ocialsychology

SPENCYCLOPEDIA OF

EDITORS

Roy F. BaumeisterFlorida State University

Kathleen D. VohsUniversity of Minnesota

1

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Copyright © 2007 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of social psychology/editors, Roy F. Baumeister, Kathleen D. Vohs.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4129-1670-7 (cloth)

1. Social psychology—Encyclopedias. I. Baumeister, Roy F. II. Vohs, Kathleen D.

HM1007.E53 2007302.03—dc22 2007014603

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

07 08 09 10 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Publisher: Rolf A. JankeAcquisitions Editor: Michael CarmichaelDevelopmental Editors: Carole Maurer, Paul ReisReference Systems Manager: Leticia GutierrezProject Editor: Tracy AlpernCopy Editors: Colleen B. Brennan, Robin GoldTypesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.Indexer: Julie Sherman GraysonCover Designer: Candice HarmanMarketing Manager: Carmel Withers

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Editorial Board, vi

List of Entries, vii

Reader’s Guide, xv

About the Editors, xxv

Contributors, xxvi

Introduction, xiv

Entries

Volume 1: A–I

1–506

Volume 2: J–Z

507–1018

Index, I-1–I-76

Contents

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vi

Galen V. BodenhausenNorthwestern University

Ap DijksterhuisRadboud University Nijmegen

Wendi L. GardnerNorthwestern University

Michael A. HoggClaremont Graduate University

Jay HullDartmouth College

Douglas T. KenrickArizona State University

Antony S. R. MansteadCardiff University

Sandra L. MurrayState University of New York at Buffalo

Abraham TesserUniversity of Georgia

Penny S. VisserUniversity of Chicago

Editorial Board

Editors

Roy F. BaumeisterFlorida State University

Kathleen D. VohsUniversity of Minnesota

Managing Editor

Nicole L. MeadFlorida State University

Advisory Board

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AccessibilityAccountabilityAchievement MotivationAction Identification TheoryActor–Observer AsymmetriesAdaptive UnconsciousAffectAffect-as-InformationAffect HeuristicAffect InfusionAffordancesAggressionAgreeablenessAlcohol Myopia EffectAltruismAltruistic PunishmentAmbivalenceAnchoring and Adjustment HeuristicAndrogynyAngerAnonymity. See DeindividuationAnticipatory Attitude ChangeAntisocial BehaviorAnxietyApparent Mental CausationApplied Social PsychologyApproach–Avoidance ConflictArousalAssimilation ProcessesAssociative NetworksAttachment StylesAttachment TheoryAttentionAttitude–Behavior ConsistencyAttitude ChangeAttitude Formation

AttitudesAttitude StrengthAttractionAttributional AmbiguityAttribution Cube. See Kelley’s Covariation ModelAttributionsAttribution TheoryAuthenticityAuthoritarian PersonalityAuthority Ranking. See Relational Models TheoryAutobiographical NarrativesAutomatic ProcessesAuto-Motive ModelAutonomyAvailability HeuristicAversive RacismAwe

BabyfacenessBad Is Stronger Than GoodBalance TheoryBarnum EffectBase Rate FallacyBasking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing)Behavioral ContagionBehavioral EconomicsBelief PerseveranceBeliefsBenevolent SexismBennington College StudyBetrayalBig Five Personality TraitsBinge EatingBiopsychosocial ModelBlaming the VictimBobo Doll Studies

vii

List of Entries

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Bogus PipelineBrainstormingBrainwashingBroaden-and-Build Theory of Positive EmotionsBuffering EffectBulimiaBullyingBystander Effect

Catharsis of AggressionCentral Traits Versus Peripheral TraitsCheater-Detection MechanismChoking Under PressureClose RelationshipsCognitive ConsistencyCognitive Dissonance TheoryCohesiveness, GroupCollective SelfCollectivistic CulturesCommons Dilemma. See Social DilemmasCommunal RelationshipsCommunal Sharing. See Relational Models TheoryCompanionate LoveCompassionComplementarity, of Relationship PartnersComplianceConfirmation BiasConflict ResolutionConformityConsciousnessConsensus, in Attribution Theory. See Kelley’s

Covariation ModelConsistency, in Attributions. See Kelley’s

Covariation ModelConstrual Level Theory. See Temporal Construal

TheoryConsumer BehaviorContact HypothesisContent AnalysisContingencies of Self-WorthContingency Model of LeadershipContrast EffectsControlControl ConditionControlled ProcessesControl MotivationCooperation

CopingCorrectness of Personality Judgments. See

Personality Judgments, Accuracy ofCorrespondence BiasCorrespondent Inference TheoryCounterfactual ThinkingCounterregulation of EatingCreativityCritical Social PsychologyCross-Lagged Panel CorrelationCrowdingCultural AnimalCultural DifferencesCultureCulture of HonorCuriosity

Date RapeDebiasingDeception (Lying)Deception (Methodological Technique)Decision and Commitment in LoveDecision MakingDecision Model of HelpingDefensive AttributionDefensive PessimismDeindividuationDelay of GratificationDemand CharacteristicsDependence RegulationDepressionDepressive RealismDevianceDiagnosticityDiffusion of ResponsibilityDilution EffectDiscontinuity EffectDiscounting, in AttributionDiscourse Analysis. See Discursive PsychologyDiscriminationDiscursive PsychologyDisgustDisplaced AggressionDistinctiveness, in AttributionDistributive JusticeDominance, EvolutionaryDoor-in-the-Face Technique

viii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

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Downward Comparison. See Downward SocialComparison

Downward Social ComparisonDrive TheoryDual AttitudesDual Process TheoriesDynamical Systems Theory

Ecological RationalityEcological ValidityEffort JustificationEgocentric BiasEgo DepletionEgo ShockElaboration Likelihood ModelElevationEmbarrassmentEmotionEmotional ContagionEmotional IntelligenceEmpathic AccuracyEmpathyEmpathy–Altruism HypothesisEncodingEndowment Effect. See Mere Ownership EffectEntitativityEnvironmental PsychologyEnvyEquality Matching. See Relational Models TheoryEquity TheoryErotic PlasticityError Management TheoryEscape TheoryEthnocentrismEthologyEvolutionary PsychologyExchange RelationshipsExcitation-Transfer TheoryExcuseExecutive Function of SelfExemplificationExpectancy EffectsExpectationsExperimental ConditionExperimental RealismExperimentationExperimenter Effects

ExpertiseExtraversionExtrinsic MotivationEyewitness Testimony, Accuracy of

Facial Expression of EmotionFacial-Feedback HypothesisFalse ConsciousnessFalse Consensus EffectFalse Uniqueness BiasFalsificationFast and Frugal HeuristicsFear AppealsFeedback LoopFight-or-Flight ResponseFocalismFoot-in-the-Door TechniqueForced Compliance TechniqueForensic PsychologyForewarningForgivenessFree Will, Study ofFrustration–Aggression HypothesisFundamental Attribution Error

Gain–Loss FramingGambler’s FallacyGender DifferencesGenetic Influences on Social BehaviorGoalsGossipGratitudeGrim NecessitiesGRIT Tension Reduction StrategyGroup CohesivenessGroup Decision MakingGroup DynamicsGroup IdentityGroup Performance and ProductivityGroup PolarizationGroups, Characteristics ofGroupthinkGuiltGuilty Pleasures

HabitsHalo Effect

List of Entries———ix

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HappinessHardinessHealth PsychologyHedonic TreadmillHelping BehaviorHelplessness, LearnedHeuristic ProcessingHeuristic-Systematic Model of PersuasionHindsight BiasHistory of Social PsychologyHome-Field Advantage and DisadvantageHopeHormones and BehaviorHostile Attribution BiasHostile Masculinity SyndromeHostile Media BiasHot Hand EffectHyperbolic Discounting

Identity CrisisIdentity StatusIdeologyIllusion of ControlIllusion of TransparencyIllusory CorrelationImplementation IntentionsImplicit Association TestImplicit AttitudesImplicit Personality TheoryImpression ManagementIndependence of Positive and Negative AffectIndependent Self-ConstrualsIndividual DifferencesInferenceInfluenceInformational InfluenceIngratiationIngratiator’s DilemmaIngroup–Outgroup BiasInoculation TheoryIntegrative ComplexityInterdependence TheoryInterdependent Self-ConstrualsIntergroup AnxietyIntergroup EmotionsIntergroup RelationsInterpersonal Attraction Processes. See Attraction

Interpersonal CognitionIntimacyIntimate Partner ViolenceIntimidation. See Self-PresentationIntrinsic MotivationIntrospectionIntroversionIronic Processes

JealousyJigsaw ClassroomJustice MotiveJust-World Hypothesis

Kelley’s Covariation ModelKin Selection

Law of Small NumbersLay EpistemicsLeadershipLearned HelplessnessLearning TheoryLISRELLocus of ControlLogical PositivismLonelinessLooking-Glass SelfLoss AversionLost Letter TechniqueLoveLowballing

Marital SatisfactionMarket Pricing. See Relational Models TheoryMasculinity/FemininityMatching HypothesisMeaning Maintenance ModelMedia Violence and AggressionMemoryMental AccountingMental ControlMere Exposure EffectMere Ownership EffectMeta-AnalysisMeta-AwarenessMetacognitionMetatraits

x———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

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Milgram’s Obedience to Authority StudiesMimicryMindfulness and MindlessnessMind-WanderingMinimal Group ParadigmMinority Social InfluenceMisattribution of ArousalModeling of BehaviorMODE ModelModern Racism. See Symbolic RacismMoral Cognitions. See Moral ReasoningMoral DevelopmentMoral EmotionsMoral HypocrisyMoral ReasoningMortality SalienceMotivated CognitionMotivated ReasoningMUM EffectMundane Realism

