237 3626 ,319 3773 1046 3266

925 1019 653

,001 969 528 366 343 423 330 359 303

19.0 17.2 16.6 16.2 14.2 15.0 12.2 12.3 16.6 13.6 17.7 13.2 11.0 12.0 13.0 12.3 13.0 12.7 11.0 15.2 10.7 15.2 14.7 12.2 13.6 15.3 15.6 15.2 15.2 17.6 12.6 11.5 10.3

11.5 12.2 14.5 11.3 9.5

11.5 9.5

14.3 14.2 10.5 13.3 11.8 12.1

82 65 67 61 64 69 57 60 57 63 65 71 72 7, 44 50 84 73 96 41 32 46 45 52

Liz 93 36 34 96 26 97 30

97 97 94 97 97 96 99 96

100 97 97 97 99

4.6 54.7 3.6 76.6 4.0 41.1 4.6 356 4.0 37.2 4.2 26.9 5.3 33.4 4.7 26.0 3.4 31.2 3.6 44.1 3.6 15.3 4.4 14.6 4.5 27.6 4.4 33.4 5.6 16.5 3.9 39.4 4.6 15.6 3.9 13.6 4.1 18.6 2.9 25.0 5.5 29.1 2.6 26.0 2.6 30.0 3.2 34.5 3.6 12.7 1.7 26.1 2.1 17.7 2.2 25.9 2.0 30.6 1.4 13.6 2.5 16.9 2.6 13.9 2.6 26.3

2.6 13.9 2.3 14.1 1.8 12.4 2.5 15.8 2.5 15.1 2.2 16.4 2.1 7.2 1.0 5.9 1.0 5.2 1.0 6.0 1.0 4.6 1.0 5.9 1.0 3.9

Ff-lb Lb

9.4 10.7 6.6 7.4 6.6 7,4 7.4 8.6 6.6 7.2 6.8 6.6 7.3 7.4 9.1 7,2 7.1 6.4 7.6 8.4 9.4 9.6 6.6 6.4 6.9 7.1 7.8 7.8 9.6 7.1 9.4 3.1 7.6

3.1 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.9 3.2 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.4 3.1

24 26 24 20 24 20 20 24 24 20.5 22 22 22 22 24 20.5 20 22 22 24 24 24 24 16.5 24 20 22 24 24 20 24

7.5 24

7.5 6.5 7.5 5 5 6.5 4 7.5 5 4.6 7.5 4.6 7.5

I/ RSP = round nose soft point; SSP = semipointed soft point; PSP = pointed soft point; FSP = flat nose soft point: HSP = hollow soft point; LRN = lead round nose; LGC = lead gas-check; JSP = jacketed soft point; SMJ = solid metal jacket: LFN = lead flat nose; LHP = lead hollowpoint. ?I W-W = Winchester-Western; R-P = Remington-Peters: FED = Federal; WBY = Weatherby; NOR =Norma; CCI = Speer. Y All rifles except 1 shotgun and 1 handgun included for comparison. 3’ L = long barrel; M = medium barrel: S = shoti barrel; applies only when the same cartridge was tested in different length barrels 3 Score calculated on same baiis as rifles and shotgun. “Score calculated for handguns only: not equal to rifle scores.

5

Medium-Caliber Magnum RifleCartridges

.375 H & H Magnum. - The .375 H & HMagnum was one of the cartridgestested with different bullet weights andin rifles with different barrel lengths.With the 300-gr bullet in a rifle with a24-inch barrel, it ranked 3; with the270-gr bullet in the same length barrelit ranked 5. Performance rankings forthe rifle with a 20.5inch barrel were 10for the 300-gr bullet and 16 for the 270-gr bullet. Energy exceeded 4200 ft-lb inthe longer barreled rifle for both bulletsand 3700 ft-lb for the shorter barreledrifle. Bullets of both weights fired in thelonger barreled rifle penetrated about 2inches deeper, but there were onlyminor differences in retained bulletweight and relative bullet expansion.Velocity losses in the shorter barrelwere 203 ft/s for 270-gr bullets and 140ft/s for 300-gr bullets. Chronographedvelocities were close to those adver-tised for the rifle with a 24-inch barrel.

Recoil in the 8.6-lb rifle with a 24-inchbarrel ranged from 37 to 41 ft-lb. The7.2-lb rifle with the shorter barrel hadheavier recoil - 39 and 44 ft-lb for the270- and 300-gr bullets, respectively.The heaviest recoil value was 57 per-cent of the recoil value of the .460Weatherby and 81 percent of the .458Winchester.

The similarity in overall ballisticperformance and not too severe recoilmake the lighter rifle with the shorterbarrel preferable, although some ballis-tic performance is lost. The 300-grbullet is preferable to the 270-gr bullet.This type of .375 rifle is commonlycarried in coastal Alaska. The rifle must

be rated at a capacity of three cart-ridges (magazine capacity) since it isunsafe to have a cartridge loaded in thechamber and depend on a mechanicalsafety to prevent discharge. Movingthrough thick brush, leaning the rifleagainst a tree, or laying it on theground while working can cause inad-vertent release of the safety on mostbolt-action rifles. This applies to bolt-action rifles with the possible exceptionof those made on military actions, suchas the Mauser or Springfield with their180o safety levers, which are slow tooperate; however, few .375 caliber rifleshave such safeties. Regardless, the .375H & H Magnum is an excellent car-tridge for protection from bears atclose range. Our tests merely rein-forced its already excellent reputation.

