The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational o

Training & Development

Concepts, Applications & Cases

Manoj A.SAsst. Professor in HRM & Marketing AreaDepartment of Management Studies,

Lourdes Matha College of Science & Technology,

Trivandrum - 695574This book is dedicated to my one and only loving daughterNAINIKA

Excellence is an art won by training and habituation. We do not act rightly because we have virtue or excellence, but we rather have those because we have acted rightly. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.

Aristotle

CONTENTS

Chapter 1Overview of Training & Development

Concept of Training

Types of training

Traditional and Modern Approach of Training and Development Training and development objectivesChapter 2Training Need Analysis (TNA)

Design Integrated Training Analysis

Training Analysis Process

Why training need analysis? Needs Analysis-How to determine training needs

Who Conducts Needs Analysis & Why?Chapter 3Identification of Training Needs Identification of Training Needs

Methods of Identifying Training Needs Techniques for Determining Specific Training NeedsChapter 4

Training Design

Instructional Design Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction

Learning Design

Instructional design models Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) Needs Assessment

The Training Plan

Lesson Plans

Train-the-Trainer

Training Implementation and Evaluation Coaching and Counseling

Chapter 5

Training cycle

Success Cycle

Creating an Efficient Training Cycle what is Cycle-Max Coaching?

How Does Cycle-Max Coaching Work?

What Happens During a Typical Coaching Session?

What Can I Expect to Gain from Cycle-Max Coaching? What Makes Cycle-Max Coaching so Effective?

Chapter 6

Training Methodology

Introduction

Vital issues when planning training

Training methods choosing the most appropriate techniques: evaluation and identification of future training needs

Chapter 7

Methods of Training

Lecture A Method of Training

Demonstration Training Method

Discussion Training Method

Computer Based Training (CBT)

Intelligent Tutorial System (ITS) Programmed Instruction (PI)

Virtual Reality (VR)

Games and Simulations

Chapter 8

Training Budget

Assess training needs and develop your budget Know the importance of ROI

Define success up front

Quantify the return on investment

Develop a training budget

Measure outcomes

Determine ROI on an ongoing basis

Try it with a training budget analysis

Training Budget Template

Training Budget Plan

Training requirements purpose

Training plan approach

Training requirements

Requirements for skies training

Items excluded from training

Training features

Features internal to ESD

Features external to ESD Standards

Features not included in training

Training approach

Training focus

Training team deliverables

Coordination

Analysis

Logging

Reporting

Staffing and training needs

Schedule

Issues

Risks and impacts

Workforce Training Fund General Program Chapter 9

Training Evaluation Purposes of Training Evaluation

Process of Training Evaluation Techniques of Evaluation Training programme evaluation

Evaluation of workplace learning and training Evaluation of training

Responsibility for the evaluation of training

The trainer - training evaluation responsibilities

The line manager - training evaluation responsibilities The training manager - training evaluation responsibilities The trainee or learner - training evaluation responsibilities

Training evaluation and validation options

The trainer's overall responsibilities - aside from training evaluation

Monitoring the training Types of evaluation Evaluation Methods Formative Evaluation Process Evaluation Outcome Evaluation In essence Impact Evaluation Training Evaluation Matrix Training evaluation research

Summary

Evaluation of training and learning

Sample Training Evaluation FormChapter 10Phases of Training

Training phases

Different Phases of Training

How it works

Chapter 11Measuring Training Effectiveness

Business Performance Impact

Cross-Functional Reporting LMS Independence

Business System Integration

Performance Alignment

A Training Model from Learning Analytics

ConclusionChapter 12Training and Professional Development

Learning theories and training

Training approach

Types of training

Preservice Training

In-service Training and Staff Development

Induction or Orientation Training Foundation Training Maintenance or Refresher Training On-the-Job Training Career or Development Training Phases of training

Planning Phase

Selecting a Training Method

Implementation phase

Evaluation phase

Types of Evaluation

Chapter 13 Training Manual

Designing the Manual

Writing the Manual

Check spelling and grammar Presentation

Graphic design principles Ease of useChapter 14Training or learning

Focus on learning, not training

Give people choice

Training policy and training manuals Training and development policy - definitions and template

Training manuals - definitions and templates

Training manual - trainer's versions - additional sections/items

Training content notes in training manuals - sample formats

Training, coaching, mentoring, training and learning design - developing people

Training process ideas and outline process Prioritizing training

Developing people and capabilities

Designing self-study training and learning programmes

Mentoring linked to projects and objectives activities

Mentoring cost analysis and justification

Mentoring principles and techniques

Tips on establishing a mentoring service or programme General training tips

Chapter 16 Importance of Training & Development in Modern

Organizations

Reasons for employee training and development Some topics treated in employee trainings Benefits of employee training and development Role of Training and Development in an Organization

Strategic training and development: a gateway to organizational success

Role of Organization in Training and Development

Traditional and modern approach of training and development

Training and development objectives

Ten Tips to Make Training and Development Work

Chapter 17

Myths about Training & Development

Myth 1. Training makes a difference.

Myth 2. Training's purpose is to achieve learning objectives

Myth 3. Training is training's job. Myth 4. Training should be fun.

Myth 5. Training can't develop successful attitudes.

Case Study 1Before the Employee Training

Case Study 2Case study on training and development: API Raffinera di Ancona Spa, Italy

Case Study 3Central Print - A Training Case

Case Study 4Sandra changes careers through training and developmentCase Study -5

Is Rajat in needs of Remedial Training?

Case Study 6Sales training at ABC Company

Case Study 7A Case on GE Learning

Case study 8Case on Training & Development of Godrej

Case Study 9A Case on TESCO

Chapter 1

Overview of Training & Development

Concept of Training

The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics). In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession, observers of the labor-market recognize today[update] the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills throughout working life. People within many professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training as professional development.

Some commentators use a similar term for workplace learning to improve performance: training and development. One can generally categorize such training as on-the-job or off-the-job:

On-the-job training takes place in a normal working situation, using the actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that trainees will use when fully trained. On-the-job training has a general reputation as most effective for vocational work.

Off-the-job training takes place away from normal work situations implying that the employee does not count as a directly productive worker while such training takes place. Off-the-job training has the advantage that it allows people to get away from work and concentrate more thoroughly on the training itself. This type of training has proven more effective in inculcating concepts and ideas.

Training differs from exercise in that people may dabble in exercise as an occasional activity for fun. Training has specific goals of improving one's capability, capacity, and performance.

Types of training

Physical trainingPhysical training concentrates on mechanistic goals: training-programs in this area develop specific skills or muscles, often with a view to peaking at a particular time. Some physical training programs focus on raising overall physical fitness.

In military use, training means gaining the physical ability to perform and survive in combat, and learning the many skills needed in a time of war. These include how to use a variety of weapons, outdoor survival skills, and how to survive capture by the enemy, among others. See military education and training.

For psychological or physiological reasons, people who believe it may be beneficial to them can choose to practice relaxation training, or autogenic training, in an attempt to increase their ability to relax or deal with stress. While some studies have indicated relaxation training is useful for some medical conditions, autogenic training has limited results or has been the result of few studies.