Naive CynicismNaive RealismName Letter EffectNarcissismNarcissistic EntitlementNarcissistic Reactance Theory of Sexual CoercionNeed for AffiliationNeed for ClosureNeed for CognitionNeed for PowerNeed to BelongNegative-State Relief ModelNeuroticismNonconscious EmotionNonconscious ProcessesNonexperimental DesignsNonverbal Cues and CommunicationNormative InfluenceNorms, Prescriptive and Descriptive

Objectification TheoryOmission NeglectOperationalizationOpponent Process Theory of EmotionsOptimal Distinctiveness TheoryOrder Effects

Organizational BehaviorOstracismOther–Total RatioOutgroup HomogeneityOverconfidenceOverjustification Effect

Path AnalysisPeace PsychologyPersonalities and Behavior Patterns,

Type A and Type BPersonality and Social BehaviorPersonality Judgments, Accuracy ofPersonal SpacePerson PerceptionPerson-Positivity HeuristicPersuasionPhenomenal SelfPlacebo EffectPlanned Behavior Theory. See Theory of

Planned BehaviorPlanning FallacyPluralistic IgnorancePolarization ProcessesPolitical PsychologyPornographyPositive AffectPositive IllusionsPositive–Negative AsymmetryPositive PsychologyPowerPower MotivePreference ReversalsPrejudicePrejudice ReductionPrimacy Effect, AttributionPrimacy Effect, MemoryPrimingPrisoner’s DilemmaProcedural JusticeProcrastinationProjectionPropinquityProsocial BehaviorProspect TheoryPrototypesPsychological Entitlement

List of Entries———xi

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Psychology of Terrorism. See Terrorism,Psychology of

Public Goods Dilemma

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Racial Resentment. See Symbolic RacismRacismRapeReactanceRealistic Group Conflict TheoryReasoned Action TheoryRecency EffectReciprocal AltruismReciprocity NormReductionismReference GroupRegretRegulatory Focus TheoryRejectionRejection SensitivityRelational Models TheoryRelationship Violence. See Intimate Partner ViolenceReligion and SpiritualityRepresentativeness HeuristicResearch MethodsResisting PersuasionResponsibility AttributionRingelmann EffectRisk AppraisalRisk TakingRisky ShiftRobbers Cave ExperimentRoles and Role TheoryRomantic LoveRomantic SecrecyRosenthal Effect. See Experimenter EffectsRubicon Model of Action PhasesRumor Transmission

SalienceSatisficingScapegoat TheoryScarcity PrincipleSchemasScriptsSearch for Meaning in LifeSelf

Self-Affirmation TheorySelf-Attribution ProcessSelf-AwarenessSelf-Categorization TheorySelf-ComplexitySelf-ConceptSelf-Concept ClaritySelf-Control MeasuresSelf-DeceptionSelf-Defeating BehaviorSelf-Determination TheorySelf-DisclosureSelf-Discrepancy TheorySelf-EfficacySelf-EnhancementSelf-EsteemSelf-Esteem StabilitySelf-Evaluation MaintenanceSelf-Expansion TheorySelf-Fulfilling ProphecySelf-HandicappingSelf-MonitoringSelf-Perception TheorySelf-PresentationSelf-PromotionSelf-Reference EffectSelf-RegulationSelf-ReportsSelf-Schemas. See SchemasSelf-Serving BiasSelf-StereotypingSelf-Verification TheorySemantic DifferentialSensation SeekingSequential ChoiceSex DriveSexismSex RolesSexual DesireSexual Economics TheorySexual HarassmentSexual SelectionSexual Strategies TheoryShameShifting StandardsShynessSimilarity-Attraction EffectSimulation Heuristic

xii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

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Simultaneous ChoiceSleeper EffectSocial AnxietySocial CategorizationSocial CognitionSocial Cognitive NeuroscienceSocial ComparisonSocial CompensationSocial Desirability BiasSocial DilemmasSocial Dominance OrientationSocial Exchange TheorySocial ExclusionSocial FacilitationSocial Identity TheorySocial Impact TheorySocial Influence. See InfluenceSocial Justice OrientationSocial LearningSocial LoafingSocial NeuroscienceSocial PowerSocial ProjectionSocial PsychophysiologySocial Relations ModelSocial SupportSocial Trap. See Social DilemmasSocial Value OrientationSociobiological TheorySociobiologySocioeconomic StatusSociological Social PsychologySociometric StatusSpontaneous Trait InferencesSpotlight EffectSpreading of AlternativesStanford Prison ExperimentStealing ThunderStereotypes and StereotypingStereotype ThreatSternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love.

See Triangular Theory of LoveStigmaStress and CopingStress Appraisal Theory (Primary and

Secondary Appraisal)Structural Equation ModelingSubliminal Perception

SubtypingSuicideSunk CostSupplicationSurpriseSymbolic InteractionismSymbolic RacismSymbolic Self-CompletionSystem JustificationSystems Theory. See Dynamical Systems Theory

TeasingTemporal Construal TheoryTend-and-Befriend ResponseTerritorialityTerrorism, Psychology ofTerror Management TheoryTestosteroneThematic Apperception TestTheory of MindTheory of Planned BehaviorThin Slices of BehaviorThreatened Egotism Theory of AggressionThree-Dimensional Model of AttributionToken EffectsTraitsTransactive MemoryTriangular Theory of LoveTrustTwin StudiesType A Personality. See Personalities and

Behavior Patterns, Type A and Type BType B Personality. See Personalities and

Behavior Patterns, Type A and Type B

UniquenessUnrequited LoveUrban Myth. See Rumor Transmission

Validity of Personality Judgments. See Personality Judgments, Accuracy of

Value Pluralism ModelValue PrioritiesValuesVisceral InfluencesVolunteerism

Zeal

List of Entries———xiii

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This Reader’s Guide performs two functions within the encyclopedia. One, the headings alone describe, at abroad level, the kinds of topics covered in the field of social psychology. Looking at the overarching categories,one can see that social psychology studies cognition (thought) and action, helpful and hurtful behaviors, emo-tions and decisions, culture and evolution, the self and social relationships, as well as health and problematicbehaviors. That’s quite a range of topics! The second purpose of the Reader’s Guide is related to the first in thatit helps readers who are already interested in a topic find new topics that may be of interest. In this way, theReader’s Guide provides links among topics. Either way it is used, we hope that you find yourself reading entriesfrom all of the general categories, given the wealth of interesting and important information to learn here.

xv

Reader’s Guide

Action Control

Action Identification TheoryAdaptive UnconsciousApparent Mental CausationApproach-Avoidance ConflictAuthenticityAuto-Motive ModelAutonomyBehavioral ContagionChoking Under PressureControlControlled ProcessesDecision MakingDelay of GratificationDrive TheoryEgo DepletionExcitation-Transfer TheoryExtrinsic MotivationFeedback LoopFree Will, Study ofGoalsGrim NecessitiesGuilty PleasuresHabitsHelplessness, LearnedHome-Field Advantage and Disadvantage

Hormones and BehaviorImplementation IntentionsIntrinsic MotivationIronic ProcessesLearned HelplessnessLearning TheoryLocus of ControlMental ControlMeta-AwarenessMindfulness and MindlessnessModeling of BehaviorNonconscious ProcessesOverjustification EffectProcrastinationReasoned Action TheoryRegulatory Focus TheoryRisk TakingRubicon Model of Action PhasesScriptsSelf-AwarenessSelf-Control MeasuresSelf-Defeating BehaviorSelf-Determination TheorySelf-Discrepancy TheorySelf-EfficacySelf-HandicappingSelf-Regulation

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xvi———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Social FacilitationSocial LearningSocial LoafingStereotype ThreatStress Appraisal Theory (Primary and

Secondary Appraisal)Temporal Construal TheoryTheory of Planned BehaviorZeal

Antisocial Behaviors

AggressionAntisocial BehaviorAversive RacismBetrayalBobo Doll StudiesBullyingCatharsis of AggressionCheater-Detection MechanismConflict ResolutionDate RapeDeception (Lying)Displaced AggressionFrustration–Aggression HypothesisGRIT Tension Reduction StrategyHostile Masculinity SyndromeIntimate Partner ViolenceMedia Violence and AggressionMilgram’s Obedience to Authority StudiesMoral HypocrisyNarcissistic Reactance Theory

of Sexual CoercionOstracismRapeRejectionSexual HarassmentSocial ExclusionStanford Prison ExperimentTerrorism, Psychology ofThreatened Egotism Theory of Aggression

Attitude

Anticipatory Attitude ChangeAttitude–Behavior ConsistencyAttitude Change

Attitude FormationAttitudesAttitude StrengthBalance TheoryBeliefsBrainwashingCognitive ConsistencyCognitive Dissonance TheoryDual AttitudesEffort JustificationElaboration Likelihood ModelForced Compliance TechniqueForewarningHeuristic-Systematic Model of PersuasionImplicit AttitudesMODE ModelMotivated ReasoningPolarization ProcessesSatisficingTheory of Planned BehaviorValues

Culture

Collective SelfCollectivistic CulturesCultural AnimalCultural DifferencesCultureCulture of HonorErotic PlasticityEthnocentrismIdeologyIndependent Self-ConstrualsInterdependent Self-ConstrualsMoral DevelopmentMortality SalienceObjectification TheoryPornographyRelational Models TheorySexual Economics TheoryTerror Management Theory

Emotions

AffectAffect-as-Information

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Reader’s Guide———xvii

Affect HeuristicAffect InfusionAmbivalenceAngerAnxietyArousalAweBroaden-and-Build Theory of Positive AffectBuffering EffectCompanionate LoveDecision and Commitment in LoveDisgustElevationEmbarrassmentEmotionEmotional ContagionEmotional IntelligenceEmpathyEnvyFacial Expression of EmotionFacial-Feedback HypothesisFear AppealsForgivenessGratitudeGuiltHappinessHedonic TreadmillHopeIndependence of Positive and Negative AffectIntergroup AnxietyIntergroup EmotionsJealousyLonelinessLoveMere Exposure EffectMoral EmotionsNonconscious EmotionOpponent Process Theory of EmotionsPositive AffectRegretRomantic LoveShameSocial AnxietyStress and CopingSurpriseUnrequited LoveVisceral Influences