.338 Winchester Magnum. - The .338Winchester was tested with three bulletweights (200-, 250-, and 300-gr) and inrifles with two barrel lengths, 24 and 20inches. The recently available 225-grbullet was not produced at the time wemade the tests, and the 250-and 300-grbullets are no longer manufactured.The shorter barreled rifle gave slightlybetter overall ballistic performance.With the 300-gr bullet it was ranked 4and was close to the 300-gr .375 H & Hwith a 4 inch longer barrel, althoughthe .375 H & H had 1335 ft-lb more strik-ing energy with a 300-gr bullet. The

300-gr .338 Winchester bullet had only0.6 inch less penetration, retainedslightly more bullet weight, and hadslightly greater expansion than the300-gr bullet in the .375. The 250-grbullet gave much poorer overallballistic performance than either the300- or the 200-gr bullet. The .338 withthe 200-gr bullet ranked 6 and 8, therifle with the shorter barrel giving thebetter performance; it averaged 15inches of penetration compared with12.2 inches for the 250-gr bullet.

The 250-gr bullet had a tendency toshatter in the test medium which mayaccount for the lower penetration. The200-gr bullet should be selected if the300-gr is not available. In the 7.4-lb .338rifle with a 20-inch barrel, recoil was35.6 ft-lb with the heaviest bullet. Thiswas somewhat less than in the .375with the same weight of bullet in bothlight and heavy rifles. The 200-gr bulletload generated 28.9 and 26.0 ft-lb ofrecoil in the rifles with 20- and 24-inchbarrels, respectively, and was not un-comfortable to shoot. Shortening thebarrel seemed to lower velocities onlyslightly for the 300- and 250-gr bullets,but a greater reduction in velocityoccurred for the 200-gr bullet (seetable 1). Chronographed velocitieswere similar to advertised velocities.

The reasonable recoil in a light, short-barreled rifle with impressive overallballistic performance makes the .338Winchester cartridge a good choice for,rifles for protection from bears. Limita-tions are the same as for the other bolt-action magnums - low magazine capa-city and the safety hazard inherent in amechanical safety. Discontinuation ofthe 300-gr bullet in factory loadingdecreases the potential of the .338 as acartridge for close-range protection.

.358 Norma Magnum. - The .358Norma Magnum was ranked 20 in ourtests. Its relatively low ranking wasmainly due to poor retained bulletweight and relative expansion. The250-gr Norma factory bullets did nothold together well in the test medium.Retained bullet weight was low sincethis parameter is based on the largestrecovered bullet fragment. The .358Norma bullet reacted similarly to the250-gr bullet in the longer barreled .338Winchester (ranked 23). Although thebullets fragmented, penetration of thelargest fragments was relatively deep.

Recoil of the .358 Norma Magnum wassimilar to recoil in the .338 and .375rifles with 250- and 270-gr bullets, re-spectively. If suitable bullets were avail-able in factory-loaded ammunition, the.358 Norma would be an excellent car-tridge for rifles for protection frombears. Other disadvantages are the costand difficulty of obtaining the ammuni-tion. Because of these considerations,the .358 Norma Magnum is notrecommended.

Small-Caliber Magnum RifleCartridges

7 mm Remington Magnum.-The 7 mmRemington Magnum was the highestranked (15) of the small-calibermagnum cartridges. Bullet penetrationwas only moderately deep, and thebullets fragmented to some extent asthe average retained weight was only44 percent. Bullet expansion was thehighest of all the bullets tested; thisattribute gave the 7 mm Remington itsrelatively high overall rank. In contrast,

most other small-caliber magnum car-tridges had relatively poor expansionvalues. The exception was the 8 mmRemington 185-gr bullet which hadhigh expansion but also had substan-tial weight loss and poor penetration.The striking velocity of the 7 mmRemington 175-gr bullet was barely2700 ft/s at 15 yd, well below whatwould be expected from publishedballistic data; nevertheless, it appearsthe design limits of the bullet wereexceeded.

Recoil was calculated at 18.5 ft-lb inthe 9.1-lb rifle used. This is mild, butgreater than that of the 220-gr .30/06cartridge from a lighter weight rifle.There does not appear to be anyspecial reason for selecting the 7 mmRemington for short-range protection.Its overall ballistic performance ismarginal for this purpose.

.300 Weatherby, .3OO Winchester, 8 mmRemington Magnums. - These threecartridges are considered together. Allare loaded with moderate-weightbullets (180-to 185-gr) at velocitiesbetween 2950 and 3050 ft/s and heavierbullets (200- to 220-gr) between 2700and 2800 ft/s. These high velocitieswith moderately heavy bullets resultedin striking energies that exceed thedesign level of the bullets, especiallythe heavier ones. Fragmentation wasprevalent for these bullets, and weightlosses were 60 percent or more. Theaverage weight of the largest fragmentof the 8 mm Remington 220-gr bulletwas only 28 percent of the unfiredbullet weight. The 185-gr bullet in the8 mm Remington was the best of thelighter weight bullets in these threecartridges, with a ranking of 21 in over-all performance. Penetration was poor,however, and fragmentation excessive.The 180-gr bullet in the .300 Winches-ter also had poor penetration andsubstantial weight loss, as well asrelatively poor expansion, all of whichcontributed to its last place ranking.The ranking of the .300 Weatherby withthe 180-gr bullet was a disappointment.

Factory cartridges are loaded with180-gr Nosler partition bullets whichhave an excellent reputation. In ourtest, the 180-gr bullets in the .300Weatherby penetrated well but lostover 50 percent of the unfired bulletweight and did not have particularlygood expansion. The 180-gr bullet wasmuch better in overall performancethan the 220-gr bullet which frag-mented badly. This was also true forthe 200-gr bullet in the .300Winchester.

None of the small-caliber magnumcartridges can be considered goodselections for protection from bears atshort range because of the excessivefragmentation of bullets.

