SAD good (2)
Transcript of SAD good (2)
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Systems Analysis and Design
Lecturer: Albert Osei
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PARIS MODEL
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PHASE I
Planning the approach
One of the main causes of project failure isinadequate understanding of the requirements
one of the main causes of inadequateunderstanding of the requirements is poorplanning of system analysis.
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Cont
The first step taken by the systems analystshould be to plan the approach carefully,bearing in mind the old saying that
failure to prepare is to
prepare to fail!
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Cont..
Before requirement gathering starts, theanalyst needs to stand back, recall theobjectives of the project, and consider the
following three points in order to plan;
What type of information is required?
What are the constraints on the investigation?
What are the potential problems?
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CASE Study
Lets consider an example: You work for a Companybased in UK. Your company has just won the followingcontract with Nestle Gh. Limited. The contract covers:
Analysis of Nestles current warehousing, stock control andmanufacturing systems and the integration of these systems;
an investigation of Nestles current problems and of futurestrategic plans in this area;
production of a report outlining your companys proposals formeeting Nestles future systems requirements in warehousing,stock control and manufacturing systems.
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Cont..
Nestle is an international company and haspresence all over the world.
The company has four manufacturing sites atAccra, Kumasi, Takoradi and Tamale. There arewarehouses at each manufacturing site;
Against this background think about how youwould plan this investigation.
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It will be good to think about the:
The critical information you require before theinvestigation starts;
HOW you will get that information;WHAT techniques will be appropriate;
What are the constraint- to the project and thecompany.
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Planning is the answer.
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Planning
As part of the planning process, analysts mustensure that: He understand the objectives and terms of reference
agreed with the client;
He must be aware of constraints that affect theanalysis process;
they plan the research, initial contact and other tasks
to be completed during
the investigation and manage time appropriately
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Objectives &
Terms of Reference
To understand more about the clientsexpectations, you need to ask a number ofkey questions at the beginning of the
analysis phase of the project:
Who initiated the project?
What is their role in the organisation? What are their objectives for the project?
What are the company objectives
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Cont..
Once you know the answers to thesequestions, you can begin to understandthe context in which the analysis is to be
carried out.
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Projects are usually initiated to meetorganisational need:
Senior management: strategic planning anddecision making
Line managers: system to support their activities
The IT dept: cost-efficiency, new technologies or
method of working
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Whatever the case might be, management oforganisation expect to benefit, e.g:
increased profitability;
improved cash flow;
more effective utilisation of resources,
improved customer service leading to customer
satisfaction.faster access to management information;
better management control
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Analyst will be in good position to addressmanagements problems if they are able to
prioritized the OBJECTIVE. To help in;
Planning the analysis phase
Writing proposal after the analysis
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The stated objectives of the client areusually recorded in the terms of reference.
main areas included in the terms ofreference.
System boundaries-(Scope)
ConstraintsObjectives
Permissions
Deliverables
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System Boundaries
System boundarydefine the area of theorganisation under investigation and mayalso specify the limit of any new system
Implemented as a result of the project.
Should be a paragraph or a series of dot
points, describing where theprocess/system/operation/issue to bestudied begins and ends
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Constraints
Restrict the project, or the solution, in manyways. May be expressed in terms of;
Fig 1.0: Constraints on possible solution
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Objectives
An unambiguous statement of theexpectations of those in the clients
organisation who have initiated the project.
These may be broken down by function ordepartment.
Well-defined objectives are clear andmeasurable.
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Permission
This will indicate who in the clientsorganisation is responsible for thesupervision of the project.
and, if permission needs to be grantedfor example to extend the scope of theanalysis who has the authority to do so.
Points of contact and the appropriatereporting structure may also be defined.
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Deliverable
A description of the deliverable or endproducts of the investigation.
Usually they fall into makingrecommendation for: solving a problem;
improving a process or a system; making a change;
creating a new system
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USES OF TR
Planning
Reference point for the project
Resolving conflicts that may arise
Thus;
Must exist, if none exist, create it andagree with the client
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Constraints
After understanding the TR and the Objective
Its important that all constraints are understood
in order to help with planning and to avoid
problems
Constraints may be set by the customer to limitthe options that may be presented as part of the
system proposals.
They may be expressed in the TR
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They may be expressed in termsof;
Technology: software orhardware
Environment: skilled or unskilled
users, place of use..
Timescale: delivery time baseon customer/gov policy
Budget: cash available for thepurchase of hardware or
software, limitations on theoperation budget
Scope:area under investigation,system boundary
Fig 1.1: Constraints on possible solution
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Other constraints are:
.