Evolution

AffordancesCheater-Detection MechanismCultural AnimalDominance, EvolutionaryEcological RationalityError Management TheoryEthologyEvolutionary PsychologyFight-or-Flight ResponseGenetic Influences on Social BehaviorKin SelectionSexual SelectionSexual Strategies TheorySociobiological TheorySociobiology

Groups

BrainstormingBystander EffectClose RelationshipsCohesiveness, GroupCollective SelfCommunal RelationshipsConformityContact HypothesisContingency Model of LeadershipCrowdingDeindividuationDevianceDiffusion of ResponsibilityDiscontinuity EffectDistributive JusticeEntitativityGossipGroup CohesivenessGroup Decision MakingGroup DynamicsGroup IdentityGroup Performance and Group ProductivityGroup PolarizationGroups, Characteristics ofGroupthinkIngroup-Outgroup BiasIntergroup Anxiety

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xviii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Intergroup EmotionsIntergroup RelationsJigsaw ClassroomLeadershipMinimal Group ParadigmMinority Social InfluenceOptimal Distinctiveness TheoryOrganizational BehaviorOther–Total RatioOutgroup HomogeneityPolarization ProcessesPowerProcedural JusticeRealistic Group Conflict TheoryRingelmann EffectRisky ShiftRobbers Cave ExperimentRoles and Role TheoryRumor TransmissionScapegoat TheorySelf-Categorization TheorySelf-StereotypingSex RolesSocial CompensationSocial Dominance OrientationSocial Identity TheorySocial Impact TheorySocial Justice OrientationSocial LoafingSocial PowerSocioeconomic StatusSubtypingSystem JustificationTerritorialityToken Effects

Health

Binge EatingBiopsychosocial ModelBuffering EffectBulimiaCopingDepressionHardinessHealth PsychologySexual Desire

Social NeuroscienceSocial PsychophysiologyStress and CopingTend-and-Befriend ResponseTestosterone

History

Bennington College StudyBobo Doll StudiesHistory of Social PsychologyLogical PositivismReductionismRobbers Cave ExperimentStanford Prison ExperimentThematic Apperception Test

Influence

ComplianceConformityDebiasingDoor-in-the-Face TechniqueFear AppealsFoot-in-the-Door TechniqueForced ComplianceForewarningHeuristic-Systematic

Model of PersuasionInfluenceInformational InfluenceIngratiationIngratiator’s DilemmaInoculation TheoryMere Exposure EffectMilgram’s Obedience to Authority StudiesMinority Social InfluenceNormative InfluenceNorms, Prescriptive and DescriptivePersuasionReactanceReciprocity NormReference GroupResisting PersuasionScarcity PrincipleSelf-Fulfilling ProphecySleeper Effect

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Reader’s Guide———xix

Social PowerStealing ThunderSupplication

Interpersonal Relationships

Attachment TheoryBetrayalClose RelationshipsCommunal RelationshipsCompanionate LoveComplementarity, of Relationship PartnersDecision and Commitment in LoveDependence RegulationEmpathic AccuracyEquity TheoryExchange RelationshipsForgivenessGossipInterdependence TheoryInterpersonal CognitionIntimacyIntimate Partner ViolenceLonelinessLoveMarital SatisfactionMatching HypothesisMimicryNeed to BelongNonverbal Cues and

CommunicationOstracismPornographyPropinquityRejectionRomantic LoveRomantic SecrecySelf-DisclosureSelf-Evaluation MaintenanceSelf-Expansion TheorySelf-Fulfilling ProphecySex DriveSexual DesireSexual Economics TheorySimilarity-Attraction EffectSocial Exchange TheorySocial Exclusion

Social SupportSocial Value OrientationTeasingTransactive MemoryTriangular Theory of LoveTrustUnrequited Love

Judgment and Decision Making

Behavioral EconomicsDecision MakingFast and Frugal HeuristicsFree Will, Study ofGrim NecessitiesGroup Decision MakingGroup PolarizationHindsight BiasHot Hand EffectHyperbolic DiscountingIllusion of TransparencyIllusory CorrelationIngroup-Outgroup BiasIntegrative ComplexityLaw of Small NumbersLoss AversionMental AccountingMere Ownership EffectNaive CynicismNaive RealismOmission NeglectOverconfidencePlanning FallacyPluralistic IgnorancePreference ReversalsPrisoner’s DilemmaProspect TheoryPublic Goods DilemmaRecency EffectRepresentativeness HeuristicRisk TakingRisky ShiftSatisficingSequential ChoiceSimulation HeuristicSimultaneous ChoiceSocial Dilemmas

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Spreading of AlternativesSunk CostVisceral Influences

Methods

Autobiographical NarrativesBehavioral EconomicsBennington College StudyBig Five Personality TraitsBobo Doll StudiesBogus PipelineContent AnalysisControl ConditionCritical Social PsychologyCross-Lagged Panel CorrelationDeception (Methodological Technique)Demand CharacteristicsDiscursive PsychologyDynamical Systems TheoryEcological ValidityEthnocentrismExperimental ConditionExperimental RealismExperimentationExperimenter EffectsFalsificationForced Compliance TechniqueIdentity StatusImplicit Association TestIndividual DifferencesLISRELLogical PositivismLost Letter TechniqueMeta-AnalysisMundane RealismNonexperimental DesignsOperationalizationOrder EffectsPath AnalysisPlacebo EffectQuasi-Experimental DesignsReductionismResearch MethodsSelf-ReportsSemantic DifferentialSocial Desirability Bias

Social Relations ModelSociometric StatusStructural Equation ModelingThematic Apperception TestTwin Studies

Personality

Achievement MotivationAgreeablenessAndrogynyAttachment StylesAuthoritarian PersonalityBabyfacenessBig Five Personality TraitsCentral Traits Versus

Peripheral TraitsControl MotivationCuriosityDefensive PessimismDepressionExpertiseExtraversionGender DifferencesGenetic Influences on Social BehaviorHardinessHostile Masculinity SyndromeIdentity StatusImplicit Personality TheoryIndividual DifferencesIntroversionLocus of ControlMasculinity/FemininityMetatraitsNarcissismNarcissistic EntitlementNeed for AffiliationNeed for ClosureNeed for CognitionNeed for PowerNeuroticismPersonalities and Behavior Patterns,

Type A and Type BPersonality and Social BehaviorPower MotiveRejection SensitivitySelf-Complexity

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Reader’s Guide———xxi

Self-Concept ClaritySelf-Control MeasuresSelf-EsteemSelf-Esteem StabilitySelf-MonitoringSensation SeekingSex DriveSex RolesShynessSocial Desirability BiasTestosteroneThematic Apperception TestTraitsUniqueness

Prejudice

Aversive RacismBenevolent SexismContact HypothesisDiscriminationJigsaw ClassroomPrejudicePrejudice ReductionRacismScapegoat TheorySexismStereotypes and StereotypingStereotype ThreatStigmaSymbolic Racism

Problem Behaviors

Binge EatingBulimiaBullyingCopingCounterregulation of EatingDate RapeDeception (Lying)DepressionNarcissistic Reactance

Theory of Sexual CoercionObjectification TheoryRapeSelf-Defeating Behavior

Self-HandicappingShynessSocial LoafingSuicide

Prosocial Behaviors

AltruismAltruistic PunishmentAttractionBystander EffectCompassionCooperationDecision Model of HelpingDistributive JusticeEmpathic AccuracyEmpathyEmpathy–Altruism HypothesisGratitudeGRIT Tension Reduction StrategyHelping BehaviorNegative-State Relief ModelPositive PsychologyPrisoner’s DilemmaProsocial BehaviorPublic Goods DilemmaReciprocal AltruismReligion and SpiritualitySearch for Meaning in LifeVolunteerism

Self

Actor–Observer AsymmetriesApparent Mental CausationBarnum EffectBasking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing)BrainwashingClose RelationshipsCollective SelfContingencies of Self-WorthDeindividuationDownward Social ComparisonEgocentric BiasEgo ShockEscape TheoryExecutive Function of Self

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xxii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

ExemplificationFacial-Feedback HypothesisIdentity CrisisIllusion of ControlIllusion of TransparencyImpression ManagementIndependent Self-ConstrualsIngratiator’s DilemmaInterdependent Self-ConstrualsIntrospectionLooking-Glass SelfMental ControlMere Ownership EffectMisattribution of ArousalMoral DevelopmentMortality SalienceName Letter EffectObjectification TheoryOptimal Distinctiveness TheoryOverjustification EffectPersonal SpacePhenomenal SelfPositive IllusionsProcrastinationProjectionPsychological EntitlementReactanceRegulatory Focus TheoryRoles and Role TheorySchemasSelfSelf-Affirmation TheorySelf-Attribution ProcessSelf-AwarenessSelf-Categorization TheorySelf-ComplexitySelf-ConceptSelf-Concept ClaritySelf-Control MeasuresSelf-DeceptionSelf-Defeating BehaviorSelf-Determination TheorySelf-DisclosureSelf-Discrepancy TheorySelf-EfficacySelf-EnhancementSelf-Esteem

Self-Esteem StabilitySelf-Evaluation MaintenanceSelf-Expansion TheorySelf-Fulfilling ProphecySelf-HandicappingSelf-MonitoringSelf-Perception TheorySelf-PresentationSelf-PromotionSelf-Reference EffectSelf-RegulationSelf-ReportsSelf-Serving BiasSelf-StereotypingSelf-Verification TheorySocial ComparisonSocial Identity TheorySpotlight EffectStigmaSymbolic Self-CompletionTerror Management TheoryThreatened Egotism