Large-Caliber Standard RifleCartridges

.45-70 U.S. - We tested the .45-70 intwo bullet weights (300- and 405-gr)and in rifles with two barrel lengths (20and 22 inches). Both rifles were Marlin1895 lever-action. In both, the 300-grbullet ranked much higher than the405-gr bullet, primarily because of thepoor expansion of the 405-gr bullets. Atthe 1200-1300 ft/s striking velocity,some of these bullets acted as solidsand penetrated as much as 24 inches.This was the greatest penetrationrecorded in the tests. The 300-grbullets, with 300 to 400 ft/s more velo-city, did not penetrate deeply but heldtogether and expanded well and uni-formly. Low velocities resulted in lowstriking energy. Shortening the barrelby 2 inches had no effect on the per-formance of the bullet; in fact, the riflewith the 20-inch barrel performedbetter with the 300-gr bullet than didthe longer barreled rifle. Recoil in this

rifle, which weighed less than 8 lb, wasmuch less severe than in the large-caliber magnums; it is thus not adetracting factor. The poor action ofthe 405gr bullets may limit their usefor protection from bears. The 300-grbullets in the commercial ammunitionwe used are designed for animals thesize of deer and may expand too rapid-ly and lack sufficient penetration foruse against bears. In our test they didnot fragment too badly. The lack of aproper bullet is unfortunate. The .45-70can be obtained in a compact, moderateweight, lever-action rifle that may beeasier and faster to operate, particu-larly for left-handed people.

Perhaps the current reinterest in .45-70rifles will cause the manufacturers toproduce a more suitable bullet. We donot consider factory-loaded .45-70ammunition particularly suitable for arifle for protection from bears, especial-ly with the 405-gr bullet.

.444 Marlin. - In overall performance,the .444 Marlin cartridge ranked 13.Although penetration was not especial-ly deep, the bullet held together andexpanded well. Striking velocity ex-ceeded 2200 ft/s in the rifle with the22-inch barrel. Consequently, strikingenergy was over 2650 ft-lb.

The flat nose soft point bullet loaded inthe .444 Marlin appears similar to thatof the .44 Remington Magnum revolvercartridge. Although the .444 cartridgeranked relatively high, we have reser-vations about shooting at a brown bearwith a bullet designed for a handguncartridge. If a well-constructed bullet ofabout 300-gr weight was available infactory-loaded ammunition, the .444could become an adequate cartridgefor protection from bears. We wereunable to obtain the recently intro-duced cartridges factory-loaded with a265-gr bullet.

Medium-Caliber Standard RifleCartridges

.358 Winchester, .350 RemingtonMagnum.5 -The .358 Winchester andthe .350 Remington Magnum wereincluded to fill out the full range ofcartridge possibilities. The .358Winchester ranked higher (14) than the.350 Remington (24). Better retainedbullet weight and greater bulletexpansion accounted for the higherrank of the .358 Winchester. These twocartridges illustrate the poor relationbetween penetration and strikingenergy. The .350 Remington had 443 ft-lb greater striking energy than the .358Winchester, but only 0.2 inch morepenetration. In our tests there wasrelatively little difference between the.358 Winchester and some much larger,more powerful cartridges. We wereunable to obtain 250-gr bullets foreither cartridge. The 200-gr bullet inthe .358 Winchester, however, seems tobe a well-balanced load. The relativelylow striking energy reduced the rank-ing of the .358 Winchester, and, tosome extent, the .350 Remington. Inaddition, the average retained bulletweight for the .350 Remington was 52percent compared with 71 percent forthe .358 Winchester.

Recoil was moderate and similar inboth rifles. The .350 Remington rifleweighed a pound less than the .358Winchester rifle. Both cartridges can beconsidered minimal for protection frombears at close range.5 The .350 Remington lMagnum was con-sidered a standard cartridge because itscase has a relatively small powder capacity.

Small-Caliber Standard RifleCartridges

.30-06 U.S. -With the 220-gr bullet the

.30-06 ranked 11, and with the 180-grbullet it ranked 12 in overall ballisticperformance. The 220-gr bullet pene-trated 17.7 inches. This was 4.5 inchesdeeper than the 180-gr bullet, but thestriking energy of the two bullets wassimilar. The 220-gr bullet had only 87ft-lb greater energy at 15 yd. The 180-gr bullet retained slightly more weightthan the 220-gr bullet and also expand-ed slightly more relative to the initialcross-sectional area. The 180-gr bulletalso had less tendency to fragmentthan did the 220-gr bullet.

Recoil for both bullet weights was mildcompared with large- and medium-bore magnums. Chronographed veloci-ties were much lower than advertised.The 220-gr bullet averaged 2261 ft/sfor three shots, whereas the 180-grbullet averaged only 2456 ft/s velocityat 15 yd.

The light recoil potential and the goodoverall ballistic performance make the.30-06 a reasonable cartridge for pro-tection from bears. Because of thedeeper penetration of the 220-gr bullet,it is better than the 180-gr bullet. Forinexperienced persons or those ofsmall stature, the .30-06 with 220-grbullets may be a better choice than oneof the large- or medium-bore magnums.A 7- to 7.5-lb .30-06 with a 20-inchbarrel would be a handy, portable riflefor protection from bears. The use ofthe .30-06 has a major advantage overuse of magnum cartridges -magazinecapacity is increased to five rounds.Another advantage is the availability ofleft-handed bolt-action rifles in thiscaliber. The .30-06 is also available inslide-action and semiautomatic rifles.

.306 Winchester, 7x57 mm Mauser. -These two cartridges were included inthe tests to represent the “minimal”cartridges that might be used for pro-tection from bears. They are also oftenused by deer hunters. The ranges ofthe brown bear and the Sitka black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionussitkensis) overlap through much ofcoastal Alaska, and deer hunters needprotection from bears similar to that ofworking professionals. Of the twocartridges, the .308 Winchester rankedhigher (18) than the 7x57 mm Mauser(25). The greatest difference was inretained bullet weight. The 7x57 mmMauser bullets lost almost half theirweight, whereas the .308 Winchesterbullets shed less than 25 percent oftheir original weight. The 7x57 mmbullets had about 1 inch deeper pene-tration, but the range in penetrationvaried less in the .308 Winchester.Penetration of the 175-gr bullet in the7x57 mm Mauser was greater than thatof the same weight bullet in the 7 mmRemington Magnum, although strikingenergy was almost 600 ft-lb less in the7x57 mm Mauser.