Religion and spiritualityIn religious and spiritual use, training may mean purifying mind, heart, understanding and actions to obtain a variety of spiritual goals such as closeness to God or freedom from suffering. Note for example the institutionalized spiritual training of Buddhism, the Threefold Training, or discipleship in Christianity.

Artificial-intelligence feedbackResearchers have developed training-methods for artificial-intelligence devices as well. Evolutionary algorithms, including genetic programming and other methods of machine learning, use a system of feedback based on "fitness functions" to allow computer programs to determine how well an entity performs a task. The methods construct a series of programs, known as a population of programs, and then automatically test them for "fitness", observing how well they perform the intended task. The system automatically generates new programs based on members of the population that perform the best. These new members replace programs that perform the worst. The procedure repeats until the achievement of optimum performance. In robotics, such a system can continue to run in real-time after initial training, allowing robots to adapt to new situations and to changes in themselves, for example, due to wear or damage. Researchers have also developed robots that can appear to mimic simple human behavior as a starting point for training. Training & Development is a subsystem of an organization. It ensures that randomness is reduced and learning or behavioral change takes place in structured format.

Traditional and Modern Approach of Training and Development

Traditional Approach Most of the organizations before never used to believe in training. They were holding the traditional view that managers are born and not made. There were also some views that training is a very costly affair and not worth. Organizations used to believe more in executive pinching. But now the scenario seems to be changing.

The modern approach of training and development is that Indian Organizations have realized the importance of corporate training. Training is now considered as more of retention tool than a cost. The training system in Indian Industry has been changed to create a smarter workforce and yield the best results TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVESThe principal objective of training and development division is to make sure the availability of a skilled and willing workforce to an organization. In addition to that, there are four other objectives: Individual, Organizational, Functional, and Societal.Individual Objectives help employees in achieving their personal goals, which in turn, enhances the individual contribution to an organization.Organizational Objectives assist the organization with its primary objective by bringing individual effectiveness.Functional Objectives maintain the departments contribution at a level suitable to the organizations needs.Societal Objectives ensure that an organization is ethically and socially responsible to the needs and challenges of the society.

In the field of human resource management, training and development is the field concerned with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee development, human resource development, and learning and development. Harrison observes that the name was endlessly debated by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development during its review of professional standards in 1999/2000. "Employee Development" was seen as too evocative of the master-slave relationship between employer and employee for those who refer to their employees as "partners" or "associates" to be comfortable with. "Human Resource Development" was rejected by academics, who objected to the idea that people were "resources" an idea that they felt to be demeaning to the individual. Eventually, the CIPD settled upon "Learning and Development", although that was itself not free from problems, "learning" being an overgeneral and ambiguous name. Moreover, the field is still widely known by the other names. Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and development. Garavan, Costine, and Heraty, of the Irish Institute of Training and Development, note that these ideas are often considered to be synonymous. However, to practitioners, they encompass three separate, although interrelated, activities: Training This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently holds. Education

This activity focuses upon the jobs that an individual may potentially hold in the future, and is evaluated against those jobs. Development

This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to evaluate.

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers. The clients of training and development are business planners. Line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The participants are those who actually undergo the processes. The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff. And the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and motivations of the others. The conflicts are the best part of career consequences are those that take place between employees and their bosses. The number one reason people leave their jobs is conflict with their bosses. And yet, as author, workplace relationship authority, and executive coach, Dr. John Hoover points out, "Tempting as it is, nobody ever enhanced his or her career by making the boss look stupid." Training an employee to get along well with authority and with people who entertain diverse points of view is one of the best guarantees of long-term success. Talent, knowledge, and skill alone won't compensate for a sour relationship with a superior, peer, or customer.

Chapter - 2

Training Need Analysis (TNA)

Training Analysis (sometimes called Training Needs Analysis (TNA)) is the formal process of identifying the training gap and its related training need.

Training can be described as the acquisition of skills, concepts or attitudes that result in improved performance within the job environment. Training analysis looks at each aspect of an operational domain so that the initial skills, concepts and attitudes of the human elements of a system can be effectively identified and appropriate training can be specified.

Training analysis as a process often covers:

Review of current training

Task analysis (of new or modified system)

Identification of training gap

Statement of training requirement

Assessment of training options

Cost benefit analysis of training options

Training Analysis is most often used as part of the system development process. Due to the close tie between the design of the system and the training required, in most cases it runs alongside the development to capture the training requirements.

Design Integrated Training Analysis

K Tara Smith proposed and developed tools and methods for an integrated approach Design Integrated Training Analysis, where the trade-offs between design and training are both assessed in the light of the understanding of the operational tasks.

This approach also used information regarding recorded critical incidents to review proposed training and to provide traceability between hazards and training.

This single integrated approach to human factors and training analysis has been successfully used on a number of defence projects.

Training Analysis ProcessOver the last 20 years the critical nature of the man-in-the-loop has changed from simply manual dexterity and procedural operation to a state in which their decision making, cognitive abilities, data assimilation, communication skills, and attitude are all crucial. In addition the job structure of the personnel operationally involved with modern systems has diversified in direct proportion to the complexity of the technology. This has fuelled the need for a formal approach.

The task of training can be broken down into a number of discrete components, each addressing a different part of the overall learning process. This breakdown is as follows:-

Psycho-motor Skills

Procedural Skills

Knowledge Transfer

Communication Skills

Attitude Learning

Performance Training.

The role of training analysis is to build a formal bridge between the available design data and the training media and training objectives, in order to facilitate the transfer of training elements into the operational environment.

For complex multi-user system a user-to-task map is often constructed to present the relationship between the tasks and the identified team structure and also to identify new groups of users that would need to have an understanding of the system. The training gap is assessed by a comparison between the goals and tasks undertaken by the individuals and the existing training.

There is a wide variety of training media that can be used, ranging from traditional lecture-based teaching to sophisticated simulators. Different media will be more or less appropriate for different activities. It is necessary to determine the most suitable and cost-effective training media for the different areas.

There have been many different approaches defined however the system approach to training has been the most successful.

Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is defined as the Identification of training requirements and the most cost effective means of meeting those requirements.

A TNA should always be performed where a major new development in policy, equipment acquisition or procedures is deemed to have potential impact upon the current training regime.

TST has considerable experience of successfully employing the accepted techniques applied to the development of training systems, including the Systems Approach to Training (SAT) in both the defence and civilian domains using customer specific standards such as JSP 822 where required.

Carrying out all TNA activates in accordance with SAT principles ensures rigorous visibility in each design stage with clear audit trails from the initial Scoping Study through to the recommended solution.

An analysis of training need is an essential requirement to the design of effective training. The purpose of training need analysis is to determine whether there is a gap between what is required for effective performance and present level of performance. Why training need analysis?Training need analysis is conducted to determine whether resources required are available or not. It helps to plan the budget of the company, areas where training is required, and also highlights the occasions where training might not be appropriate but requires alternate action.Training Need arises at three levels:

Corporate need and training need are interdependent because the organization performance ultimately depends on the performance of its individual employee and its sub group.Organizational Level Training need analysis at organizational level focuses on strategic planning, business need, and goals. It starts with the assessment of internal environment of the organization such as, procedures, structures, policies, strengths, and weaknesses and external environment such as opportunities and threats.