Theory of AggressionUniquenessValue PrioritiesZeal

Social Cognition

AccessibilityAccountabilityAction Identification TheoryActor–Observer AsymmetriesAdaptive UnconsciousAlcohol Myopia EffectAnchoring and Adjustment HeuristicAssimilation ProcessesAssociative NetworksAttentionAttributional AmbiguityAttributionsAttribution TheoryAutomatic ProcessesAvailability HeuristicBad Is Stronger Than GoodBarnum EffectBase Rate Fallacy

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Reader’s Guide———xxiii

Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRGing)Belief PerseveranceBlaming the VictimCentral Traits Versus Peripheral TraitsConfirmation BiasConsciousnessContrast EffectsControlled ProcessesCorrespondence BiasCorrespondent Inference TheoryCounterfactual ThinkingCreativityCuriosityDebiasingDefensive AttributionDepressive RealismDiagnosticityDilution EffectDiscounting, in AttributionDistinctiveness, in AttributionDownward Social ComparisonDual Process TheoriesEgocentric BiasEmotional IntelligenceEncodingExcuseExpectancy EffectsExpectationsEyewitness Testimony, Accuracy ofFalse ConsciousnessFalse Consensus EffectFalse Uniqueness BiasFocalismFundamental Attribution ErrorGain–Loss FramingGambler’s FallacyHalo EffectHeuristic ProcessingHeuristic-Systematic Model of PersuasionHostile Attribution BiasHostile Media BiasHot Hand EffectIllusory CorrelationImplicit Personality TheoryInferenceIntegrative ComplexityInterpersonal Cognition

Justice MotiveJust-World HypothesisKelley’s Covariation ModelLay EpistemicsLowballingMatching HypothesisMeaning Maintenance ModelMemoryMetacognitionMimicryMind-WanderingMisattribution of ArousalMoral EmotionsMoral ReasoningMotivated CognitionMotivated ReasoningMUM EffectNonconscious ProcessesNorms, Prescriptive and DescriptiveOmission NeglectPersonality Judgments, Accuracy ofPerson PerceptionPerson-Positivity HeuristicPositive–Negative AsymmetryPrimacy Effect, AttributionPrimacy Effect, MemoryPrimingProjectionPrototypesRecency EffectResponsibility AttributionRisk AppraisalSalienceSatisficingSchemasScriptsSelf-Fulfilling ProphecySelf-Reference EffectSelf-Serving BiasSelf-Verification TheoryShifting StandardsSimilarity-Attraction EffectSocial CategorizationSocial CognitionSocial Cognitive NeuroscienceSocial ComparisonSocial Impact Theory

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Social ProjectionSpontaneous Trait InferencesSpreading of AlternativesSubliminal PerceptionSubtypingSymbolic InteractionismTheory of MindThin Slices of BehaviorThree-Dimensional Model of AttributionTransactive MemoryValue Pluralism Model

Subdisciplines

Applied Social PsychologyConsumer BehaviorCritical Social PsychologyDiscursive Psychology

Environmental PsychologyEthologyEvolutionary PsychologyEyewitness Testimony, Accuracy ofForensic PsychologyHealth PsychologyHistory of Social PsychologyOrganizational BehaviorPeace PsychologyPersonality and Social BehaviorPolitical PsychologyPositive PsychologyReligion and SpiritualitySocial Cognitive NeuroscienceSocial NeuroscienceSocial PsychophysiologySociobiologySociological Social Psychology

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Roy F. Baumeister holds the Eppes EminentProfessorship in the Department of Psychology atFlorida State University. He received his Ph.D. inexperimental social psychology from PrincetonUniversity in 1978. He has also taught and conductedresearch at the University of California at Berkeley,Case Western Reserve University, University ofTexas, University of Virginia, the Max-PlanckInstitute in Munich (Germany), and Stanford’s Centerfor Advanced Study. He has contributed more than300 professional publications (including 18 books),spanning such topics as self and identity, perfor-mance under pressure, self-control, self-esteem, find-ing meaning in life, sexuality, decision making,thoughts on free will, aggression and violence, suicide,interpersonal processes, social rejection, the need to belong, and human nature. His research on self-regulation has been funded for many years by theNational Institute of Mental Health and the TempletonFoundation.

Kathleen D. Vohs is Assistant Professor in theDepartment of Marketing, Carlson School of Manage-ment, University of Minnesota. Vohs received her Ph.D.in psychological and brain sciences from DartmouthCollege in 2000, after which she conducted research atthe University of Utah and Case Western ReserveUniversity. In 2003, she joined the Marketing Divisionat the University of British Columbia, where she wasawarded the Canada Research Chair in MarketingScience and Consumer Psychology. In 2007, Vohs wasnamed a McKnight Land-Grant Professor at theUniversity of Minnesota. Vohs has contributed to morethan 80 professional publications, including coediting 3 books. Her theories highlight the role of the self, andher research has been extended to the domains of chronic dieting, bulimic symptoms, sexuality, andimpulsive and compulsive spending. Her work has beenfunded by the National Institutes of Health, the SocialSciences and Humanities Council of Canada, and theAmerican Cancer Society.

xxv

About the Editors

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Lyn Y. AbramsonUniversity of Wisconsin

Anja AchtzigerUniversitat Konstanz

Gerald Robert AdamsUniversity of Guelph

Reginald B. Adams, Jr.Pennsylvania State University

Christopher R. AgnewPurdue University

Icek AjzenUniversity of Massachusetts, Amherst

Maria Logli AllisonUniversity of California, Berkeley

Lauren B. AlloyTemple University

Nalini AmbadyTufts University

Craig A. AndersonIowa State University

Kathryn B. AndersonOur Lady of the Lake University

Kristin J. AndersonUniversity of Houston, Downtown

Robert M. ArkinOhio State University

Arthur AronStony Brook University, SUNY

Joshua AronsonNew York University

Ximena B. ArriagaPurdue University

Danny AxsomVirginia Tech

Jodene R. BaccusMcGill University

Pamela L. BaconCollege of St. Benedict/St. John’s University

Michael BakerFlorida State University

Mark W. BaldwinMcGill University

Mahzarin R. BanajiHarvard University

Yoav Bar-AnanUniversity of Virginia

Jamie BardenHoward University

xxvi

Contributors

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Mark A. BarnettKansas State University

Robert S. BaronUniversity of Iowa

Daniel W. BarrettWestern Connecticut State University

C. Daniel BatsonUniversity of Kansas

Monika BauerNorthwestern University

Roy F. BaumeisterFlorida State University

Andrew P. BeckerNorthwestern University

James K. BegganUniversity of Louisville

Sian L. BeilockUniversity of Chicago

Theodore W. BenderFlorida State University

L. Brooke BennettFlorida State University

Leonard BerkowitzUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison (Retired)

Monica BiernatUniversity of Kansas

George Y. BizerUnion College

Ginette C. BlackhartFlorida State University

Kevin L. BlankenshipPurdue University

Hart BlantonTexas A&M University

Jim BlascovichUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Thomas BlassUniversity of Maryland, Baltimore County

Herbert BlessUniversity of Mannheim

Galen V. BodenhausenNorthwestern University

Prashant BordiaUniversity of South Australia

Marc A. BrackettYale University

Laura A. BrannonKansas State University

William E. BreenGeorge Mason University

Marilynn B. BrewerOhio State University

Thomas W. BrittClemson University

Brandon I. BrockmyerReed College

Jonathon D. BrownUniversity of Washington

Amy B. BrunellUniversity of Georgia

Sabrina BruyneelKatholieke Universiteit Leuven

Roger BuehlerWilfrid Laurier University

Contributors———xxvii

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Laura E. BuffardiUniversity of Georgia

Jerry M. BurgerSanta Clara University

Jeni L. BurnetteVirginia Commonwealth University

Kathleen C. BurnsUniversity of Massachusetts, Amherst

Jeremy BurrusColumbia University

Brad J. BushmanUniversity of Michigan

David M. BussUniversity of Texas

Jonathan ButnerUniversity of Utah

James P. ByrnesTemple University

John T. CacioppoUniversity of Chicago

W. Keith CampbellUniversity of Georgia

Nicole M. CapezzaPurdue University

Kevin M. CarlsmithColgate University

Donal E. CarlstonPurdue University

Dana R. CarneyHarvard University

Travis J. CarterCornell University

Adrienne R. Carter-SowellPurdue University

Charles S. CarverUniversity of Miami

Bettina J. CasadCalifornia State Polytechnic University, Pomona

Kathleen R. CataneseSaint Leo University

Justin V. CavalloUniversity of Waterloo

Jennifer L. CerullyUniversity of Pittsburgh

Shelly ChaikenNew York University

Jesse J. ChandlerUniversity of Michigan

Tanya L. ChartrandDuke University

Kevin A. ChavarriaCalifornia State University, Fullerton

Jonathan M. CheekWellesley College

Zhansheng ChenPennsylvania State University

Troy ChenierUniversity of California, San Diego

Jason ChinUniversity of British Columbia

Karen ChoiUniversity of Waterloo

P. Niels ChristensenRadford University

xxviii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

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Contributors———xxix

Charlene ChristieIndiana University–Purdue University at Columbus

Daniel J. ChristieOhio State University

Natalie CiaroccoFlorida Atlantic University

Margaret ClarkYale University

Jason K. ClarkPurdue University

Jennifer A. ClarkeUnited States Air Force Academy

Gerald L. CloreUniversity of Virginia

Dov CohenUniversity of Illinois

Geoffrey L. CohenUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Elizabeth C. CollinsUniversity of Kansas

C. Randall ColvinNortheastern University

Regina ContiColgate University

Joel CooperPrinceton University

Thomas E. CooperOhio State University

Leda CosmidesUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Paul T. Costa, Jr.National Institute on Aging