Recoil was mild for both cartridges;however, both of the rifles usedweighed more than 8 lb. We do notrecommend either of these calibers forprotection from bears.

Large-Caliber Magnum HandgunCartridge

.44 Remington Magnum. - The .44Remington Magnum load fired from ahandgun ranked 32 compared withloads fired from rifles and the 12-gaugeshotgun but ranked first compared withother handgun cartridges (table 1). Itwas included with the rifle cartridges forcomparison purposes only and wasranked by the rifle and shotgun attri-butes. In overall performance it wassimilar to the 8 mm RemingtonMagnum 220-gr bullet and the .300Winchester Magnum 180-gr bullet. The240-gr lead gas-check bullet heldtogether well, penetrated more than 11inches, and expanded moderately well.Only the low energy value reduced itsranking in the rifle and shotguncategory.

The .44 Remington Magnum was by farthe best handgun cartridge. Twobullets (240-gr lead gas-check; 240-grjacketed soft-point) were tested inrevolvers with 5, 6.5-, and 7.5-inchbarrels. No substantial difference wasobserved between the velocities of thetwo bullets in the same length of barrel.but the lead gas-check bullet rankedhigher overall in ballistic performancethan did the jacketed soft-point bullet.The lead gas-check bullet ranked 1, 2,and 4. Generally, the lead gas-checkbullet expanded well and retainedalmost all its original weight. Thejacketed soft-point bullet had some-what greater average penetration, butalso much greater variation in pene-tration than the lead gas-check bullet.It also had slightly greater strikingenergy.

As expected, recoil was greater in the.44 Magnum revolvers than in any otherhandgun tested. It ranged from 16.4 ft-lb in the 6.5-inch barrel revolver withthe jacketed soft-point load to 12.4 ft-lbin the 7.5-inch barrel revolver with thesame load.

The superiority of the .44 RemingtonMagnum makes it the cartridge choicefor a backup weapon. A revolver usingthis cartridge should not be considereda primary weapon for protection frombears.

The slight difference in overall ballisticperformance between long and shortbarrels makes a revolver with a shortbarrel just as effective as one with alonger barrel. A short-barreled revolveris lighter, easier to carry, and may bedrawn from a holster more quickly.Carried in a cross draw or shoulderholster, a short-barreled .44 Magnumrevolver is at hand at all times. Whenwork requires both hands, a rifle isoften put aside. A rifle a few feet awayis useless for protection from bears,but a handgun can be useful. Although

much practice is necessary to becomeproficient with a shoulder arm, evenmore practice is required to attaincompetence with a handgun.

Other barge- and Medium-CaliberHandgun Cartridges

.357 S&W Magnum, .41 RemingtonMagnum, .44 S&W Special, .45 Auto,.45 Colt. - The overall ballistic per-formance of these handgun cartridgeswas much poorer than that of the .44Remington Magnum cartridge. Theywere included in the test because theyare commonly owned by many personsworking in coastal Alaska and might becarried in the field. With one possibleexception, we do not recommend them,even for backup protection. The excep-tion is the .41 Remington Magnum. Wewere unable to obtain the high-velocity,jacketed 210-gr bullet factory load forour tests. This loading may be suitablefor backup use because its ballistics arecloser to those of the .44 RemingtonMagnum than are any of the other car-tridges The .357 S&W Magnum was thebest of the other handgun cartridges,but it was much less effective in allcategories than the .44 RemingtonMagnum. The factory bullets of the .44S&W Special, the .41 RemingtonMagnum, and the .45 Colt were non-jacketed lead. At their low strikingenergies, these bullets did not expand.Consequently, penetration was rela-tively deep. The full-jacketed bulletsused in the .45 Auto also penetrateddeeply but did not expand.

Shotgun Cartridge

12-Gauge x 2 3/4 Inch Chamber. - Thevariety, rapid-fire potential, and reason-able prices of 12-gauge repeating shot-guns with short barrels and the impres-sive appearance of the l-ounce (438-gr)rifled slug have made this combinationpopular as a weapon against bears. Theslide-action shotgun with a short barrelis relatively light and compact, hasgood pointing characteristics and alarge magazine capacity, and can befired rapidly. Recoil was similar to that

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of weapons firing small-caliber magnumrifle cartridges. In our tests, the12-gauge rifled slug did not havea high overall rank because of therelatively low striking energy and thelack of bullet expansion. The lack ofbullet expansion is somewhat mislead-ing. The unfired rifled slug is 0.672 inchin diameter (0.355in2 area); the 1.7xexpansion ratio increases this to across-sectional area of 0.62 squareinch, which is only slightly smaller thanthat of the expanded bullets of the .458Winchester and .460 Weatherbymagnum rifle cartridges. The penetra-tion of the rifled slug was good (15.3inches), and only 4 percent of theunfired weight was lost. No fragmen-tation occurred. Low energy was dueto the low velocity of the slug.

We also tested the penetration of 00buckshot. The first round was fired atthe box from 15 yd. At this range, thenine pellets had a spread of about 12by 12 inches and a penetration of only2 to 3 inches. We then shortened therange to 15 ft. From this distance, thespread was 2 inches in diameter, andthe maximum penetration of a singleshot was 7 inches. At the shorter range,the nine pellets appear to act as asingle projectile and the 00 buckshotload might be relatively effective.