Fig 1.2: Constraints on investigation -help in selecting the right fact-finding approach
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Getting Ready
for Detailed AnalysisIn order for analysts to be well prepared for the laterstages of systems analysis, and to increase theircredibility in interviews with client staff andstakeholders more time needs to be spent on research
during the planning stageThis means:
Understanding the TRReviewing relevant documents
Contract documents
Annual reports Organisation structures
Identify the types of information you will need to collect during yourinvestigationThe areas to be investigated
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Following are examples of topics that the analyst may wish to investigate:
Growth What plans does the organisation have for future growth, what would be the information requirements to support this growth
Functionality. What are the major areas of the business the functions that will be investigated during the system, and what are the clients requirements for the functionality of the system?
Procedures. What procedures, standards and guidelines govern the way in which the
organisation conducts its business are they recorded somewhere
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Volumes. What are the volumes of data that pass through the system?
how many orders are processed by the sales department in a week?How many amendments are made to customer records each month?
Fluctuations. What bottlenecks or hold-ups are there in the system, Where and when do these occur in the current system? What steps are taken to deal with these?
Information required.
What information is currently required by the business in order to carry out itsfunctions effectively,
what are the sources of this information? What information, if available, will it benefits the organisation?
Environment.
In what type of environment is the business conducted how does this affect the way in which information is exchanged?
Problems. In the view of users, what are the main problems with the system, what are the implications of these problems,
how can the problems be overcome?
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In planning the approach to analysis, animportant area to consider is the:
First face-to-face contact with the client.
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Why Face-to-face
Contact
To gather requirements
To build a good relationship with the client
To establish the analysts credibility
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Face-to-face
Meeting Ethics
In all meetings with users, the following guidelinesrepresent good practice:
Focus on confidentiality, integrity, respect and confidence-
building. Recognise expertise in the users and welcome their input.
Have as a key objective the need to build the clients
confidence.
Keep everybody informed. This includes client contacts andproject staff.
Be discreet and diplomatic.
Double-check any information gathered.
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There are many tasks to complete duringsystems analysis however there arelimited time;
Time management is one of the factors tobe taken into consideration
It should be budgeted for, managed andused
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To help you manage your time as effectivelyas possible, here are some guidelines: Listobjectives and set priorities.
Make a daily to do list Handle paper only once.
Set and keep deadlines
Ask yourself frequently Whats the best use of my time rightnow?
Always carry a notebook
Do it now (The right time is now..).
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The Feasibility Study
The objectives of a feasibility study are to find out if the projectcan be done (...is it possible?...is it justified?) and to suggestpossible alternative solutionsA feasibility study should provide management with enoughinformation to decide:
Whether the project can be done; Whether the final product will benefit its intended users;
What are the alternatives among which a solution will be chosen (duringsubsequent phases)?
Is there a preferred alternative?
After a feasibility study, management makes a go/no-godecision.
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Thus, analyst should concentrate onproviding answers to four key questions:
How much -The cost of the new system.
What -The objectives of the new system.
When -The delivery timescale.
How -The means and procedures used toproduce the new system.
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What to study
Things to be studied during the feasibility study phase:The present organizational system
users, policies, functions, objectives,...
Problems with the present system
inconsistencies, inadequacies in functionality, performance,...,
Objectives and other requirements for the new system What needs to change?
Constraints, including non-functional requirements on the system
preliminary passPossible alternatives
the current system is always one of those
Advantages and disadvantages of the alternatives
Things to conclude: Feasibility of the project and the preferred alternative.
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Types of Feasibility
Operational Define the urgency of the problem and the acceptability of any solution; If the
system is developed, will it be used? Includes people-oriented and social issues:internal issues, such as manpower problems, labour objections, managerresistance, organizational conflicts and policies; also external issues, includingsocial acceptability, legal aspects and government regulations.
Technical Is the project feasibility within the limits of current technology? Does thetechnology exist at all? Is it available within given resource constraints (i.e.,budget, schedule,...)
Economic(Cost/Benefits Analysis) Is the project possible, given resource constraints? Are the benefits that will
accrue from the new system worth the costs? What are the savings that willresult from the system, including tangible and intangible ones? What are thedevelopment and operational costs?
Schedule Constraints on the project schedule and whether they could be reasonably met.