Dee Lisa CothranUniversity of Tennessee at Chattanooga

Catherine A. CottrellUniversity of Florida

Andrew CoxCentral Michigan University

Elizabeth L. CralleyAmerican University

Chris CrandallUniversity of Kansas

Clayton R. CritcherCornell University

Faye J. CrosbyUniversity of California, Santa Cruz

Sara A. CrumpUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Sheila CunninghamUniversity of Aberdeen

Amy N. DaltonDuke University

Jennifer R. DanielsUniversity of Connecticut

Peter DarkeUniversity of British Columbia

John DarleyPrinceton University

Kristy K. DeanCalifornia State University, San Bernardino

Mark DechesneUniversity of Maryland, College Park

Edward L. DeciUniversity of Rochester

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xxx———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Carsten K. W. de DreuUniversity of Amsterdam

Natascha de HoogInternational Graduate College

Jan De HouwerGhent University

Kenneth G. DeMarreeOhio State University

M. C. DeSotoUniversity of Northern Iowa

C. Nathan DeWallFlorida State University

Lisa DiamondUniversity of Utah

Sally S. DickersonUniversity of California, Irvine

Stephan DickertUniversity of Oregon

Amanda B. DiekmanMiami University

Nicholas DiFonzoRochester Institute of Technology

Ap DijksterhuisRadboud University Nijmegen

Mallory DimlerCollege of New Jersey

Celeste E. DoerrFlorida State University

John F. DovidioUniversity of Connecticut

Geraldine DowneyColumbia University

Elizabeth W. DunnUniversity of British Columbia

David DunningCornell University

Anna P. Ebel-LamQueen’s University

Collette EcclestonSyracuse University

John EdlundNorthern Illinois University

Jacob EisenbergUniversity College Dublin

Nancy EisenbergArizona State University

John H. EllardUniversity of Calgary

Andrew J. ElliotUniversity of Rochester

Nicholas EpleyUniversity of Chicago

K. Anders EricssonFlorida State University

Elsa ErmerUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Gary W. EvansCornell University

Julie ExlineCase Western Reserve University

Diane FelmleeUniversity of California, Davis

Florian FesselUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

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Contributors———xxxi

Klaus FiedlerUniversity of Heidelberg

Eli J. FinkelNorthwestern University

Catrin FinkenauerFree University

Agneta H. FischerUniversity of Amsterdam

Helen E. FisherRutgers University

Alan Page FiskeUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Garth FletcherUniversity of Canterbury

Joseph P. ForgasUniversity of New South Wales

Noah ForrinSt. John’s College

Jens FörsterInternational University Bremen

Friedrich FörsterlingUniversity of Munich

Donelson R. ForsythUniversity of Richmond

Craig FosterUnited States Air Force Academy

Joshua D. FosterUniversity of South Alabama

R. Chris FraleyUniversity of Illinois

Stephen L. FranzoiMarquette University

Shane FrederickMassachusetts Institute of Technology

Barbara L. FredricksonUniversity of Michigan

Ron FriedmanUniversity of Rochester

Irene Hanson FriezeUniversity of Pittsburgh

Kentaro FujitaNew York University

Shelly L. GableUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Simon GächterUniversity of Nottingham

Samuel L. GaertnerUniversity of Delaware

Matthew T. GailliotFlorida State University

Steven W. GangestadUniversity of New Mexico

Stephen M. GarciaUniversity of Michigan

Wendi L. GardnerNorthwestern University

Danielle GaucherUniversity of Waterloo

Bertram GawronskiUniversity of Western Ontario

David C. GearyUniversity of Missouri

Robert GiffordUniversity of Victoria

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xxxii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Thomas GilovichCornell University

Roger Giner-SorollaUniversity of Kent

Seth GitterFlorida State University

Peter GlickLawrence University

Ayelet GneezyUniversity of Chicago

Jennifer GoetzCarnegie Mellon University

Gregg GoldHumboldt State University

Jamie L. GoldenbergUniversity of South Florida

Brian M. GoldmanClayton State University

Lizabeth GoldsteinCollege of New Jersey

Peter M. GollwitzerNew York University

Karen GonsalkoraleUniversity of California, Davis

Stephanie A. GoodwinPurdue University

Amir GorenPrinceton University

Anke GörzigUniversity of Mannheim

Shelly GrabeUniversity of Wisconsin

Jodi GraceUniversity of Florida

Loranel M. GrahamOur Lady of the Lake University

Steven M. GrahamYale University

Richard H. GramzowNortheastern University

Elizabeth K. GrayNorth Park University

Kurt GrayHarvard University

William G. GrazianoPurdue University

Jeff GreenbergUniversity of Arizona

Anthony G. GreenwaldUniversity of Washington

Rainer GreifenederUniversity of Mannheim

Igor GrossmannUniversity of Michigan

Rosanna E. GuadagnoUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Meara M. HabashiPurdue University

Geoffrey HaddockCardiff University

Carolyn L. HaferBrock University

Jonathan D. HaidtUniversity of Virginia

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Contributors———xxxiii

Judith A. HallNortheastern University

Mark HallahanCollege of the Holy Cross

Michael J. HalloranLa Trobe University

David L. HamiltonUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Elliott D. HammerXavier University of Louisiana

Kyunghee HanCentral Michigan University

Karlene HankoCornell University

Nina HansenUniversity of Jena, Germany

Cindy Harmon-JonesTexas A&M University

Eddie Harmon-JonesTexas A&M University

Monica J. HarrisUniversity of Kentucky

Christine R. HarrisUniversity of California, San Diego

Bryan J. HarrisonUniversity of Michigan

Martie G. HaseltonUniversity of California, Los Angeles

S. Alexander HaslamUniversity of Exeter

Elaine HatfieldUniversity of Hawaii

Curtis HaugtvedtOhio State University

Louise HawkleyUniversity of Chicago

Michelle R. HeblRice University

P. J. HenryDePaul University

C. Peter HermanUniversity of Toronto

Anthony D. HermannWillamette University

E. Tory HigginsColombia University

Robert Thomas HitlanUniversity of Northern Iowa

Sara D. HodgesUniversity of Oregon

Ulrich HoffrageUniversity of Lausanne

Michael A. HoggClaremont Graduate University

Rob W. HollandRadboud University Nijmegen

Andrea B. HollingsheadUniversity of Southern California

John G. HolmesUniversity of Waterloo

Ann E. HooverPurdue University

Crystal L. HoytUniversity of Richmond

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xxxiv———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Jay HullDartmouth College

Li-Ching HungMississippi State University

Jeffrey R. HuntsingerUniversity of Virginia

Mark HuppinUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Janet Shibley HydeUniversity of Wisconsin

William IckesUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Chester A. InskoUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Carmen R. IsasiAECOM

Linda M. IsbellUniversity of Massachusetts, Amherst

Alice IsenCornell University

Jay W. JacksonIndiana University–Purdue University at Columbus

Lauri A. Jensen-CampbellUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Blair T. JohnsonUniversity of Connecticut

Kerri L. JohnsonNew York University

Thomas E. Joiner, Jr.Florida State University

Kai J. JonasUniversity of Jena

Eric E. JonesPurdue University

Robert JosephsUniversity of Texas at Austin

John T. JostNew York University

Will KalkhoffKent State University

Joanne KaneUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Jan KangColumbia University

Richard I. KaplanGeorge Washington University

Frank R. KardesUniversity of Cincinnati

Todd B. KashdanGeorge Mason University

Saul KassinWilliams College

Pamela K. KeelUniversity of Iowa

Janice R. KellyPurdue University

Dacher KeltnerUniversity of California, Berkeley

Douglas T. KenrickArizona State University

Peter KerkhofFree University Amsterdam

Michael H. KernisUniversity of Georgia

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Contributors———xxxv

Holly KettererCentral Michigan University

Saera R. KhanUniversity of San Francisco

Shelley Dean KilpatrickSouthwest Baptist University

Chu Kim-PrietoCollege of New Jersey

Anthon KlapwijkFree University Amsterdam

William M. P. KleinUniversity of Pittsburgh

Jennifer M. KnackUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Eric S. KnowlesUniversity of Arkansas

Megan L. KnowlesNorthwestern University

Brittany KohlbergerCollege of New Jersey

Sara KonrathUniversity of Michigan

Sander KooleVrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Brandon KoppOhio State University

Spee KosloffUniversity of Arizona

Robin M. KowalskiClemson University

Adam D. I. KramerUniversity of Oregon

Alison M. KramerGeorge Washington University

Joachim I. KruegerBrown University

Justin KrugerNYU Stern

Arie W. KruglanskiUniversity of Maryland

Doug KrullNorthern Kentucky University

Elizabeth A. KrusemarkUniversity of Georgia

Koichi KurebayashiUniversity of Omaha

Sangil KwonMichigan State University

Simon LahamUniversity of New South Wales

Jessica L. LakinDrew University

Mark J. LandauUniversity of Arizona

Ellen LangerHarvard University

Carrie LangnerUniversity of California, San Francisco

Jeff T. LarsenTexas Tech University

Randy J. LarsenWashington University in St. Louis

G. Daniel LassiterOhio University

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xxxvi———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Alvin Ty LawPurdue University

Alison LedgerwoodNew York University

Justin J. LehmillerPurdue University

John M. LevineUniversity of Pittsburgh

Gary W. Lewandowski, Jr.Monmouth University

Nira LibermanTel Aviv University

Debra LiebermanUniversity of Hawaii

Matthew D. LiebermanUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Susan P. LimberClemson University

Lisa LinardatosMcGill University

Matthew J. LindbergOhio University

Patricia LinvilleDuke University

David A. LishnerUniversity of Wisconsin, Oshkosh

Ido LiviatanNew York University

Corinna E. LöckenhoffStanford University

Chris LoerschOhio State University

Richard E. LucasMichigan State University

John LydonMcGill University

Tara K. MacDonaldQueen’s University

M. Kimberly MacLinUniversity of Northern Iowa

Otto H. MacLinUniversity of Northern Iowa

C. Neil MacraeUniversity of Aberdeen

James E. MadduxGeorge Mason University

Juan M. MaderaRice University

Lynda MaeWestern Nevada Community College

Gregory R. MaioCardiff University

Brenda MajorUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Neil MalamuthUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Bertram F. MalleUniversity of Oregon