From our tests it would appear the slugis much superior to buckshot for pro-tection from bears. Whether buckshotwould be lethal to a bear at rangesbeyond 5 yd is doubtful. A mixed mag-azine load of slugs and buckshot canbe used, but there appears to be littleadvantage to this. To be effective, the12-gauge slugs must be thought of assimilar to the bullets in a rifle. Hittingvital areas is the important thing.Hitting a brown bear with a load ofbuckshot at ranges beyond 5 yd maymean a nonlethal wound and a veryangry, active bear.

A Note on Velocity

Because bullet velocity is an inherentcomponent of bullet energy, it was notone of the factors we used to rankballistic performance. We did, however,look at its relation to bullet penetrationbecause velocity is the most commonsingle factor used to rank ballisticperformance (table 1). In general wefound that bullet penetration de-creased as striking velocity increased.Notable examples of this were thehigh-velocity small-bore magnum car-tridges, such as the .300 Winchesterand .300 Weatherby magnums withlighter weight bullets. The inverserelationship between striking velocityand bullet penetration should beviewed only as a tendency; our datademonstrated considerable variability.

When penetration is compared withstriking energy (table 1), the relation-ship is direct -that is, in general, pene-tration increases with an increase inenergy. Again, the predictive ability ofthis relationship is poor and shouldalso be considered a tendency. Forboth striking velocity and energy, theconfounding factors appear to bedesign of the bullet and strength of thebullet materials.

There is no well-defined distinctionbetween combinations of weapon andammunition that are adequate or in-adequate for protection against bears.The final decision on adequacy mustbe made by each individual and shouldinclude consideration of weapon sizeand weight, recoil, and the person’sexperience with firearms. Our data can,however, be used as a general guide tothe effectiveness of the weapons andammunition tested. A rifle in .375 H & HMagnum caliber in the hands of aperson who can comfortably toleratethe recoil is a much better choice thana .30-06 or comparable caliber. A .30-06 with 220-gr bullets, however, mightbe a better choice for a person sensi-tive to recoil, who may shoot the lightercaliber weapons with more confidenceand accuracy.

Based on our tests, four cartridge-bulletcombinations appear superior for pro-tection against bears:

* .458 Winchester Magnum, 510-grsoft-point bullet. For a shooter who canhandle the recoil of this cartridge, abolt-action rifle in .458 WinchesterMagnum is the surest weapon available.

* .375 H & H Magnum, 300-gr soft-point bullet. The recoil of a rifle in thiscaliber, although considerably lessthan that of the .458 Magnum, is stillsevere for many people. Our tests indi-cate that the 270-gr soft-point bullet inthis caliber is only slightly less effectivethan the 300-gr bullet and has onlyslightly less recoil.

* .338 Winchester Magnum, 300-grbullet. This combination appears to bea good choice. Recoil is somewhat lessthan that of the .375 Magnum, and ourtests indicated that effectiveness wouldnot be much less than that of the .375Magnum. If the 300-gr bullet cannot beobtained, the 200-gr bullet should beused

.30-06, 220-gr bullet. Mild recoil,compared with that of the large- andmedium-bore cartridges, even in alightweight rifle, makes this cartridge astrong contender for shooters who aresensitive to recoil. The .30-06 also has

Design and Use of Rifles forProtection Against Bears

other advantages. It can be found inseveral rifle actions - bolt, pump(slide), semiautomatic - and can beobtained as, or customized into, ashort, handy, lightweight weapon.

Our tests of the performance of bulletsat short range were conducted byshooting into a uniform test medium,not into brown bears. The medium didnot have a thick, wet coat of hair; thick,resilient skin; dense muscle tissue; orheavy bones; and it was not angry andexcited. Consequently, the validity ofthe tests may not be directly applicableto a real situation involving a bear.

Nevertheless, we believe the tests werea good relative evaluation of bulletsshot at short range and can be used tocompare different cartridges and bul-lets Two major points can be inferredfrom our tests: (1) none of the manydifferent types of bullets tested wascompletely adequate, and (2) highstriking velocities may not be partic-ularly beneficial at short range. Thebest results were from bullets relativelyheavy for their caliber fired at moderatevelocity. Many experienced peoplehave also observed this: we have veri-fied their observations under controlledconditions.

The high-intensity cartridges neededfor protection against bears require theuse of strong breech mechanisms. Thestrongest and simplest breech mechan-ism in a repeating rifle is the boltaction.6 This section will apply to rifleswith that type of action, although manyof the comments on stock design,sights, and so forth also apply to rifleswith other types of actions.

Several models of bolt-action rifles areavailable. Of those made in the UnitedStates, the Savage Model 110, theRuger Model 77, the Remington Model700, and the Winchester Model 70 arethe best known. All are turn-bolt oper-ated, magazine fed, and have well-designed trigger mechanisms andsafeties. The Savage Model 110 and theRemington Model 700 are available withleft-handed actions, but commonly onlyin .30-06 or smaller calibers. Left-handed .458-, .375-, and .338-caliberrifles might be available on specialorder. All factory-supplied rifles requiremodification to increase their suitabilityfor use against bears.

Our tests show fairly similar bulletperformance when the same cartridge-bullet weight combination was fired inlong- and short-barreled rifles. Mostrifles using magnum cartridges have afactory-supplied barrel 24 inches long.These can be shortened to 20 inchesfor increased portability, with little lossin ballistic performance at short range.This job must be done by a competentgunsmith because the barrel should becut off in a lathe and the muzzlereshaped (crowned) to insureconcentricity.