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Operational Feasibility:
The PIECES FrameworkThe PIECES framework can help in identifying operational problems to besolved, and their urgency:
Performance - Does current mode of operation provide adequatethroughput and response time?
Information - Does current mode provide end users and managers with
timely, to the point, accurate and usefully formatted information?Economy- Does current mode of operation provide cost-effectiveinformation services to the business? Could there be a reduction in costsand/or an increase in benefits?
Control - Does current mode of operation offer effective controls toprotect against fraud and to guarantee accuracy and security of data andinformation?
Efficiency- Does current mode of operation make maximum use ofavailable resources, including people, time, flow of forms,...
Services-Does current mode of operation provide reliable service? Is it
flexible and expandable?
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How do end-users and managers feel about the problem(solution)?
It's not only important to evaluate whether a system canwork
but also evaluate whether a system willwork.
A workable solution might fail because of end user ormanagement resistance. Does management support the project?
How do the end users feel about their role in the new system? What end users or managers may resist or not use the system?
People tend to resist change. Can this problem be overcome?If so, how?
How will the working environment of the end users change?
Can or will end users and management adapt to the change
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Technical FeasibilityIs the proposed technology or solution
practical?Do we currently possess the necessarytechnology?
Do we possess the necessary technicalexpertise, and is the schedule reasonable?
Is relevant technology mature enough to beeasily applied to our problem?
Some firms like to use state-of-the-arttechnology, but most firms prefer to use mature
and proven technology.
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A mature technology has a larger customer basefor obtaining advice concerning problems andimprovements.
Assuming that required technology ispractical, is it available in the informationsystems shop? If the technology is available,does it have the capacity to handle the
solution.
If the technology is not available, can it beacquired?
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Schedule FeasibilityWe may have the technology, but that doesn't mean wehave the skills required to properly apply that technology.True, all information systems professionals can learn newtechnologies. However, that learning curve will impactthe technical feasibility of the project; specifically, it willimpact the schedule.
Given our technical expertise, are the project deadlinesreasonable? Some projects are initiated with specificdeadlines. You need to determine whether the deadlinesare mandatory or desirable. If the deadlines aredesirable rather than mandatory, the analyst can proposealternative schedules.
It is preferable (unless the deadline is absolutelymandatory) to deliver a properly functioning system twomonths late than to deliver an error-prone, uselessinformation system on time!
Missed schedules are bad, but inadequate systems areworse!
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Economic Feasibility
The bottom line in many projects is economicfeasibility.
During the early phases of the project, economic
feasibility analysis amounts to little more thanjudging whether the possible benefits of solvingthe problem are worthwhile.
As soon as specific requirements and solutions
have been identified, the analyst can weigh thecosts and benefits of each alternative.
This is called a cost-benefit analysis.
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Cost/Benefit AnalysisThe purpose of a cost/benefit analysis is to answer
questions such as: Is the project justified (because benefits outweigh costs)? Can the project be done, within given cost constraints? What is the minimal cost to attain a certain system?
What is the preferred alternative, among candidate solutions?
Examples of things to consider: Hardware/software selection How to convince management to develop the new system Selection among alternative financing arrangements
(rent/lease/purchase)
Difficulties - discovering and assessing benefits andcosts; they can both be intangible, hidden and/or hard to estimate, it's also hard to rank multi-criteria alternatives
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Feasibility study report
A report is written after the studyThe content should include:
Fig 1.3: Feasibility study report content
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Background
Terms of reference.
Reasons for the study
This section will outline the background tothe project and the way it relates to thestated objectives of the organisation.
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The current situation
Overview of current situation.
Problems and requirements identified.
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Proposed solutionA description of the requirements of a new system along with
a number of options explaining how this solution might beimplemented. Each option will address:
Technical implications
how it meets the requirements, the hardware and software needed.
Operational implications the impact the solution will have on the business in terms of human,
organisational and political aspects.
Cost implications both initial (capital) and continuing (operational). There are a number of
methods of assessing the costs of solutions. In the feasibility report, theanalyst should use the cost assessment method specified by the client.
C t b fit l i
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Costbenefits analysis
A comparison of costs and benefitsprepared using whatever evaluation
technique is favoured by the organisation.
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Recommendations
A brief statement that presents the main points of theprevious sections of the report.
3 types of recommendation can be made in afeasibility report:
Advising the client to progress with the full detailedanalysis. If this is the case, a plan would also be includedfor this phase of the project.
Advising the client to review the terms of reference or thescope of the study before proceeding further or making anyjudgement on feasibility.