Jon K. ManerFlorida State University

Antony S. R. MansteadCardiff University

William D. MarelichCalifornia State University, Fullerton

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Contributors———xxxvii

Aimee Y. MarkUniversity of Kentucky

Douglas MartinUniversity of Aberdeen

E. J. MasicampoFlorida State University

Amy MastIllinois State University

Marianne Schmid MastUniversité de Neuchâtel

David M. MayerUniversity of Central Florida

Dan P. McAdamsNorthwestern University

Michael McCaslinOhio State University

Robert R. McCraeNational Institute on Aging, NIH, DHHS

Todd McElroyAppalachian State University

Ian McGregorYork University

Nicole L. MeadFlorida State University

Pranjal MehtaUniversity of Texas at Austin

Barbara MellersUniversity of California, Berkeley

Wendy Berry MendesHarvard University

Katherine MerrillFlorida State University

Sal MeyersSimpson College

Mario MikulincerBar-Ilan University

Carol T. MillerUniversity of Vermont

Geoffrey MillerUniversity of New Mexico

Norman MillerUniversity of Southern California

Rowland MillerSam Houston State University

Marianne MiserandinoArcadia University

Scott J. MoellerUniversity of Michigan

Arlen C. MollerUniversity of Rochester

Benoît MoninStanford University

Matthew M. MoninUniversity of Pittsburgh

Margo J. MonteithUniversity of Kentucky

Kathryn A. MorrisButler University

Kimberly Rios MorrisonStanford University

Gabriel MoserParis Descartes University

Gordon B. MoskowitzLehigh University

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xxxviii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Judith Tedlie MoskowitzUniversity of California, San Francisco

Patrick A. MüllerUniversity of Mannheim

Mark MuravenUniversity at Albany, SUNY

Sandra L. MurrayUniversity at Buffalo, SUNY

Peggy J. MycekUniversity of California, Irvine

Michael W. MyersUniversity of Oregon

Stacey L. NairnUniversity of Prince Edward Island

Jenae M. NeiderhiserGeorge Washington University

Noelle M. NelsonUniversity of Minnesota

John D. NewmanNational Institutes of Health

Leonard S. NewmanUniversity of Illinois at Chicago

Christopher P. NiemiecUniversity of Rochester

Bernard A. NijstadUniversity of Amsterdam

Jessica M. NolanUniversity of Arkansas

Julie K. NoremWellesley College

Brian A. NosekUniversity of Virginia

Laurie T. O’BrienTulane University

Heather N. Odle-DusseauClemson University

Kathryn C. OlesonReed College

Michael A. OlsonUniversity of Tennessee

An T. OskarssonUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Christopher OveisUniversity of California, Berkeley

Mario PandelaereKatholieke Universiteit Leuven

Bernadette ParkUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Craig D. ParksWashington State University

Elizabeth J. Parks-StammNew York University

Anthony M. PascoeDuke University

Delroy L. PaulhusUniversity of British Columbia

Paul B. PaulusUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Richard E. PettyOhio State University

Ethan PewUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Mark V. PezzoUniversity of South Florida

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Contributors———xxxix

Michael PfauUniversity of Oklahoma

Valerie K. PillingKansas State University

Dante PirouzUniversity of California, Irvine

David A. PizarroCornell University

E. Ashby PlantFlorida State University

Vicki PollockThe Brian Othmer Foundation

David B. PortnoyUniversity of Connecticut

Tom PostmesUniversity of Exeter

Jonathan PotterLoughborough University

Anthony R. PratkanisUniversity of California, Santa Cruz

Deborah A. PrenticePrinceton University

Travis ProulxUniversity of British Columbia

John B. PryorIllinois State University

Kate A. RanganathUniversity of Virginia

Richard L. RapsonUniversity of Hawaii

Jennifer J. RatcliffOhio University

Catherine D. RawnUniversity of British Columbia

Joseph P. ReddenUniversity of Minnesota

Jason T. ReedMorrisville State College

Glenn D. ReederIllinois State University

Pamela C. ReganCalifornia State University, Los Angeles

Torsten ReimerMax Planck Institute for Human Development

Chris P. Reinders FolmerFree University, Amsterdam

Harry T. ReisUniversity of Rochester

Nancy RhodesUniversity of Alabama

Frederick RhodewaltUniversity of Utah

Jennifer A. RichesonNorthwestern University

Cheryl A. RickabaughUniversity of Redlands

Jörg RieskampMax Planck Institute for Human Development

Dan D RinerUniversity of Arkansas

Jane L. RisenCornell University

Timothy D. RitchieNorthern Illinois University

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xl———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Tomi-Ann RobertsColorado College

Neal J. RoeseUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Meg J. RohanUniversity of New South Wales

Paul RoseSouthern Illinois University, Edwardsville

Robert RosenthalUniversity of California, Riverside

Paul RozinUniversity of Pennsylvania

Derek D. RuckerNorthwestern University

Lana RucksOhio State University

Nicholas O. RuleTufts University

Caryl E. RusbultFree University Amsterdam

Janet B. RuscherTulane University

Carey S. RyanUniversity of Nebraska at Omaha

Richard M. RyanUniversity of Rochester

Richard SaavedraUniversity of New Hampshire

Delia S. SaenzArizona State University

Brad J. SagarinNorthern Illinois University

Peter SaloveyYale University

Viktoriya SamarinaUniversity of San Francisco

Jeffrey Sanchez-BurksUniversity of Michigan

Lawrence J. SannaUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Alecia M. SantuzziSyracuse University

Aislinn R. SappUniversity of Rochester

Ken SavitskyWilliams College

Roger C. SchankNorthwestern University

Svenja K. SchattkaUniversity of Mannheim

Steve ScherEastern Illinois University

Brandon J. SchmeichelTexas A&M University

Kristina R. SchmuklerUniversity of California, Santa Cruz

Jonathan W. SchoolerUniversity of British Columbia

Michela Schröder-AbéChemnitz University of Technology

Astrid SchützChemnitz University of Technology

Lori A. J. Scott-SheldonUniversity of Connecticut

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Contributors———xli

David O. SearsUniversity of California, Los Angeles

J. Patrick SederUniversity of Virginia

Ya Hui Michelle SeeOhio State University

Nancy L. SegalCalifornia State University, Fullerton

Todd K. ShackelfordFlorida Atlantic University

David R. ShafferUniversity of Georgia

Phillip R. ShaverUniversity of California, Davis

Kennon M. SheldonUniversity of Missouri–Columbia

J. Nicole SheltonPrinceton University

James A. ShepperdUniversity of Florida

David K. ShermanUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Itamar SimonsonStanford University

Dean Keith SimontonUniversity of California, Davis

Stacey SinclairUniversity of Virginia

Royce A. Singleton, Jr.College of the Holy Cross

Erica SlotterNorthwestern University

Paul SlovicDecision Research

Rachel SmallmanUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Jonathan SmallwoodUniversity of Aberdeen

Laura Smart RichmanDuke University

Cary Stacy SmithMississippi State University

Richard H. SmithUniversity of Kentucky

Steven M. SmithSaint Mary’s University

Natalie D. SmoakUniversity of Connecticut

C. R. SnyderUniversity of Kansas, Lawrence

Erin SparksFlorida State University

Russell SpearsCardiff University & University of Amsterdam

Steve SpencerUniversity of Waterloo

Jennifer R. SpoorButler University

Susan SprecherIllinois State University

Christoph StahlUniversity of Freiburg, Institute for Psychology

Maureen T. StecklerReed College

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xlii———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Claude SteeleStanford University

Michael F. StegerUniversity of Minnesota

Cookie White StephanUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa

Walter G. StephanUniversity of Hawaii

Robert J. SternbergTufts University

Tyler F. StillmanFlorida State University

E. L. StocksUniversity of Texas at Tyler

Emily A. StoneUniversity of Utah

Jeff StoneUniversity of Arizona

Tamara StoneCentral Michigan University

Fritz StrackUniversity of Würzburg

Wolfgang StroebeUtrecht University

Greg StrongStony Brook University, SUNY

Michael J. StrubeWashington University

Jerry SulsUniversity of Iowa

William B. Swann, Jr.University of Texas at Austin

Kate SweenyUniversity of Florida

Ursula SzillisUniversity of Mannheim

Carmit T. TadmorUniversity of California, Berkeley

Michael J. TaglerNebraska Wesleyan University

June Price TangneyGeorge Mason University

John M. TauerUniversity of St. Thomas

Shelley TaylorUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Howard TennenUniversity of Connecticut School of Medicine

Meredith TerryUniversity of Florida

Abraham TesserUniversity of Georgia

Philip E. TetlockUniversity of California, Berkeley

Sander ThomaesFree University

Elisabeth M. ThompsonUniversity of California, Santa Cruz

Joel A. ThurstonUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

Dianne M. TiceFlorida State University

Jennifer J. TickleSt. Mary’s College of Maryland

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Contributors———xliii

Andrew R. ToddNorthwestern University

John ToobyUniversity of California, Santa Barbara

David TrafimowNew Mexico State University

Kelly TrindelUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Yaacov TropeNew York University & Stern Business School