After doing the SWOT analysis, weaknesses can be dealt with the training interventions, while strengths can further be strengthened with continued training. Threats can be reduced by identifying the areas where training is required. And, opportunities can be exploited by balancing it against costs.

For this approach to be successful, the HR department of the company requires to be involved in strategic planning. In this planning, HR develops strategies to be sure that the employees in the organization have the required Knowledge, Skills, and Attributes (KSAs) based on the future KSAs requirements at each level.Individual Level Training need analysis at individual level focuses on each and every individual in the organization. At this level, the organization checks whether an employee is performing at desired level or the performance is below expectation. If the difference between the expected performance and actual performance comes out to be positive, then certainly there is a need of training.However, individual competence can also be linked to individual need. The methods that are used to analyze the individual need are:

Appraisal and performance review

Peer appraisal

Competency assessments

Subordinate appraisal

Client feedback

Customer feedback

Self-assessment or self-appraisal

Operational Level Training Need analysis at operational level focuses on the work that is being assigned to the employees. The job analyst gathers the information on whether the job is clearly understood by an employee or not. He gathers this information through technical interview, observation, psychological test; questionnaires asking the closed ended as well as open ended questions, etc. Today, jobs are dynamic and keep changing over the time. Employees need to prepare for these changes. The job analyst also gathers information on the tasks needs to be done plus the tasks that will be required in the futureBased on the information collected, training Need analysis (TNA) is done. Needs Analysis-How to determine training needs

The identification of training needs is the first step in a uniform method of instructional design.

1. Types of Needs Analyses

Many needs assessments are available for use in different employment contexts. Sources that can help you determine which needs analysis is appropriate for your situation are described below.

Context Analysis. An analysis of the business needs or other reasons the training is desired. The important questions being answered by this analysis are who decided that training should be conducted, why a training program is seen as the recommended solution to a business problem, what the history of the organization has been with regard to employee training and other management interventions.

User Analysis. Analysis dealing with potential participants and instructors involved in the process. The important questions being answered by this analysis are who will receive the training and their level of existing knowledge on the subject, what their learning style is, and who will conduct the training.

Work analysis. Analysis of the tasks being performed. This is an analysis of the job and the requirements for performing the work. Also known as a task analysis or job analysis, this analysis seeks to specify the main duties and skill level required. This helps ensure that the training which is developed will include relevant links to the content of the job.

Content Analysis. Analysis of documents, laws, procedures used on the job. This analysis answers questions about what knowledge or information is used on this job. This information comes from manuals, documents, or regulations. It is important that the content of the training does not conflict or contradict job requirements. An experienced worker can assist (as a subject matter expert) in determining the appropriate content.

Training Suitability Analysis. Analysis of whether training is the desired solution. Training is one of several solutions to employment problems. However, it may not always be the best solution. It is important to determine if training will be effective in its usage.

Cost-Benefit Analysis. Analysis of the return on investment (ROI) of training. Effective training results in a return of value to the organization that is greater than the initial investment to produce or administer the training.

2. Techniques

Several basic Needs Assessment techniques include:

direct observation

questionnaires

consultation with persons in key positions, and/or with specific knowledge

review of relevant literature

interviews

focus groups

tests

records & report studies

work samples

3. Checklist for Training Needs Analysis

It is helpful to have an organized method for choosing the right test for your needs. A checklist can help you in this process. Your checklist should summarize the kinds of information discussed above. For example, is the test valid for your intended purpose? Is it reliable and fair? Is it cost-effective? Is the instrument likely to be viewed as fair and valid by the test takers? Also consider the ease or difficulty of administration, scoring, and interpretation given available resources. A sample checklist that you may find useful appears on the following page. Completing a checklist for each test you are considering will assist you in comparing them more easily.

Who Conducts Needs Analysis & Why?An in-house trainer or a consultant performs a needs analysis to collect and document information concerning any of the following three issues:1. Performance problems

2. Anticipated introduction of new system, task or technology

3. A desire by the organization to benefit from a perceived opportunity

In all three situations, the starting point is a desire to effect a change. Given this, you must know how the people who will experience change perceive it. In the absence of a needs analysis, you may find employees resistant to change and reluctant to training. They may be unable to transfer their newly acquired skills to their jobs because of the organizational constraints.

A needs analysis often reveals the need for well-targeted training areas. However, we must keep in mind that training is not always the best way to try to close a particular gap between an organizations goals and its actual performance. Those conducting the needs analysis must get a clear idea of the problem, look at all possible remedies and report on their findings to management before deciding on the best solution.

When properly done, a needs analysis is a wise investment for the organization. It saves time, money and effort by working on the right problems. Organizations that fail to support needs analysis make costly mistakes; they use training when another method would have been more effective; they use too much or too little training, or they use training but fail to follow up on it. A well-performed analysis provides the information that can lead to solutions that focus on the areas of greatest need.

Process of conducting a training needs analysis is a systematic one based on specific information-gathering techniques. Needs analysis proceeds in stages, with the findings of one stage affecting and helping to shape the next one. There is no easy or short-cut formula for carrying out this process. Each particular situation requires its own mix of observing, probing, analyzing and deducting.

In many ways, the needs analysis is like detective work; you follow up on every lead, check every piece of information and examine every alternative before drawing any solid conclusions. Only then you can e sure of having the evidence on which to base a sound strategy for problem solving.

A needs analysis is not a one-time event. Professional organizations administer needs analysis at regular intervals, usually every year or two.Chapter 3

Identification of Training Needs

Identification of Training Needs

All managers should conduct a training needs analysis to:

Determine what development is relevant to staff needs;

Determine what development will improve performance;

Determine if training will make a difference;

Distinguish training needs from organizational problems; and

Link improved job performance with the organizations' goals.

Methods of Identifying Training NeedsTraining needs will differ with the backgrounds of the employees to be trained, and their present status in the organization. Basically, a candidate for training may come from any one of three groups:1. New hires

2. Veteran employees

3. Trainees currently in the training pipeline (currently in the training program)Consideration of the varying needs of these groups provides a frame of reference for discussing and suggesting the methods of identifying training needs: New HiresAddition of new employees creates high and low peaks in placing new persons into the training program. This problem may be solved by a program where progression is made in different sequences. It will eliminate a jam that will occur if all phases of the program must be taken in a definite sequence. The new employees will normally be of somewhat different backgrounds. Being new, they are not familiar with their new employers. As a result, the earliest phases of the training must concentrate on company orientation. During these phases, the organization, organization policies and administrative details should be covered. It is also a suitable time to acquaint the trainees with what will be expected of him, and how he will be evaluated throughout the phase of training.

Retaining & Upgrading Veteran EmployeesThe people in this category offer a real challenge to the training department. There- fore, the number and amount of training required by this category should be carefully considered. Often the retraining and upgrading of former employees can be very rewarding for training instructors. At least two schools of thought exist as to how these employees should be rekindled. There are advantages in keeping this group intact and tailoring the program to their needs. On the other hand, this category of employees can also make significant contribution to training if they are co-mingled with the new hires.