Cutting off the barrel also requiresremounting the ramp that holds thefront sight. The ramp should berelocated so its forward end is aboutthree-quarters of an inch from themuzzle. This provides sufficient roomto cover the muzzle with a small pieceof electrician’s tape and to secure thiswith another piece of tape wrappedaround the barrel. Taping the end of

6 We do not recommend single-shot riflesfor protection from bears because of thetime necessary for a followup shot.

the barrel is a worthwhile safety pre-caution. Bullet performance is notaffected; when the rifle is fired, thebullet merely passes through the tape.The tape, however, will prevent anyforeign material (mud, duff, rottenwood, vegetation, snow) from enteringthe muzzle. If the muzzle becomesplugged with this type of material andthe rifle is fired, the barrel may burst.

Under no circumstances should anattempt be made to clear a pluggedbarrel by shooting out the plug. Theproper way to clear a plugged barrel isto push the plug out with a cleaningrod. Makeshift cleaning rods, such asslender sticks, will usually break off inthe barrel. If the plug is not too tight, itmay be dislodged by blowing into thebarrel - from the breech end is thebest way - or by sloshing the barrel ina stream or pool of water. A couple ofsmall pieces of electrician’s tape overthe muzzle will eliminate the problemof plugs. Taping the muzzle also keepswater from running into the barrel andconsequently reduces the possibility ofrust.

Because there is almost no possibilityof a slung rifle being brought intoaction during a short-distance confron-tation, rifles carried in bear countryshould not be permanently equippedwith slings. The sling should bemounted on detachable swivels, andshould be removed when conditionsexist for a possible confrontation. Theforward sling swivel should be mountedon the barrel about 4 inches in front ofthe fore-end tip of the stock. This elim-inates the possibility of injuring thehand grasping the fore-end of the stockwhen the rifle is fired, and reduces theamount of barrel projecting over theshoulder when the rifle is slung in thebarrel-upward position.

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If the rifle must be carried by a sling, abarrel-downward position is preferable.The rifle should be slung on theshoulder opposite that from which it isnormally fired. A rifle carried in thisposition can be brought to the firingposition by lifting it upward and for-ward while twisting the wrist so thepalm of the hand is up. This is a fastmethod of getting a slung rifle intofiring position. It requires only onehand and can be accomplished in asmooth, coordinated manner with alittle practice. In bear country, however.the rifle should be carried unslung in aready position.

If a bolt-action rifle is used, the boltshould be manipulated while the rifle isin firing position. The rifle should notbe lowered from the shoulder to oper-ate the bolt. Learning to operate thebolt from the shoulder requirespractice, but the speed and accuracy ofsubsequent shots are worth the effort.

Some modification of the bolt-actionrifle stock is also worthwhile, particu-larly the length of pull.7 The pull offactory-stocked rifles is usually toolong when the shooter is dressed forthe weather conditions of coastalAlaska; a thick wool jacket under araincoat and backpack will effectivelylengthen the pull by more than an inchand make it almost impossible to getthe rifle into firing position withoutcatching the butt below the shoulder.This problem is increased by thepresence of the rubber recoil padsmounted on almost all heavy-recoilingrifles. A partial remedy is to shorten thelength of pull by cutting an inch ormore off the butt of the stock andremounting the recoil pad. The degreeof shortening depends on the indi-vidual. The edges of the remountedrecoil pad should be rounded to furtherminimize the possibility of the rifle’scatching on garments or pack straps. Ashortened pull also aids in manipulat-ing the bolt while the rifle is shoulderedin the firing position.

7 Length of pull is the distance from thetrigger to the butt of the stock.

A further aid to proper bolt operation isto shorten the fore-end of the stock sothe left hand (in the case of a right-handed shooter) can be placed aroundthe end of the fore-end rather thanalong the sides. To do this requires thatthe left arm be held almost straight out.This is a pointing action and willfacilitate proper aiming. By placing theleft hand in this manner, the rifle canbe held firmly against the shoulder infiring position, with the right handcompletely removed from the rifle. Theright hand can be freely used tomanipulate the bolt and fire the riflewhen a person is in this position.

Shooting a rifle when confronted by abear at close range is similar toshooting a shotgun and has littleresemblance to precision marksman-ship. The rifle is pointed rather thanaimed. This does not mean the sightsshould be ignored because properplacement of the bullet is paramount. Alarge-aperture, hunting-style peep sightis an excellent rear sight. The screw-indisk normally provided should bediscarded; the remaining aperture canbe drilled to a larger diameter ifdesired. The open, narrow-V ornotched rear sights on factory riflesrange from poor to very good. Openrear sights are simple and sturdy;however, in a stressful situation, thefront sight may not be held completelyinto the bottom of the notch or V of therear sight. This causes the rifle to shoothigh. For this reason, a low-mounted,simple peep sight may be better. Thefront sight should be large and have abright bead or blade so it can be quicklylocated in dim light, common to thecoastal forests of Alaska. The sights mustbe adjusted to accommodate the user.

Almost all factory rifle stocks are de-signed for use with telescopic sights.With peep or open sights, the stockcomb must be lowered so there is no

difficulty in locating the sights whenthe rifle is in firing position. The cheek-piece found on almost all factory-stocked rifles can be removed. It ismostly an unnecessary cosmeticaddition.

Stock modifications must be tailored tothe user. This precludes the use of“community” rifles. If possible, a rifleshould be issued to an individual andthe stock modified to fit. The individualshould be held responsible for the careand maintenance of the rifle and shouldbe required to become proficient in itsoperation. Several stocks of varyingdimensions might be kept on hand foruse by temporary employees.

The stock modifications listed aboveare not major alterations and do notrequire a gunsmith. They can be doneby anyone reasonably competent witha few simple woodworking tools. Thealtered stock should be refinished withan oil or a synthetic finish.