Linda TroppUniversity of Massachusetts, Amherst

John C. TurnerAustralian National University

Marlene E. TurnerSan Jose State University

Jean M. TwengeSan Diego State University

Tom R. TylerNew York University

David UzzellUniversity of Surrey

Robin R. VallacherFlorida Atlantic University

Rick van BaarenUniversity of Amsterdam

Leaf Van BovenUniversity of Colorado at Boulder

Paul A. M. Van LangeFree University

Kelvin L. Van ManenUniversity of Nebraska, Omaha

Kimberly A. Van OrdenFlorida State University

Susan E. VarniUniversity of Vermont

Michael E. W. VarnumUniversity of Michigan

Aline VaterChemnitz University

Phillip W. VaughanUniversity of Texas at Austin

Simine VazireUniversity of Texas at Austin

Penny S. VisserUniversity of Chicago

Kathleen D. VohsUniversity of Minnesota

William von HippelUniversity of New South Wales

Roos VonkRadboud University

Amy M. WaldripUniversity of Texas at Arlington

Devin L. WallaceTulane University

Harry M. WallaceTrinity University

Katherine L. WallerQueen’s University

Andrew WardSwarthmore College

Louise WasylkiwMount Allison University

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xliv———Encyclopedia of Social Psychology

Philip C. WatkinsEastern Washington University

Ann WeatherallVitoria University of Wellington

Nathan C. WeedCentral Michigan University

Duane T. WegenerPurdue University

Daniel M. WegnerHarvard University

Bernard WeinerUniversity of California, Los Angeles

Max WeisbuchMercer University

Carolyn WeiszUniversity of Puget Sound

Sarah WertYale University

Eric D. WesselmannPurdue University

Elanor F. WilliamsCornell University

Kipling D. WilliamsPurdue University

Thomas A. WillsAlbert Einstein College of Medicine

Piotr WinkielmanUniversity of California, San Diego

David G. WinterUniversity of Michigan

James WirthPurdue University

Connie WolfeMuhlenberg College

Joanne V. WoodUniversity of Waterloo

Wendy WoodDuke University

Carrie L. WylandUniversity of North South Wales

Oscar YbarraUniversity of Michigan

Tricia J. YurakRowan University

Alyson K. ZaltaUniversity of Pennsylvania

Leslie A. ZebrowitzBrandeis University

Marcel ZeelenbergTilburg University

Dolf ZillmannUniversity of Alabama

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Social psychology is the study of how normal peoplethink, feel, and act. In that sense, social psychology isat the core of all the fields that study the human expe-rience. As one colleague (not a social psychologist)remarked to us once, social psychology is one, andperhaps the only, field that can communicate withevery other department in the university.

It was not always thus. The field of social psychol-ogy only began to take shape after World War II. Earlyon it consisted of a handful of creative researchers trying to figure out how to use laboratory techniques to test theories about people. In those early days, theideas were simple to the point of simplistic, the meth-ods primitive, the journals and conferences sparse andobscure.

Through the decades, social psychology has blos-somed into a major enterprise. The 2007 conferenceof the Society for Personality and Social Psychology,held in Memphis, Tennessee, attracted more than2,000 researchers. Now the Society has more than5,000 members worldwide. There are dozens of jour-nals, including the largest journal published by theAmerican Psychological Association. (In fact, it is solarge that at one point someone calculated that if itwere split in half, the result would be the two largestjournals published by the APA!)

All this remarkable progress has, however, made it difficult for outsiders to benefit from what social psychologists are learning. Thousands of researchersworking in laboratories scattered around the worldproduce many individual facts and findings, whichthen appear in the journals one at a time. How can onewade through all of this material to find what one needs?

The Encyclopedia of Social Psychology is designedto make it easy for outsiders to gain access to and

benefit from this rapidly growing and important field.It provides brief, clear, readable introductory explana-tions to the vast number of ideas and concepts thatmake up the intellectual and scientific content of thefield. We think of it as a map and tour guide to the field.

What is entitativity? How about erotic plasticity?What is the Prisoner’s Dilemma (and what do socialpsychologists use it for)? What’s the Ringelmann effect?Or the availability heuristic, or the facial-feedbackhypothesis? What is door-in-the-face technique usefulfor? Or the lost letter technique? What’s the problemwith the illusion of transparency?

The encyclopedia does more than just answer thesequestions. It gives some background to each conceptand explains what researchers are now doing with it.It also explains where it stands in relation to otherconcepts in the field.

Why are there so many terms? Social psychologistshave been accused of making up jargon just to flatterthemselves, to confuse others, or to disguise simpleideas to look like scientific theories. Here and there,such accusations may have some truth to them, but forthe most part they miss the point. Jargon is needed forprecision. Scientists need precise terms with clear def-initions, and using the language of everyday speech,with its multiple meanings and connotations and emo-tional baggage, falls short. Hence, social psycholo-gists, like those in most other fields, have had to developtheir own terminology.

Jargon makes it easier for scientists to communi-cate with each other—but it makes it much harder foroutsiders to gain access and understand what is beingsaid. Hence, another important function of the ency-clopedia is to translate jargon into plain terms. Thebiggest part of our job as editors of this encyclopedia

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was to push the authors to describe their concepts inplain, clear, everyday language rather than speaking in the secret language of the discipline. We think theyhave succeeded magnificently (for the most part!). Forsome, it was not easy, because they are accustomed towriting about their ideas and working in the special-ized terms that experts use to communicate with eachother. But we were relentless on this, and the result isa wonderfully clear and readable set of entries.

Students are a particular target audience for theencyclopedia. We told our authors to imagine thereader as a young student, fresh out of high school,taking a first psychology course. (We thought that ifthings were explained at that level, the entries wouldalso be very useful even for experts in other fields,who may know a great deal about their own field butwhose knowledge of social psychology might be comparable to that of an undergraduate. After all, evenif you have a Ph.D. in English literature or culturalstudies, if you have not taken a course in psychology,your knowledge of this field is not all that differentfrom that of an undergraduate!)

The encyclopedia began in conversations betweenus and the Sage editors several years ago. The need forsuch an encyclopedia had first been recognized incomments by librarians and others who field ques-tions from students. Simple dictionaries do not coverall the terms that social psychologists use, and evenwhen they do provide definitions, these definitions donot necessarily correspond to the current usage in thefield. And, crucially, dictionary definitions are typi-cally very short, providing the bare minimum of infor-mation rather than explaining a concept along with its background, significance, and relation to otherconcepts. What was needed was an easy way for ordi-nary people (including students) to find out whatexperts mean when they use a term like entitativity.

Developing the list of entries was a formidablechallenge. We wanted to cover everything, but howcan someone generate a list of several hundred con-cepts and terms and be sure it is complete? As a firststep, the in-house research staff at Sage combedthrough the textbooks and other reference sources tocreate a first list. It was an impressive start, but whenthe two of us (both currently active researchers in the

field) looked it over, we quickly noticed that it missedquite a few, especially ones that had emerged in recentyears (and therefore might be extremely important to what social psychologists are discussing today).And so we had to do a massive overhaul. Our first conversation—sitting outside at a sidewalk café at theDam square in Amsterdam, a place that is richly stim-ulating for social psychologists because there is somuch activity to observe—lasted for hours and gener-ated many changes.

We soon realized, however, that the task was so bigand important that we were not willing even to trust our-selves, though we have spent many years in the field,have written a textbook and attended numerous confer-ences, and so forth. Hence, we recruited a blue-ribbonAdvisory Board and gave them the mission of reviewingthe list to make changes. The Advisory Board consistedof prominent, well-respected researchers spanning themany subfields of social psychology and collectivelyhad a truly amazing span of expertise. These busy menand women went far beyond the call of duty. They scru-tinized the list of terms, identified which ones could bereplaced and, more important, what needed to be added.They also pondered the importance of each term in thefield and suggested how long each entry should be.Several Advisory Board members later reported thatthey had initially thought of the task as a bit of burden,but found the process of coming up with topics and whowould be best to write about them to be quite enjoyable.As editors, we then had further meetings to integrate alltheir suggestions and add a few of our own.

The next step was to recruit people to write theentries. Many reference works such as this are writtenby anyone who is willing to contribute. But we wantedthe best. We asked the Advisory Board to name themost prominent authority on each topic. And then weinvited that person. We didn’t just send a standard invi-tation—we sent a letter explaining how important wethought this project is and why it would be worthwhilefor an internationally acclaimed expert to take the timeand effort to produce this. To our very pleasant sur-prise, more than 95% of these leading authorities con-sented to write for us. For us, one of the high pointswas seeing the astonished expression on our Sage edi-tor’s face when we next met: “You got all the A-list

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people—how did you manage that?” Fortunately forus, social psychology has recently recognized that itsexplosive growth has resulted in a vital need forsources like this that can help communicate our knowl-edge to students and to people in other disciplines.

From there, it was all over but for the hard (but alsofun) part of editing the entries and finalizing the product.We hope you will share our enthusiasm for this product.

We want to thank several people without whomthis project could not have been as enjoyable as it was,or as high quality. Michael Carmichael at Sage was aterrific help and champion of this project, and ourmeetings with him gave us renewed excitement. Ourdevelopmental editors, Paul Reis and Carole Maurer,were indispensable aids; without them, this projecteither would not have been completed or it wouldhave been completed with a great deal of consterna-tion on our parts. We needed help from them almostdaily during the more intense phases of the project,and they were ready and willing to guide us in allaspects of the work. Our thanks to the tireless copyeditors, Colleen Brennan and Robin Gold, who workedhard to get the encyclopedia into top shape. CatherineRawn was a great help with cross-referencing so thatreaders would be able to find related entries. We also

want to extend thanks to Rolf Janke, whose meetingswith us provided a broad overview of this encyclope-dia and its placement within the suite of Sage books.

Our Advisory Board members deserve much praisefor allowing us to put some structure to the genera-tion of topics and potential authors. They are GalenBodenhausen, Ap Dijksterhuis, Wendi Gardner, MichaelHogg, Jay Hull, Doug Kenrick, Tony Manstead, SandraMurray, Abe Tesser, and Penny Visser. Last, our sincer-est and most heartfelt thanks go to Nicole Mead whowas an invaluable assistant at each step along the way.Thank goodness we had Nicole’s help, we thought atcountless points during the process.