Pipeline Employee RequirementsA good training program will normally have participants in various phases of completion. An awareness of completion dates and how the potential employee will be employed should be the concern of the training staff and also the employees supervisor. A trainee should have a challenge in all phases of his training. All these challenges should not be confined to those phases where the pipeline employee is sitting in a classroom. Therefore, it is recommended that thorough interim test-work be given to pipeline employees in periods between formal classes. This may take the form of solidifying what he learned in the prior phase and serve as preparation for the coming phases.

Techniques for Determining Specific Training NeedsThere are a number of practical methods you can use to gather data about employees performance. Each works well in given circumstances; therefore, you must determine which the best be for you. None of these methods can stand alone. Always use at least two, if for no other reason to validate your findings. One of those you choose should always be observation.

1. ObservationIn this approach, an employees performance itself is you source of information. You evaluate a workers performance through first-hand observation and analysis. This is best accomplished by watching the worker and playing the role of non-participating observer. This means that you watch and listen and evaluate what you see and hear, but do not get involved in his work process in any way.

To make this activity more productive, use a checklist to remind you of what to look for and take notes.

The objective during observations is to identify both the strengths to build on and the deficiencies to overcome. A key advantage of using direct observation in the needs analysis is that you gain first-hand knowledge and understanding of the job being performed and the strengths and weaknesses of the relevant worker.

2. InterviewsThe use of interviews in conducting the needs analysis is strongly urged. The prime value of interview guides is that they ensure the same types of data from all sources. This allows you to determine whether a piece of information is one persons opinion, or part of a widespread perception. Since the interview guide forces you to ask each worker a number of predetermined questions, you must select those questions that are essential to what you are trying to learn.

Interviews allow you to meet employees face to face to discuss their impressions of performance. Because you are in conversation with workers, you can explore their responses in depth. You can ask or clarification of comments and for examples of what they mean. In this way, you obtain a full understanding of their performance deficiencies.

You also gain these benefits through interviewing:1. You build credibility with your interviewees by asking intelligent questions andListening well to their answers

2. You obtain employees personal involvement and commitment to your efforts

3. You establish personal relationships with potential trainees who are important to your success as a needs analyst and trainer

3. QuestionnairesA questionnaire is a sort of interview on paper. You create your own questionnaire by writing down all the questions you want employees to answer for you. Then you mail it to them and await their responses.

The key advantage of a questionnaire is that you can include every person from whomyou want input. Employees can complete the questionnaire when and where they choose. You need not travel and spend time with all respondents. Every employee is asked the identical questions, and consequently data is very easy to compile and analyze.

Questionnaires can be useful in obtaining a big picture of what a large number of employees think while allowing everyone to feel that they have had an opportunity to participate in the needs analysis process.

4. Job DescriptionsBefore establishing a job description, a job analysis must be made. This job analysis involves a thorough study of all responsibilities of the relevant job. It is company wide in scope and should be detailed to such a degree that those conducting the training can use the job analysis as a yardstick for their course content. After the job analysis phase has been completed, the writing of job description and needs analysis is a relatively simple task. When an employees job description has been defined, the trainer can easily tailor his training curriculum to a very close proximity of what will be expected of the employees.

5. The Difficulty AnalysisThe Job Analysis will focus attention on enumerating the numerous duties that a worker must perform. On the other hand, the Difficulty Analysis establishes which of the duties cause the employee the greatest amount of troubles and how this trouble can be reduced through better training.

A good Difficulty Analysis offers many advantages. For example . It enables a needs analyst to weigh certain aspects of the training in relationship to the expected difficulty that the worker will face in coping with those duties.

A well thought out Difficulty Analysis will provide the training program with an abundance of role-playing material and situations.

6. Problem Solving ConferenceAnother time-tested technique for gathering needs analysis material from employees is to conduct periodic problem solving conferences which may take the form of or be part of a plan for a new product, task or technology, or tied in with a training program It is always helpful to utilize an outside consultant to moderate such sessions. This outside sponsorship has a tendency of letting the workers express their feelings about his organization, and the session can then be geared to training needs. The current problems will evolve that represent potential areas for training.

7. Appraisal ReviewsDuring the periodic counseling performance interview, an employee should be questioned regarding the duties and training of a worker. Comments rendered during the appraisal interviews normally are genuine, and can frequently assist in establishing the needs, variations and penetrations that a training program should include. Feed- back at appraisal interview time is valuable since it is timely information. Training needs differ from worker to worker, and appraisal sessions allow the employee and supervisor / manager to uncover the cause of weaknesses in performance. These deficiencies represent areas for training.

8. Drive Pattern IdentityThe extent of an employees development depends on his motivations. Identifying the forces that cause an employee to behave in a certain way may be useful in determining his individual training needs and how to stimulate his desire to fulfill that need. An analysis of this kind, for example, may determine that the employee has an urgent need for self-confidence. His individual program should be made to stress the importance of attitude, skills etc., and any other assets that would give him this self- confidence.

9. Analysis of Organizational PolicyOrganization policy will affect the amount of training offered. An explanation of various policies should be covered in the training program. Of particular concern are those policies that involve change, alteration and major revamping of training programs. In organizations undergoing merger activity, product diversification and new penetration, a great deal of sensitivity must be placed on policies today and expected changes in the future.

Whatever the method used to identify training needs, at least the following three points must be kept in view:1. These methods should be used in combination; that is, there should never be reliance on only one method

2. They may be used to identify training needs of each of the various groupsof employees

3. They should be applied to individual employees since training needs will vary with the individual employee.

Chapter 4

Training DesignInstructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the phases analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.

Cognitive load theory and the design of instructionCognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials. Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.

While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instructional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important learning.

By the mid to late 1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load. Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field. Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence based guidelines of Cognitive load theory.

Instructional Designers use various instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks. The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the learner.

Learning Design

The IMS Learning Design specification supports the use of a wide range of pedagogies in online learning. Rather than attempting to capture the specifics of many pedagogies, it does this by providing a generic and flexible language. This language is designed to enable many different pedagogies to be expressed. The approach has the advantage over alternatives in that only one set of learning design and runtime tools then need to be implemented in order to support the desired wide range of pedagogies. The language was originally developed at the Open University of the Netherlands (OUNL), after extensive examination and comparison of a wide range of pedagogical approaches and their associated learning activities, and several iterations of the developing language to obtain a good balance between generality and pedagogic expressiveness.

A criticism of Learning Design theory is that learning is an outcome. While instructional theory Instructional Design focuses on outcomes, while properly accounting for a multi-variate context that can only be predictive, it acknowledges that (given the variabilities in human capability) a guarantee of reliable learning outcomes is improbable. We can only design instruction. We cannot design learning (an outcome). Automotive engineers can design a car that, under specific conditions, will achieve 50 miles per gallon. These engineers cannot guarantee that drivers of the cars they design will (or have the capability to) operate these vehicles according to the specific conditions prescribed. The former is the metaphor for instructional design. The latter is the metaphor for Learning Design.

Instructional design modelsADDIE modelPerhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:

Analyze - analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.

Design - develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach

Develop - create instructional or training materials

Implement - deliver or distribute the instructional materials

Evaluate - make sure the materials achieved the desired goals

Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model.

Rapid prototypingA sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.

However, rapid prototyping is considered a somewhat simplistic type of model. At the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysisyou can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where most people get snaggedthey simply do not do a thorough enough analysis. (Part of Article by Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)

Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc. Dick and CareyAnother well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model . The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.