The modifications should be done to allrifles used for protection from bears. Ifnew rifles are to be purchased, it maybe better to buy them without stocksand have fiberglass stocks fitted.Several companies produce fiberglassstocks with low combs for use withopen or receiver sights. Such stocksare strong, lightweight, warpfree, andimpervious to water. They can bebroken, but not easily. They can befitted with recoil pads and studs toaccommodate detachable sling swivels.They can also be finished in brightcolors, which could aid in finding amisplaced or forgotten rifle or onedropped overboard from a boat. Aminor annoyance related to a brightstock might be its attraction forhummingbirds and bees.

Newly ordered rifles should have themetal finished by some process otherthan hot-rust bluing. Parkerizing orsome other rust-resistant surfacetreatment will not completely eliminaterust but will slow it down. Rifles onhand should also be given this type offinish when the present bluing be-comes badly worn or scratched. Rust-proof-finished rifles still need regularcleaning and maintenance.

Shooting Brown Bears

Rifle practice should be done through-out the field season. At the minimum,at least one firing session a weekshould be required. This session shouldconsist of firing at least one fullmagazine load (three to five shots)while manipulating the bolt from thefiring position. Multiple targets shouldbe used: the first at about 20 yd; thesecond at 15 yd; and the third at 10 yd.At least one shot should be fired ateach target, starting with the mostdistant target and progressing to thenearest target. To some extent, this willsimulate shooting at a charging bear.Accuracy standards of one hit in an8-inch target area on each of the threetargets should be sufficient. The rifleshould be fired as rapidly as possible,consistent with good placement of thebullet. The latter is more importantthan rapidity of fire, particularly for thefirst shot.

Points to be emphasized during prac-tice sessions are:

l The uplift and recoil of the rifle canaid in operating the bolt from the shoot-ing position.

l The bolt must be withdrawn smartlyand completely to the rear of its travelto insure ejection of the fired cartridgecase so the rifle will not be jammed bya partially ejected cartridge case whenthe bolt is moved forward into battery.

l The rifle should be held firmly againstthe shoulder to minimize the recoil felt.A good part of this will be done by theleft hand. The extended left arm alsoabsorbs some recoil.

l The shooter should aim the rifle withboth eyes open to insure good binocu-lar vision and proper depth perception.This may be difficult for inexperiencedpersons but can be learned.

l The trigger should be squeezed, notjerked. Modern triggers have a veryclean breaking release, and propertrigger manipulation is not hard tolearn.

l Because it may not always be possi-ble to bring the rifle to the shoulder tofire it in a normal manner, some prac-tice in “shooting from the hip” may bebeneficial. The rifle can be held at ornear waist level, pointed at a close (10yd or less) target, and fired. If possible,the stock should be clamped betweenthe arm and the side of the body.Williams (1952) recommended practicewith this shooting position. One of ourcolleagues was recently required to usethe “hip-shooting” position. The bearfell 9 ft from him.

“Dry-firing” practice should be en-couraged. The rifle can be moved froma carrying position to the firing positionand aimed at rocks and stumps whileon the trail. Because the rifle will becarried without a live cartridge in thechamber, this does not constitute asafety hazard.

The brown bear is an extremely inter-esting animal. Seeing a brown bear atclose range is one of the most excitingoutdoor experiences a person canhave. A mutual withdrawal is thepreferred outcome, but this may notalways be possible.

The thought of killing a brown bear (orany other wild animal) is repugnant tomany people. Whether or not a personwill shoot is a personal decision andone that may have to be made quickly.When shooting a bear, the shooterassumes the responsibility of making aquick and clean kill. There should beno desire to hurt or harm the bear, onlyto avoid being hurt or harmed oneself.

To kill properly, a person needs a know-ledge of the anatomy of bears and theirreactions after being shot. This infor-mation is beyond the scope of thispaper, but illustrations of the locationof vital organs and bones, as well aswritten accounts of reactions by bearsafter being shot, are available (Adams1976, O’Connor and Goodwin 1961,van Veenen 1975). These should becarefully studied.

Another consideration is that morethan one bear may be encountered.Brown bear sows keep their cubs withthem for two seasons. A 2-year-oldbrown bear “cub” is a large bear. Twocubs are not uncommon for brownbears, and triplets and even quad-ruplets are known to occur.

The most important shot is the firstone. If not properly placed, it may alsobe the last shot fired. If a bear goesdown on the first shot, continue toshoot. Do not stop to observe theeffects of the shots but continue to aimat vital areas and shoot until the bearstays down and is still. When the bearhas stopped moving, reload, work yourway around behind the animal, stayingas far away as practical and possible,and shoot again into the brain or spine.Make sure the bear is dead. If the bearis still active and the rifle is empty, tryto avoid the bear, reload, and continueto try to kill it.

1 4

A bear that is hit and flees is extremelydangerous. An unwounded bear can bea dangerous animal, but a woundedbear is a dangerous animal. Thewounded bear is dangerous not only tothe person who wounded it, but also toothers. The shooter has a moral respon-sibility to find and kill the woundedbear. Following a wounded brown bearin the dense, poorly lighted forest ofcoastal Alaska is an experience mostwould like to avoid.

Although the State of Alaska allowsbears or other wild animals to be killedto protect life or property, the deadbear is the property of the State (seeappendix). The hide, with feet attached,and the skull must be removed andturned over to the Alaska Departmentof Fish and Game, or the shooter isliable to prosecution and fines. TheDepartment will investigate the kill todetermine if a real necessity existed.No part of the bear may be kept.

Firing a warning shot to scare the bearso it will move away has been advocatedin print and has been done with success.It may, however, only antagonize thebear and precipitate a charge, or thebear may move away and come backlater or from another direction. Again,firing a warning shot is a personaldecision; however, a warning shotmeans there is one less cartridge in therifle. If a warning shot is fired, anothercartridge should be chambered immedi-ately and the magazine reloaded assoon as possible.