Advising the client to scrap the project as it is not feasible;
the resources could be better spent elsewhere.
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Once the feasibility report has beendelivered
Assuming that the recommendation madeby the analyst is to proceed, the detailed
systems analysis phase can begin
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To start the investigation the following
needs to be done;
collect information about the current system
record the problems & requirements
building up a picture of the required system
NextAsking Questions & Collecting Data
A ki Q ti &
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Asking Questions &
Collecting Data
Fact-finding takes place from the start of theproject:
during the feasibility study
right through to the final implementationDuring the investigation, information about thecurrent system is collect to:
establishes what the existing system does
Details of inputs and outputs from the system
How information is stored
volumes and frequencies of data
Specific problems in the existing system
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you may also be able to gather useful informationabout:
departmental objectives
decisions made and the facts upon which they are based;
what is done, to what purpose, who does it, where it is doneand the reason why;
critical factors affecting the business;
staff and equipment costs.
These may leads to a definition of a set of optionsfrom which the users may choose their requiredsystem
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Range of fact-finding methods can be used toachieve the above feat, including: Interviewing
Questionnaires
Observation
Focus groups
searching and document analysis
it is important to remember that they
Note: more than one method may be usedduring a fact-finding session:
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Fact-finding Interview
The interview is the primary technique forinformation gathering during the systemsanalysis phases.
It is a skill which must be mastered byevery analyst.
The interviewing skills of the analystdetermine: what information is gathered
the quality and depth of that information.
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Definition:
An interviewis "a formal face-to-face meeting,especially, one arranged for the assessment ofthe qualifications of an applicant, as for
employment or admission.... A conversation,as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts,or statements are elicited from another."(The American Heritage Dictionary, 2nd Ed. College Edition )
An interview can be defined as a conversation
with a specific purpose.(D. Yeates & T. Wakefied, System Analysis and Design, 2nd Ed)
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Cont
The interview is a specific form of meeting orconference.
usually limited to two persons:
interviewer interviewee.
In special circumstances there may be:
more than one interviewer
more than one interviewee in attendance.
In these cases there should still be:
one primary interviewer and
one primary interviewee
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Interviewing Components
The interview process itself consists of anumber of parts. Selection of the interviewee and scheduling time for
the interview Preparation of interview questions, or script
The interview itself
Documentation of the facts and information
gathered during the interview Review of the interview write up with the
interviewee
Correction of the write up, sign-off, and filing
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Planning the Interview
When planning a fact-finding interview,you are trying to answer five questions:
What do I wish to achieve as a result of these
interviews? Who should be interviewed?
How will these interviews be conducted?
What topics will be covered during theinterviews?
Where will the interviews take place?
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The answers enables analyst to:
helps you to identify a set of objectives
leads you to a list of interviewees and to a
sequence in which they will be interviewed gives you a format or structure for the interview
putting together an agenda
implications for both interviewer and the intervieweedepending on the answer with regard to location.
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Interviewing Guidelines
properly conducted interview should be self-evident. It should
Start with a social chart
To create a relaxed atmosphere
building rapport with the interviewee
Make it a conversation and not an interrogation.
First and foremost, establish the tone of the interview. Gain the interviewee's trust and cooperation early on,
and maintain it throughout.
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Overview: Let the interviewee know the reason for the
interview and why he or she was selected tobe interviewed.
Stress that the interviewee's knowledge andopinions are important, and will aid in theanalysis process.
Establish what will happen to the informationgathered.
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Cont
Determine any areas of confidentiality or restrictedinformation.
Let the interviewee know that candour and honesty
will be valued and that nothing will be published orpassed on until it has been reviewed and verified bythe interviewee.
Firmly establish that there are no negativeconsequences to being interviewed.
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Overview
Questions and answers ask questions to find out as much as possible about
the interviewee & their role in the firm.
listening carefully to the answers
Make notes
It is important to keep control of the interview
It is also important to maintain the rapport
remembering that you are not there to evaluate theinterviewee but to hear their views
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Structuring the Question
Fig 2.0: The Questioning model
There are four steps in this questioning model,designed to guide the analyst through thefact-finding process and provide information about
the users problems and requirements
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In conducting an interview:
the questions should initially be at a high level soinformation is gathered about:
background & work environment of the interviewee (user)within the organisation. - context questions
Context questions contain the words like tell, explain ordescribe
E.g. Can you describe your main responsibilities as sales
manager? etc
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detailed questions: Enable one to obtainspecific information about the areas explored inthe context.