Dick and Carey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes". The components of the Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows.

Identify Instructional Goal(s)

Conduct Instructional Analysis

Analyze Learners and Contexts

Write Performance Objectives

Develop Assessment Instruments

Develop Instructional Strategy

Develop and Select Instructional Materials

Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

Revise Instruction

Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.

Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS)Another instructional design model is the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS) . The model was originally published in 1970 by Peter J. Esseff, Ph.D. and Mary Sullivan Esseff, Ph.D. in their book entitled IDLSPro Trainer 1: How to Design, Develop, and Validate Instructional Materials].

Peter (1968) & Mary (1972) Esseff both received their doctorates in Educational Technology from the Catholic University of America under the mentorship of Dr. Gabriel Ofiesh, a Founding Father of the Military Model mentioned above. Esseff and Esseff contributed synthesized existing theories to develop their approach to systematic design, "Instructional Development Learning System" (IDLS).

The components of the IDLS Model are:

Design a Task Analysis

Develop Criterion Tests and Performance Measures

Develop Interactive Instructional Materials

Validate the Interactive Instructional Materials

Training Design Model

Designing formal training is time-consuming and expensive. Once it is designed, however, it needs updating only as operational changes are instituted. Every new employee may then be trained using the training plan and all materials that are already prepared. There is an initial investment of time and money, of course, but thereafter training is consistent and convenient. The idea is similar to management delegating certain responsibilities. It is usually faster to just do it myself than to take the time and energy to show someone else how to do it. However, once the initial effort has been expended, the employee can take the delegated responsibility and free the manager for other tasks. Many employees excel when given opportunities to take on more responsibility. And so with formal trainingit better prepares an employee to do the job and, after the initial effort of design, is ready and available for use every time a new employee joins the team. The purpose of this chapter is to present and describe the model for training design which will be utilized throughout the remainder of the text. The importance and use of models is discussed along with who will use the model in an operation interested in designing formal training. A thorough conceptual understanding of the model will facilitate learning how to develop components of the model later in the text.

Upon completion of Chapter, the student should be able to

Describe and define all components of the training design model.

Discuss why models are important and useful in training design.

Discuss how the model is used and who uses the model.

The Training Design ModelTry to imagine baking a cake without a recipe, making a dress without a pattern, or building a house without a plan. Would they turn out the way we envisioned? Perhaps/ perhaps not. Recipes, patterns, or architectural drawings assure us that the finished product will turn out the way it is supposed to. If directions are followed exactly, there should be no difference in the end product no matter which baker prepares the cake. A model is a recipe or pattern that when followed results in a desired outcome.

Training is job specific rather than generic, so the end results will not look the same for every job or operation. However, a model is useful as a means of organizing efforts to result in a desired outcome for a particular situation. We have all been taught the scientific method: Define the problem, determine possible solutions, try a solution, try another one if the first one did not solve the problem. That is basically a problem-solving model. We have steps we can take intellectually that can lead us to an answer. Before coming to the model, we may have had a problem and reacted to it before even knowing what the problem was. Our reaction may or may not have had a positive effect. We do not want to waste time and money designing training and find out later that we still have a problem. The idea is to approach training design intelligently and systematically in order to save time, money, and frustration. And that is the purpose of the modelto give us a step-by step process which will result in a desired outcome.

The Training Design Model is made up of seven interrelated components within the Human Resource Model reviewed in Chapter One. It is a process that meets with employees in the fifth step (with implementation of the training program) and follows through with ongoing coaching and counseling.

Step #1 Need Assessment

Step #2 Training Plan

Step #3 Lesson Plans

Step #4 Train the Trainer (TTT)Step #5 Training Implementation

Step #6 Training Evaluation

Step #7 Coaching & Counseling

Training design takes specialized skills. Oftentimes corporations will employ instructional designers to produce training programs for their individual units. If there are no corporate training programs available, general managers will be responsible for training. The purpose of this text is to teach managers, potential managers, or anyone who has training responsibilities in the hospitality industry to design training professionally.

Needs AssessmentThe first step in the Training Design Model is the needs assessment. This is similar to the first step in the scientific method where we define the problem. In training, as in the scientific method, we want to cut out guesswork and not waste resources on solutions that might not be feasible. Training is not the solution to all problems. Perhaps a problem is the result of hiring mistakes and no amount of training is going to change that fact. Perhaps a change in work schedules, shifts, or supervisors, or any number of things, could solve the problem. We cannot tell how to solve a problem if we do not know precisely what the problem is to begin with. To throw training at all problems would be fruitless. Problems generally need to be solved in a timely way, though. If one possible solution does not work, another will have to be tried. All of these attempts take time, energy, and money. Needs assessment is the systematic process we use to rigorously collect appropriate data to determine the precise problem and whether or not training is a good fix. If training is a good solution for a particular problem, our needs assessment then involves determining specific training needs. We define the employees needing training so that we will be able to match our training to their particular learning styles, and we write objectives for the training program. Objectives are statements of what trainees will be able to do upon completion of the training. They are job-specific and behavioral. In other words, action verbs. We say that our trainees will be able to describe to guests how menu items are preparednot know how menu items are prepared. Knowing is nice, but we need our servers to do something: describe the items. That is a subtle but huge difference in training design. We plan all of our instruction to that outcome. If we want to make sure trainees know how menu items are prepared, we could give them a written or oral test. If, however, we want to know if they can describe the preparation of the menu items to guests, our test would perhaps be a simulation of a server/guest interaction. Knowing and describing are not the same.

The Training PlanOnce we know who and what we are going to train, then we need a plan. The training plan is a well-thought-out written plan detailing training topics and a schedule of when, where, and by whom they will be presented. Every step through the training design model is time-consuming. But, once each step is completed, the documents are ready for use whenever called for. A newly hired employee is plugged into this training plan, and there is no wasted time spent trying to figure out how, what, when, and where the employee will be trained. We would probably never bother designing formal training if we have a small family-run operation with no turnover. If, however, our operation big, and we have many employees, formal training saves a tremendous amount of time and effort. We do not have to redesign the wheel every single time we have a new employee. Instead, we simply look at the training plan, tell the employee when to show up, review the materials, make sure everything is in place, and, as a result, have excellent training with everything covered in the best way possible.