If you are still reading this, we must ask, why? Areyou our parents? If so, hi mom. If not, you reallyshould get a life. Or, better yet, move on to some ofthe entries in this encyclopedia. (We especially rec-ommend the entry Sexual Economics Theory!) Thereis plenty of fascinating stuff in these pages. We hopeyou will use this not just to look things up: You canlearn quite a bit just by browsing through these pages.We learned quite a bit just by editing this project!Enjoy and learn!

Roy F. Baumeister and Kathleen D. Vohs

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ACCESSIBILITY

Definition

Accessibility refers to the ease with which an idea orconcept can be retrieved from memory. Accessible con-structs are those that are quickly retrieved from mem-ory. Concepts that are accessible are important becausea concept must be activated to be useful in guidingbehavior or in influencing judgments. Concepts that anindividual has thought about recently or thinks aboutfrequently tend to be more easily retrieved than otherconcepts. In social psychology, accessibility has oftenbeen considered in relation to attitudes. That is, atti-tudes that come to mind quickly are accessible atti-tudes. Accessible attitudes are generally stronger, moreresistant to persuasion, and more predictive of behaviorthan are less accessible attitudes.

Background

The study of attitudes has been an important part of theresearch landscape in social psychology since the early1900s. Historically, attitudes were thought to be animportant topic to study because early researchersassumed that attitudes are strongly related to behavior.However, the assumption that attitudes are reflected inbehavior was criticized in 1969 by Allan Wicker, whoobserved that the bulk of research findings examiningthe correlation of attitudes to related behaviors foundonly a weak relationship. Later, as part of the ensuingdebate about whether and how strongly attitudes guidebehavior, Russell Fazio and colleagues found thataccessible attitudes (those that are quickly brought to

mind) are more strongly related to behavior than atti-tudes that take longer to bring to mind.

The concept of accessibility has also been applied toother judgments people make in their everyday lives.Stereotypes of minority groups, for example, can varyin their accessibility. Priming, or presenting stereotype-related information to make the stereotype more acces-sible in the short term, has been shown to increase thereliance on stereotypes in making judgments of mem-bers of minority groups. Similarly, information that isrelevant to a person’s self-concept, or that is relevant tothe attainment of a goal, tends to be accessible. Theaccessibility of self-relevant and goal-related informa-tion makes that information more likely to be relied onin making judgments.

A classic investigation of the accessibility of socialstereotypes was conducted by Tory Higgins and hiscolleagues in 1977. They conducted an experiment inwhich they made trait categories accessible by havingresearch participants remember them during an unre-lated perceptual task. Afterward, participants read anambiguous description of a stimulus person. The acti-vated trait categories influenced participants’ ratingsand descriptions of the stimulus person. This studydemonstrated that trait categories that are made acces-sible through priming are important in the interpreta-tion of social information.

Mechanism

To understand how accessible concepts affect judg-ments, it is important to understand how concepts likeattitudes and stereotypes are represented in memory.Concepts are thought to reside in a semantic network in memory. The mental representation of an object or

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concept is stored as a node in this network. The networkis organized such that related concepts or nodes arelinked through associative pathways. These associa-tions, or links, vary in their strength: A strong associa-tion is created if a concept is frequently activated withanother concept. Strong associations exist among mem-bers of categories and the concept of the category.Category members that are highly typical of the cate-gory are more strongly associated with the category thanless typical members. For example, a robin will have astronger link to the category label “bird” than will anostrich. It is efficient to be able to quickly categorizeobjects that one encounters in the world: It enablesquick decisions about whether or not to approach anovel object. Social stimuli appear to be representedsimilarly, and the categories people use to understandother people are called stereotypes.

Attitudes are similarly represented in semantic net-works. An attitude object is represented as a node inthe network. The evaluation of this attitude object isalso represented in the network. The strength of theassociation between the object and the evaluation of it will determine the accessibility of the attitude. Forhighly accessible attitudes, there is a strong associationbetween the attitude object and its evaluation. That is,when the node for the attitude object is activated, thestrength of the association ensures that the node con-taining the evaluation of the object is also activated. Inthis way, judgments can be made rapidly and withoutextensive reflection. In contrast, for attitudes that arenot accessible, the associations between the object andthe evaluation of that object are not as strong. In thiscase, the activation of the object does not spontaneouslyactivate the evaluation of the object. Consequently, itmay take more time to activate the judgment.

Having accessible attitudes toward objects in ourworld is efficient. Accessible attitudes allow us todecide quickly what to approach or avoid without hav-ing to consider each object’s attributes and whetherwe consider each attribute desirable or undesirable.Therefore, accessible attitudes serve a knowledge func-tion, or as a frame of reference for how we interpretand understand our world, and often determine whatwe attend to, how we perceive objects and situations,and how we act.

Implications

Our use of categories to organize our understanding ofsocial stimuli relies strongly on the accessibility of thecategories we have in memory. Recent research in the

use of stereotypes has shown that accessible constructsare used extensively in categorizing novel social stim-uli. That is, we rely on the stereotypes that are accessi-ble to us in deciding how to categorize, think about, andreact to new people we meet. Importantly, the use ofstereotypes to categorize individuals can be overcome:Work on dual process models of social cognition hasdemonstrated that the stereotypic judgment, whichrelies on accessible categories, is a heuristic judgmentthat occurs spontaneously. With sufficient motivationand time to think about it, this immediate judgment canbe modified by a more effortful process or by encour-aging individuals to bring to mind a counterstereotypicexample.

An important implication of accessible attitudes isthat they serve to maintain behavior based on thosejudgments. Accessible attitudes tend to be strongerthan less accessible attitudes: People who hold acces-sible attitudes are likely to have thought carefullyabout the reasons supporting those attitudes. Accessibleattitudes are also more resistant to persuasion than lessaccessible attitudes, probably because of this greaterawareness of the reasons for holding the attitude. Fur-thermore, people with accessible attitudes have alsoprobably thought somewhat about the types of argu-ments that might be used to persuade them to changetheir attitude and thus are prepared to counterargueefforts to change their minds. Finally, accessible atti-tudes are more predictive of behavior than less acces-sible attitudes. Because these attitudes are thoughtabout frequently, they easily come to mind in the pres-ence of the attitude object and thus are more likely toguide behavior.

Accessible attitudes provide unique challenges topeople concerned with persuasion, such as health pro-fessionals seeking to change unhealthy behavior. Forexample, cigarette smokers have been found to havehighly accessible prosmoking attitudes, and these atti-tudes serve to maintain their smoking behavior: Themore people smoke, the more frequently they thinkabout their reasons for smoking, and the more stronglyentrenched their attitudes and their smoking behav-ior become. Because accessible attitudes can bias theinterpretation of persuasive information, these smokersmay become more resistant to the idea of quittingsmoking. To change such attitudes, it may be useful tofind components of the attitude that are less accessibleand less central to the arguments to continue smoking.For example, change may be possible by persuadingsmokers to support laws to limit the access of minorsto cigarettes.

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In contrast, there may be times when an accessibleattitude is desirable, such as an antismoking attitudeor an attitude that is favorable toward healthy eating.Attitudes can be made more accessible by repeatedexpression. That is, someone who reports his or herattitude more times will have a more accessible atti-tude. Therefore, strengthening positive attitudes towardhealthy behaviors may occur in settings in whichpeople are given repeated opportunities to judge theattitude object or behavior. Interventions that engageat-risk groups in discussions of healthy behaviors andallow them to express positive attitudes toward thosebehaviors may be effective in fostering the desirablebehaviors.

Nancy Rhodes

See also Associative Networks; Attitudes; Person Perception;Priming; Social Cognition; Stereotypes and Stereotyping

Further Readings

Blair, I. V., Ma, J., & Lenton, A. (2001). Imaginingstereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypesthrough mental imagery. Journal of Personality andSocial Psychology, 81, 828–841.

Fazio, R. H. (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluationassociations: Determinants, consequences, and correlatesof attitude accessibility. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick(Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences(pp. 247–292). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2005). Accessibilityeffects on implicit social cognition: The role ofknowledge activation and retrieval experiences. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 89, 672–685.

Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility,applicability and salience. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook ofbasic principles (pp. 133–168). New York: Guilford Press.

ACCOUNTABILITY

Definition

Accountability is the condition of having to answer,explain, or justify one’s actions or beliefs to another. It often includes the possibility that you will be heldresponsible and punished if your acts cannot be justi-fied, or rewarded if your actions are justified. Account-ability is a composite of numerous factors: being held

responsible for one’s actions, presence of another, beingidentifiable as an actor, evaluation by an audience, andproviding validation for one’s behavior.

History and Modern Usage

The most salient component of accountability, the ideathat we are responsible for our actions, is central to along-standing debate among philosophers and psycholo-gists: that of determinism versus free will. Determinismsuggests that people act based on cause-and-effect rela-tionships and therefore could not have acted any differ-ently than what they actually did, whereas theories offree will suggest that people act of their own volition.Proponents of free will admit that genetics and envi-ronment influence decisions; nevertheless, decisionsultimately depend on individual choice. The distinc-tion between the two perspectives lies in the degree ofaccountability to which people are held. Determinismdoes not give people the power of choice and thereforedenies accountability. Supporters of free will, however,hold people accountable for their behavior in thatpeople ultimately have some choice in what they do.

Many current psychological perspectives follow adeterministic line of thinking. Behavioral psychologyexplains all of human behavior as a response to expectedconsequences of environmental stimuli. Neuroscienceexamines human behavior from the perspective of brainactivity and neurotransmitters. Cognitive psychologistsliken the mind to a complex processor of informationthat receives input, processes that input in a system-atic manner, and spits out behavior. Even social psy-chology focuses mainly on deterministic perspectives,rooting the cause of behavior in situational determi-nants. This focus on deterministic perspectives maybe due to the cause and eff