This information will usually include facts andfigures that indicate volumes as well asoperational peaks and troughs.
e.gOn average, how may invoices would be processed each month? You said that the current procedures cause difficulties for your staff what sort of
difficulties?
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The fourth step can take place alongside stepthree
Its to explore the users views about the solutionto a problem
Find out what the user needsto correct theproblem.
It is important during fact-finding to discover
what the users realneeds are, so that: any solution developed will be efficient and effective:E.g. In your opinion, what steps could be taken to solve thisproblem?
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ClosingAs the model indicates, time should be left at the endof the interview to bring it to a formal close.In closing the interview:
summarise the points discussed checking key facts with the interviewee describe what will happen next as a result of the information
obtained.
In most cases it is appropriate to offer to send a copyof the formal record of the interview for the intervieweeto check and confirm.Finally, arrangements can be made to re-contact theinterviewee if there are any problems, thereby leaving
the door open for future discussion.
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The starting point for this task is the list of objectivesprepared earlier. Using the objectives especially the passive ones
the information to be collected can be prioritised as
follows: Facts that you mustfind out in order to develop the new system.
This relates to the key objective, or objectives.
Facts that you shouldfind out to add flesh to the bare bones ofthe system.
Details that, given the time, you could find out to add the finalpolish to the system.
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Dos and Don'ts of Interviewing
The rules of interviewing are similar to therules which govern most humaninteractions and
rules which govern most investigative andproblem-solving processes.
In effect they can be called the rules of the
game.
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Donts
Do notassume anything.
Do notform pre-judgments.
Do notinterrupt.
Do avoid confrontation.
Do notgo off on tangents.
Dont stare
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Dos
Do ask questions which start with who, what,where, when, why, and how, where possible.
Do ask both open and closed questions.
Do verify understanding through probing andconfirming questions.
Do act in a friendly but professional manner.
Do listen actively.Do take notes, but do notbe obtrusive about it.
maintaining eye contact
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Do let the interviewee do most of the talkingDo establish rapport early and maintain it.
Do maintain control over the subject matter.
Do establish a time frame for the interview andstick to it.
Do conclude positively.
Do allow for follow-up or clarification interviewslater on.
Do be polite and courteous.
Do nod your head from time to time
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Who to interview
Under normal conditions, the analyst will haveaccess to all people in the user areaalthough normally there is no need to interviewthem all.
This is especially true if the user area is verylarge.
Generally speaking, the list of those to be
interviewed can be divided into three sections: the most senior manager, subordinates and junior managers, and line workers, clerks, production people, sales staff, etc.
Q i i
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Questioning
Asking the appropriate question to obtainthe information required is a technique
Different types of question call forthdifferent types of response
A selection of question types aredescribed below:
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Closed questions They produce a definite yes or
no,
can help to control the talkativeinterviewee.
Open questions
E.g. please explain
Probing questions.
are used to obtain more detail toprobe further when a previousquestion has not yielded
sufficient info. E.g why
Probing technique may also beused e.g. planned pauses,periods of silence, or an
unfinished sentence.
Reflective questionsLimited-choice questions Which of these three courses
of action is most suitable . . .? Is your busiest time in Aprilor in September?
Leading questions
Leading questions imply thecorrect answer. E.g Wouldyou agree that . . . ?,
Link questions. For example:
In view of what you have justsaid
I i D i
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Interview Documentation
THE NEEDDocumentation, however painful andtedious it may seem, is one of the most
critical tasks of analysis. Thedocumentation produced as a result of theanalytical interviews, the analyst'sobservations and research, and ultimately,
the total analysis phase of the projectserves a number of purposes.
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P i i d ll
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Precision and recall
A written document is more precise and may be reviewedrepeatedly until understanding is achieved.
It has the added advantage that small changes can be
made to it without having to restate the entire premise orthought.
Once an idea is written down, it may be recalled at willexactly as first presented and may be completed bysomeone other than the original author, or authors.
Because there is little feedback from the written word, onecan only take issue with misstatements of fact or withambiguous wording. If it isn't written down, it isn't there.
G hi
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Graphics.
Documentation usually includes both a narrativeportion and an illustration portion.
These illustrations serve to amplify andenhance the narrative.
One picture can be worth many thousands ofwords, if properly drawn.
simple flowcharts, data flow diagrams, orpowerful modelling techniques, presents theuser and the analyst with a way to walk throughanalysis and design.