Lesson PlansLesson plans are the most time-consuming and important part of instructional design. Lesson plans are the instruction. A lesson plan is like a recipe that any cook could follow with similar outcomes. Any capable trainer could review a good lesson plan and administer training. Styles and comfort levels vary with experience, but the training would be the same. A lesson plan is a training script with all materials, activities, and instructions needed to meet objectives. Training topics are determined for the training plan from the data collected in needs assessment. There is a lesson plan for each training topic which includes the objective for the particular topic presented (what the trainee is expected to do upon completion of the session). We determine the most effective way to meet the objective. There are many instructional methods available. A lecture is one method, but would probably not be the best method for teaching someone how to work algebraic equations. Working through equations on a halkboard while explaining the steps and then having students practice these steps, might be a more effective method than lecturing. Demonstration is often an excellent method for training people how to do something physical such as mopping a floor or cleaning a sink. Showing servers prepared menu items and having them taste the items (while describing ingredients and preparation methods) might be a more effective vehicle for learning about the menu than telling a new server to take the menu home and memorize it or having them watch another server take orders. Training is different than education. In training everyone must get an A. Average is okay in education, but 70 percent positive service encounters, 70 percent properly cooked meals, 70 percent smooth guest check-ins . . . that is not okay. In our highly competitive industry, 30 percent dissatisfied customers will most likely result in bankruptcy. The objective of each lesson is to be attained at a particular standard level. Standards are generally based on the needs and desires of the target market (our customers). The objectives must be attained by all trainees. We cannot just flunk a trainee who does not get it. It is our responsibility to make sure everyone gets it and gets it entirely, so we choose methods that will enable all trainees to attain objectives at the level of the standards. Kindergarten through high school teachers are trained to teach. Not all college teachers have received teachers training. Thus, we may have experienced teachers in college who were not very good teachers. They were smart and knew their subject matter, but they did not seem to know how to get it across very effectively. Lesson planning skill is not something with which we are born. Teachers are taught to develop lesson plans. To be effective, trainers must also have good lesson plans.

Train-the-Trainer

Developing lesson plans is just one of the skills needed to be an effective trainer. We know that all jobs and all people are not the same. Certain characteristics are better matched with certain jobs. If employees do not have the ability and willingness to do a job, we will have limited success in training them to be effective in the position. Just as not everyone has the makeup to be a good server, not everyone can be a good teacher or trainer. Not everyone is willing to train. So we select employees who are willing and capable of training, and then we must train them to train. Training an employee requires completely different skills from those necessary to do the job. Understanding and utilizing adult learning principles and motivation theory, team-building and communication skills, plus leadership ability all are necessary to be an effective trainer. We must select trainers who are capable of learning this material and developing skills in each of the areas. We have all experienced the difference a good teacher makes in determining how well we learn something. Likewise with training, a good trainer (someone who is willing and capable, and trained-to-train) can make a big difference in the quality of instruction which then positively affects service quality, turnover, and professionalism.

Training Implementation and EvaluationWe design training to be implemented easily and with great success. As with most things, however, practice makes perfect. The first time around, training may not go as smoothly as hoped. The key is to have a good training plan, be well prepared (having gone over the materials in advance), and then be prepared to modify the plan when necessary. Real life often differs from a written plan. The second time through is usually better. Needs assessment is front-end evaluation. We ask, What do we need to do? We design it and do it, and then need to ask, How did it work? We use information collected during evaluation to modify and improve the training program. If our needs assessment was thorough, we can be assured that our training needs were correct. Its harder to evaluate something if we have nothing to compare it to. All components of the training design model are interrelated. Managers without professional training may have an undefined problem and throw training at it, only to discover later that something is still wrong. Professionals have the knowledge and skills necessary to identify specific problems, then design appropriate training to meet the objective that alleviates them. The difference between before and after training is measured to ascertain whether a problem has been alleviated and to what degree. A mini needs assessment is done to determine what modifications may be in order to improve the trainings effectiveness. Needs assessment and evaluation are very similar except needs assessment is conducted beforehand to determine if and what training is necessary. Evaluation utilizes rigorous research methods and takes place after training to gauge whether or not it was effective.

Coaching and CounselingHospitality managers are responsible for seeing that everything happens at the right time and as our guests expect. Our job involves hiring appropriate people for all positions, training them, and supervising them. As defined in Chapter One, supervision is the ongoing day-to-day monitoring of the employees performance with reinforcement and corrective feedback to maintain standards achieved in training. Coaching is a training term for supervision. Essentially, they are the same thing. Coaching/supervision is ongoing training designed to maintain standards, and make sure everyone is doing what they are supposed to be doing. Old-style authoritarian management is not effective with todays workforce. Employees do not respond well to orders backed up with threats. Coaching may have a more positive connotation than supervision. Todays effective supervision is coachingmonitoring, praising, and positively correcting employees performance. Formal employee appraisal is done once or twice a year. Coaching is ongoing. There should be no surprises at the formal employee appraisal interview. Performance problems must be corrected immediately. Dissatisfied customers do not return, and constitute a scathing word-of-mouth advertisement. Morale is improved when management assures that everyone continues to meet standards. For employees who do a good job and care about their work, it can be very annoying and demoralizing to work with others whose poor performance is condoned by management. There are time when performance declines due to personal problems. Most of us have or will experience personal problems that can negatively affect our work. Divorce, death, drug/alcohol addiction, illness, etc., touch many of us and can interrupt our normal functioning. We are in business, though, and standards must be met no matter what. However, management should be prepared to recognize employees personal problems and refer them to sources that can help them through their situation. Some employees simply need to know we care and are concerned. They may need some time off to deal with problems. None of us are immune to lifes unpleasant surprises, and management may be better served by replacing judgment with compassion and guidance. It is cost-effective to help employees return to productivity rather than fire them and start over with new employees. We are not trained psychologists and should not attempt to handle serious problems. We should, however, make sure employees get the help they need. We need to recognize warning signs and deal with problems before they become major and affect the operation. It is the right thing to do, and it is good business.Chapter - 5Training cycle

Training cycle is defined as a series of steps or stages that comprise a complete training program.

Stage 1 - Identification of training needs

This initial stage of the training cycle addresses finding out if there is, or identifying, training need. If a need is identified, it is at this stage that who needs trained (target audience), in what and how you will know the training has had the intended impact success criteria of the training should be identified. This stage will help those who identify training needs to consider why the training is required and its expected outcome and impact.

How you will measure if the training has met the original need i.e. brought about intended change in behaviour, performance etc.

Stage 2 - Design of training solutions

This stage covers planning, design and development of magistrate training. It aims to ensure that a systematic and consistent approach is adopted for all training solutions. Training solutions cover face to face training and open and flexible learning including e-learning.

Stage 3 - Delivery of training solutions

This stage of the training cycle ensures that the delivery of the training is effective and provides opportunities for the learners to learn. This will involve choosing the most appropriate format for meeting training needs, and taking advantage of different training methods.

Stage 4 - Application of training in the court environment

This stage of the training cycle is concerned with ensuring that all learning outcomes are applied and reinforced in practice within the court environment. This stage will help those who monitor the development of individual learners and review their progress.

Stage 5 - Evaluation of training solutions

This stage of the training cycle deals with the collection, analysis and presentation of information to establish the improvement in performance that results from this. This stage will help those who evaluate learning programmes, or who respond to developments in learning, or plan and introduce improvements in learning interventions.

Success Cycle

Creating an Efficient Training CycleIn an industry such as information technology that is ever changing, a detailed and thorough training strategy is a must if trainees are to learn and adapt quickly.

From an IT point of view, this is a complex environment that were in, said Scott Ambler, who has been doing IT training and mentoring for more than 15 years and is the practice leader of agile development at IBM Corp. So you need to make it as easy as possible for people to learn new skills and to improve their existing skills.

For Ambler, the most successful training includes the following components: assessment, introductory training, hands-on experience, advanced training and educational opportunities. To set off on the right path and make the best use of training time, a pre-assessment is vital to understanding where each trainee stands in terms of skills.