The preceding discussion has address-ed the final stage of a potentially lethalconfrontation between bear and human.In many instances, the ultimate con-frontation may be avoided by common-sense precautionary measures:

l Select campsites carefully. Do notpitch a tent in the middle of a well-usedbear trail or in a location obviouslyfrequented by bears.

l Keep food out of reach of bears andsome distance from camp even whenstaying in a cabin.

l Precautions for garbage disposal arethe same as for food. Do not leavegarbage in or close to the camp.

l When walking through bear country,particularly along salmon streams inlate summer and early fall, let your pres-ence be known. Keep up a conversationwith a companion, or with yourself ifalone. A normal or slightly louder toneof voice will usually alert bears to yourpresence. Some people go a stepfarther and use noisemaking devicessuch as bells, whistles, or rocks in acan. This may be a good procedure,but one of the authors has, on twooccasions, observed bears that wereapparently fascinated by the bell-ringing routine and waited attentivelyuntil the noisemakers were in sight(about 30 yd in both instances) beforeambling off into the brush. Bears maybe attracted to the deer call commonlyused in southeast Alaska.

l Be very cautious if a dead animal(deer, moose, bear) is encountered.Bears frequently find a carcass (some-times in an amazingly short time) andtake possession. When packing meat- birds or small game as well as biggame - be particularly alert. Try tostay in the open as much as possible,keep a firearm in a ready position, andcheck your backtrail frequently. If yousee a bear obviously homing in on youand you cannot outmaneuver it, youmight leave some or all of your load ofmeat.

l Sows with cubs are particularlyaggressive; do not get between them.Bears that are feeding are also moreapt to react unfavorably, so give theman especially wide berth.

* A subject of much debate, perhapssecond only to the choice of firearm forprotection from bears, is the matter ofpersonal hygiene in bear country. Whatresponse human odor triggers in a bearmay never be known, but reasonablecleanliness is advisable. Women shouldbe aware that changes in body odorduring menstruation can be a problem.

Bears want to be left in peace as muchas, or more than, humans do. Everyonce in a while, however, a bear justbecomes mean. It may have sufferedan injury and be in pain, or it may beold and crotchety, or for any number ofreasons it may become aggressive.Then, all your precautions may beuseless, and this is the time when youneed that thorough familiarization andconfidence in yourself and in yourweapon.

1 5

Literature Cited Appendix

Adams, Chuck. Big game anatomy. Alaskanbrown bear. Hunting. 3(5): 52-53; 1976.

The following is reproduced from “Alaska Hunting Regulations No. 23,”published by Alaska Board of Game, Alaska Department of Fish and Game:

Hagel, Bob. Game loads and practicalballistics for the American hunter. NewYork, NY: Alfred A. Knopf; 1978. 315 p.

Hatcher, Julian S. Hatcher’s notebook.Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Co.; rev. 1962.640 p.

Mannes, Phil. Rifle recoil. Rifle. 74: 40-43;1981.

O’Connor, Jack; Goodwin, George G. Thebig game animals of North America.New York, NY: E.P. Dutton & Co.; 1961.264 p.

van Veenen, Erik. Bear shot placement.Anchorage, AK: Alaska Department ofFish and Game. Hunter Education: 19751 p. (poster).

Williams, Jay. Alaskan adventure. Harrisburg,PA: Stackpole Co.; 1952. 299 p.

5 AAC 81.375. TAKING GAME IN DEFENSE OF LIFE OR PROPERTY. (a)Nothing in this chapter prohibits a person from taking game in defense of life orproperty provided that:

(1) The necessity for the taking is not brought about by harassment orprovocation of the animal or an unreasonable invasion of the animal’s habitat;

(2) The necessity for taking is not brought about by the improperdisposal of garbage or a similar attractive nuisance: and

(3) All other practicable means to protect life and property are exhaustedbefore the game is taken.

(b) Game taken in defense of life or property is the property of the state.Persons taking such game are required to salvage immediately the meat, or in the caseof black bear. wolf, wolverine and coyote. the hide must be salvaged and immediatelysurrendered to the state In the case of brown, grizzly or polar bear, the hide andskull must be salvaged and surrendered to the state immediately. The departmentmust be notified of such taking immediately and a written report giving thecircumstances of the taking of game in defense of life or property must be made tothe department within 15 days of such taking.

(c) As used in this section, “Properly” is limited to:

( I ) dwelling, whether permanent or temporary;

(2) aircraft. boats. automobiles. or other means of conveyance;

(3) domesticated animals; and

(4) other property of substantial value necessary for the livelihood orsurvival of the owner.

*U.S, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1989 - 69l-133/82074

Meehan, William FL; Thilenius, John F. Safety in bear country: protective measures andbullet performance at short range. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-152. Portland, OR: U.S.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and RangeExperiment Station; 1983.16 p.

Bears are frequently encountered by people working in or enjoying the outdoors. Somegovernment agencies have regulations concerning the firearms their personnel carry forprotection against bears.

Guidelines to prevent hazardous encounters with bears are presented, and the perform-ance of commonly used weapons and ammunition is discussed. The ballistic performanceof bullets at short range is often considerably different from performance of the same bulletat the longer ranges generally encountered while hunting.

Recommendations are made for weapons and ammunition used as protection from bears.

Keywords: Safety, safety equipment, bears, ballistics, Alaska.

The Forest Service of the U.S. Department ofAgriculture is dedicated to the principle of multipleuse management of the Nation’s forest resourcesfor sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife,and recreation. Through forestry research,cooperation with the States and private forestowners, and management of the National Forestsand National Grasslands, it strives - as directed byCongress - to provide increasingly greater serviceto a growing Nation.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an EqualOpportunity Employer. Applicants for all Departmentprograms will be given equal consideration withoutregard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or nationalorigin.

Pacific Northwest Forest and RangeExperiment Station

809 NE Sixth AvenuePortland, Oregon 97232