F ti f D t ti
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Functions of Documentation
Documentation serves to clarify understanding,and perhaps most important,
it provides the audit trail of the analyst. That is,it creates the records which can be referred toat some later date
serve as the basis for future work and decisions
t
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cont
Good documentation precludes the need toreturn to the interviewee for a repetition ofground previously covered.
Good documentation can be reviewed overand over until adequate understanding is
achieved.
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Documentation vital.Good documentation allows other analysts and the analyst'ssuccessors to pick up where the first left off.Documentation is necessary if the next project phases are to besuccessful, since they are predicated on the results of the
analysis.To a very real extent, analytical documentation provides theroad maps for the remainder of the project. If the maps arefaulty, or incomplete, the succeeding teams may wind up in aswamp, or worse, in quicksand.
Most important, the finalized documentation serves as acontract between the user and the data processing developer.In it the analyst has described the user's environment, theanalyst's understanding of the user's needs and requirements,and with the proposal for a future environment, the analyst's
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Documenting the Interview
The interview is not complete until it hasbeen documented.
The documentation of the interview needNOT be a verbatim transcript of what wassaid but should cover the following items.
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the date, location and duration of theinterview;
the names of the attendees;
the agenda or objectives;the main points discussed;
any conclusions;
any actions;the date of next meeting if appropriate
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Telephone Interview
it has become necessary to gather datafrom all employees in a given areas, oreven in extreme cases throughout the firm.
Phone Interviews are used to gathernon-sensitive yes or no types of answersto highly focused questions
Characteristics
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Characteristics:
Sample size is relatively limited.
The response rate is relatively good
The turnaround time is very fast
moderate cost
Good for gathering relatively simple data
Advantage Disadvantage
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Advantage Disadvantage
The interviewer can clarifyquestions if answers are notunderstood
It is the fastest method to
collect information and has abetter response rate that mailsurveys
It is the least expensive type ifinterview
There is no opportunity toestablish a rapport with theinterviewee
The scope of the survey isnecessarily limited
Respondents tire quicklyduring the interview
It is difficult to schedule phoneinterviews in advance
It is difficult getting return calls
Observation
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Observation
Effective technique for understanding system.
Possible to participate in, or watch, a person performactivities to learn about system.
Useful when validity of data collected is in questionor when complexity of certain aspects of systemprevents clear explanation by end-users.
Example: studying how a student learns throughVERBAL PROTOCOLS.
Observation Checklist
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Observation Checklist
Adv /Dis Of Observation
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Adv./Dis. Of Observation
Record Searching
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Record Searching
Time constraints can prevent systems analystsfrom making as thorough an investigation of thecurrent system as they might wish.
Another approach, which enables conclusions to
be drawn from a sample of past and presentresults of the current system, is called recordsearching.
This involves looking through written records to
obtain quantitative information, and to confirm orquantify information already supplied by user staffor management. Information can be collectedabout:
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the volume of file data and transactions,frequencies, and trends;
the frequency with which files are updated;
the accuracy of the data held in the system;
unused forms;
exceptions and omissions
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All of the information collected by recordsearching can be used to cross-checkinformation given by users of the system.
This doesnt imply that user opinion will be
inaccurate, but discrepancies can be valuated
and the reasons for them discussed.
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Where there are a large number ofdocuments, statistical sampling can beused.
Document Analysis
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Document Analysis
investigating the data flowing through a systemis another useful technique.
Such documents might include
Reports Forms
Organisation charts
Formal lists.
To fully understand the purpose of a documentand its importance to the business, the analyst
must ask questions
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It is particularly powerful when used incombination with one or more
of the other techniques mentioned in theearlier lecture
Systems Analysis:
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Recording the Information
Typically, the analyst collects aconsiderable amount of information duringthe investigation phase:
interviewReports
observation records
sample documents
completed questionnaires
lists of problems and requirements.
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It is important for the systems analyst to: record this information in an unambiguous,
concise manner that will be clear and accessible to others,
and which can be used by other analysts and designersinvolved in developing the new system.
There is a structured techniques to help systemdevelopers to
record information in this way using diagrams and a limited amount of text
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Before introducing these recording techniqueswe shall briefly describe data dictionaries andCASE tools, which help the analyst to create
and edit diagrams, and to store data in astructured and meaningful way
Without data dictionaries and CASE tools thelarge-scale application of structured methodswould be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve.
Data Dictionaries
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and CASE Tools
A data dictionary is used to record all thosepieces of information about a system (textualor numeric) that cannot be recorded on
diagrams
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