Real-world experience must then follow the introductory course because, without application, skills can be easily forgotten.

The introductory training is critical to give people the basics, Ambler said. Then you need to follow up quickly with hands-on, real-world experience. If you dont give [trainees] an opportunity to actually apply their skills in a real setting, [you] lose them.

The best training strategy is holistic and encompasses all learning styles.

Some people are more visual thinkers and they need to see diagrams, whereas others are non-visual thinkers, Ambler said. Other people just want to dive right in to the details, whereas some people need to see the bigger picture and need to be walked through all the implications. If youre trying to train up a large group, one size is not going to fit all, and youre going to have to find different ways to communicate the same information to different types of people.

In Amblers training, he provides several different training platforms so all participants can relate to the material.

Im a firm believer in hands-on [activities], so I try to have more assignments and more workshops where I can help people figure this stuff through, Ambler said. Im also a firm believer in non-solo development, so if its a programming course, then Ill get people paired [up]. If its a modeling course, Ill have group work.

The tagline, two heads are better than one, applies to Amblers training where non-solo development is fully embraced as part of the learning process. During his training, partners collaborate with one another to develop an understanding of the issues at hand.

You could be pairing with somebody, and theyll have different skills and a different background, so what might be confusing to you could be blatantly obvious to them and vice versa, Ambler said. In that situation, the person who knows what theyre doing can help the one who doesnt know what theyre doing, and that person will still learn because the novice will be asking questions and challenging the beliefs of the other person. If neither of you are really all that familiar with the material, then at least you can struggle along together and youre less likely to get stuck as a result.

To bring training full circle, organizations need to support the learning experience. Not only does the support solidify a trainees learning, but it also acts as a motivator.

If you send somebody on a course and then [they] arent given an opportunity to practice or theres no follow-up, then what does that tell them? Ambler said. Its like youre given a two-day holiday to go and learn some interesting stuff, but management doesnt really care about this topic that we trained you on. You need the supporting signals in the environment to say that not only did we train you on [this], but [its] critical to our success and we want to get you good at [it].

What is Cycle-Max Coaching?Cycle-Max Coaching is a one-on-one, virtual coaching process that will maximize your cycling performance. It is based on the idea that there are three primary elements to effective cycling performance: training, nutrition and recovery (click here for more information on The 3 Elements of Cycling Performance). The primary goal of Cycle-Max Coaching is to facilitate the integration of these elements in a way that allows you to achieve your cycling goals. In other words, through the Cycle-Max Coaching process, we work together to develop a systematic training program that incorporates effective nutritional practices and allows for sufficient recovery. By doing this on a continuous basis, you will see incremental increases in your performance.

How Does Cycle-Max Coaching Work?There are three basic stages in the Cycle-Max Coaching process: Fitness Assessment, Training Plan Development & Plan Management:StagePurposeKey Components

Fitness AssessmentThe fitness assessment gives us a starting point for developing your training plan. By measuring performance factors such as maximal heart rate and lactate threshold, we can establish initial levels of training frequency, intensity and volume. We can also establish a baseline for future performance measurements.1. Client Cycling History

2. Field Testing

3. The Training Zones

Training Plan DevelopmentDuring the planning stage we develop SMART Goals and create your Training Plan. SMART Goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound. Your Training Plan will follow the F.I.T.T. Model (frequency, intensity, time and type) and will be based on the principles of periodization.1. SMART Goal Development

2. Training Plan Development (Cycling Workouts, Nutritional Guidance)

3. Education (e.g., the F.I.T.T. Model, Periodization Concepts)

Plan ManagementOnce we have developed your Training Plan, I will work with you to implement the plan on an ongoing basis, to evaluate its effectiveness, to make modifications as needed, and to assess your progress.1. Ongoing Evaluation (Electronic Cycling Journal)

2. The Client/Coach Relationship

3. The Elements of Cycling Success (e.g., recovery)

What Happens During a Typical Coaching Session?

One-on-one coaching sessions take place during all 3 phases of the Cycle-Max Coaching process. These sessions can occur either "in person" or "virtually" through the use of telephone and e-mail. Generally speaking, most sessions will take place virtually. The advantage is that this allows for consistent contact over great distances. However, when logistically feasible, sessions can take place in person. The specific content of each session will be based on the stage of the coaching process. For instance, during the Fitness Assessment stage, we will discuss topics such as your cycling history and aspirations, and the type of assessment information we need to collect. During the Training Plan Development stage we will identify your goals, create your training plan and discuss a variety of concepts that can facilitate your ultimate success (e.g., applying the F.I.T.T. model to your training program, concepts such as periodization, progressive overload and specificity). During the Plan Management stage we will discuss your progress using an electronic journal that I will provide for you, and determine if any plan modifications need to be made. We will also discuss how to best manage our client/coach relationship. Most significantly, we will discuss any issues or problems you are having and work together to develop a strategy to address your concerns.

What Can I Expect to Gain from Cycle-Max Coaching?Simply stated, Cycle-Max Coaching will help you maximize your cycling performance. More specifically, it will help you reach your potential as a cyclist in relation to your personal goals. For example, if you want to complete a 150 mile tour, we will develop a program that significantly increases your aerobic endurance. If you want to compete in time trials, we will create a training regimen that increases your maximum sustainable power output (the highest level of intensity you can sustain for an extended period of time). Likewise, if you want to race in criteriums, we will utilize workouts that increase your sprinting speed. In each case, you will achieve your goals by enhancing the training effect. The training effect consists of changes in your cardiopulmonary and muscular systems that result in greater endurance capacity on the bike (e.g., increased muscle size, increased number of mitochondria in your cells, increased blood volume and increased muscle capillarization). By developing a systematic, periodized training plan, you will maximize the training effect in a way that allows you to achieve your cycling goals.

What Makes Cycle-Max Coaching so Effective?Cycle-Max Coaching works because it follows four basic training principles: Periodization, Progressive Overload, Specificity and Individuality:1. Periodization is the process of dividing an annual training plan into specific time blocks, where each time block has a particular objective and provides the body with different types of stress. This creates some periods of training that are harder and some that are easier (to allow for recovery). It also facilitates the development of different energy systems during various phases of training (e.g., aerobic, anaerobic, creatine phosphate). Most importantly, periodization is the most effective way to facilitate a physiological adaptation process that leads to significant performance improvement.

2. Progressive Overload is the process of gradually increasing stresses to the body's cardiopulmonary and muscular systems over a period of time to facilitate positive physiological adaptation (i.e., performance improvement). This is done through the effective application of the F.I.T.T. Model (frequency, intensity, time and type). For example, to develop your aerobic endurance, you may start with a long ride of 20 miles and increase the distance by 2 miles each week until you can comfortably ride 40 miles. In this instance, you have improved your aerobic capacity by progressively overloading "time" (also referred to as training volume or duration).

3. Specificity simply means that your training program will resemble the activity you want to perform. If you want to ride a bike long distances, then your training regimen will include lots of long rides. If you want to ride a bike really fast, then your workouts will include a lot of high intensity training.

4. Individuality means that your training program will be uniquely suited to your goals, strengths, weaknesses and life constraints. As you are probably aware, there are dozens of cycling books and magazines that provide hundreds of training programs and workouts. While these resources can be very useful, none of these programs is designed specifically for you. They consist of generic workouts geared toward a wide range of individuals. They do not consider your unique life circumstances and goals. However, when we develop a training program for you through my Cycle-Max Coaching process, we take all of these variables into consideration to design the most effective program possible.Chapter 6Training Methodology

1) INTRODUCTION:This Manual on Training Methodologies was drafted for the project Capacity Building Civil Society Dealing with Anti-Discrimination with the aim to provide training on European and national anti-discrimination law and policy to non-governmental organizations in the 10 Member States which joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 as well as inBulgaria, Romania and Turkey.The first draft was produced in March 2005 and used during the Training the Trainers seminars which formed part of the project and the following national seminars in the 13 countries in which the project took place. The text has since been updated and edited in view of comments received during and after the seminars.

The purpose of this manual was to present and explain modern training methodologies in a manner helpful to the participants of the Training the Trainers seminars who later became trainers at the national seminars. At these seminars, the participants were also presented with training material on substantial issues ranging from Key Concepts in EU Discrimination Law, to the role of NGOs in combating discrimination and skills and tools needed in this struggle. They form a separate manual for participants.

This text was not intended to be an encyclopaedia of training methodologies. It needs to be considered in the context of this specific project and we hope that as such, it has been a useful tool for the trainers involved. The project nevertheless hopes that the Training Methodology Manual together with the Training Manual fro the participants will serve the purposes of individuals or NGOs willing to learn more about anti-discrimination in one of the 13 countries involved in the project and/or to familiarise with training methodologies.

The project is a European Commission initiative funded by the Action Programme to Combat Discrimination (2001-2006). It was carried out by human European consultancy (www.humanconsultancy.com) in partnership with the Migration Policy Group (www.migpolgroup.com) and local partners in each of the 13 countries.

2) VITAL ISSUES WHEN PLANNING TRAINING:

When planning training there are some basic questions that need to be asked, such as what the participants' background is, and what they expect from the training as well as what skills and knowledge you want to pass on to them. This section of the manual will therefore look at some fundamental subjects in the planning and preparation of training.

2.1 Get to know your audience

Even if the need for training seems self-evident to the organisers, this might not be the case for the intended audience. Or, the participants might not see the need for some aspects of the training that you are planning even if they agree with the training in general.

It is important to start the process of training with the needs of the trainees clearly in focus the identification of existing training needs might not be obvious, either in the minds of the trainees and sometimes even the trainers. The group responsible for the training need to agree at the outset the questions of what and why

What is being covered?

Why the training is considered necessary?

It is also helpful to inform the trainees of the trainers' conclusion as to what and why, preferably in advance of the training and certainly at the outset of the course.

Back to contents

2.2 Some barriers to effective training

When training participants who are part of civil society groups and who are attending the training on a voluntary basis, you do not generally face some of problems of training public officials for whom the training is compulsory and who might perceive the training as some kind of threat to their professionalism. However it is important for the trainer to remember, that even if the participants are happy to listen to you, people are often unwilling to devote that extra time and energy to do things they way the trainer has suggested after the training. In a way, there is no point in telling people things that they are clearly not going to do.

It might therefore be a good idea to dedicate part of the training to identify the obstacles of putting the training into practice, and formulate suggestions how these can be dealt with.

2.3 Identifying training needs

The basic question of what a training session should include builds upon this discussion: the training should meet the needs of the trainees. Needs can be distinguished from wants needs should address the essential training requirements of both the individual trainee and the organisation, depending on background and mandate. The importance of clarifying what a particular session or programme should involve is therefore the essential starting point. This might seem obvious but the importance of clearly establishing precisely what the training is designed to do cannot be stressed enough.

This leads us to identify four separate headings of possible training needs:Knowledge e.g. of the EU Discrimination Directives, national law, existence of national institutions or discriminatory situations that re prevalent in the country.

Skills e.g. in developing an awareness of instances of discrimination many of which may not be obvious, and researching legal framework to apply relevant rules

Attitudes e.g. to reinforce appropriate attitudes which stress the professional responsibility to fight discrimination

Values e.g. to commit oneself to values such as equality across the board

The aim of a training session is likely to involve one or more of these categories. For example, we might say that the aim of a programme of training for NGOs will be to raise the awareness of tools and skills needed to fight discrimination on the regional level. But it is helpful to be able to spell out more fully the intended learning outcomes the training objectives. This will help for the trainers and the trainees to focus on the essential content of the training, and will also assist in identifying further training needs if the intentions are not initially met.

When drafting intended learning outcomes, as precise as possible language should be used. Intended outcomes should be SMART Specific

Manageable

Attainable

Relevant

Time specific

But is it really necessary to spend time writing down intended learning outcomes? Yes, it is very helpful for a number of reasons:1) It helps reinforce the point that the training should be pragmatic, i.e. applicable to the trainees' needs. It should be attainable within the time available. It should also be able to be assessed to enable both the trainers and the trainees to appreciate what has been achieved.2) It ensures that both trainers and trainees know the specific objectives of the training, as long as they are clearly specified and communicated.3) It also helps trainers with the next step of planning training the choice of training techniques (see below).Writing intended learning outcomes is therefore the first stage in planning the training. Here are two examples of what it could look like:Example 1 - training the trainers - two day seminar for anti-discrimination experts

The aims of this seminar are to explore methods of training members of civil society on anti-discrimination legislation and other methods of working against discrimination such as lobbying, campaigning and mediation.

The intended learning outcomes of the seminar are for the participants to be able at the end of the training to

write appropriate training techniques (knowledge)

identify learners' needs in terms of knowledge, skills, attitude and values (analysis of needs)

outline the advantages and disadvantages of lecture-style presentations and small group work (comprehension)

draw up guidelines of good practice in establishing a suitable learning environment (application)

develop an outline lesson plan on the EU discrimination Directives (application)

Example 2 two hour lesson on the EU Discrimination Directives for NGOsThe aim of this session is to provide the participants with a familiarity with and understanding of the Directives and how EU law requires them to be implemented into national legislation. The intended learning outcomes of the session are for the participants to be able at the end of the training to restate the main principles of the Directives (knowledge)

critically assess the impact the Directives will have/are having on the specific area the participants are involved in (analysis, synthesis)

evaluate the extent to which the Directives provide protection for a particular group (evaluation)

So what are the best ways to identify training needs and to communicate these to the trainees? Here are some options:

Discuss the draft learning outcomes and programme with all members of the training team and other outside experts.

Circulate the draft intended learning outcomes and programme to some trainees with short explanations and ask for any comments and suggestions.

Distribute the definitive programme, including the intended learning outcomes about five days before the course to trainees. Try to get trainees to think about the training the will be attending by asking them short but specific questions about their expectations etc.

At the start of the course, highlight the intended learning outcomes and explain why these have been considered relevant.

2.4 Some key training design questions

During which hours of the day should the training be scheduled?

Different countries have different working cultures, and this needs to be considered when drafting the programme. For some countries it might be appropriate to conduct the training between 09h00 and 17h00 with a lunch break, whilst in other countries the participants might be more used to working straight from 09h00 to 15h00 and then end the session and break for lunch.

Will the trainees be expected to cover the intended learning ho