RussiaRussiaPolitical and Economic Political and Economic

ChangeChange

Sovereignty, Authority, and PowerSovereignty, Authority, and Power Historically based in strong Historically based in strong

autocratic rule under tsarsautocratic rule under tsars 2020thth Century – based in Marxist- Century – based in Marxist-

Leninist ideology of democratic Leninist ideology of democratic centralism, rule of the few to benefit centralism, rule of the few to benefit the manythe many

Stalinism pushed it to totalitarianism, Stalinism pushed it to totalitarianism, complete invasive rule by dictatorscomplete invasive rule by dictators

Sovereignty, Authority, and PowerSovereignty, Authority, and Power Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev

loosened Communist rule, leading to the loosened Communist rule, leading to the collapse of the U.S.S.R.collapse of the U.S.S.R.

Constitution of 1993 – reformed Russia as Constitution of 1993 – reformed Russia as a presidential republica presidential republic• Approved by referendum of Russian voters to Approved by referendum of Russian voters to

build legitimacybuild legitimacy• Attempted coups and conflict between Attempted coups and conflict between

president and Duma suggested weaknesspresident and Duma suggested weakness• Elections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly, Elections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly,

suggesting successsuggesting success

Historical Influences on Political Historical Influences on Political TraditionsTraditions

Common Themes of Russian History:Common Themes of Russian History:• Absolute, Centralized Rule – Geography Absolute, Centralized Rule – Geography

was subject to easy invasion and was subject to easy invasion and conquest, leading to unchallenged, conquest, leading to unchallenged, powerful leadershippowerful leadership

• Extensive Cultural Diversity – numerous Extensive Cultural Diversity – numerous invasions plus expansion of borders invasions plus expansion of borders created a diverse populationcreated a diverse population

Historical Influences on Political Historical Influences on Political TraditionsTraditions

Common Themes of Russian History:Common Themes of Russian History:• Slavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic Slavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic

customs and resistance to outside influence customs and resistance to outside influence conflicts with modernizing influences from the conflicts with modernizing influences from the westwest

Tsar Peter the Great in late 17Tsar Peter the Great in late 17thth to early 18 to early 18thth century century modeled Russian Empire on Westmodeled Russian Empire on West

• Revolutions of the 20Revolutions of the 20thth Century Century Seize of power by Bolsheviks in 1917, keeping Seize of power by Bolsheviks in 1917, keeping

authoritarian style of rule, but changed social class authoritarian style of rule, but changed social class systemsystem

Dissolution of U.S.S.R. in 1991 Dissolution of U.S.S.R. in 1991

Political CulturePolitical Culture InfluencesInfluences

• GeographyGeography Largest territory in the worldLargest territory in the world Includes many nationalities and ethnicities, Includes many nationalities and ethnicities,

borders many othersborders many others One of the coldest in the worldOne of the coldest in the world Few warm water ports, often motivated to Few warm water ports, often motivated to

conquer countries that blocked access to the conquer countries that blocked access to the seasea

Many natural resources were locked in Many natural resources were locked in Siberia, but are now accessible due to Siberia, but are now accessible due to technological improvementtechnological improvement

Political CulturePolitical Culture

InfluencesInfluences• Eastern OrthodoxyEastern Orthodoxy

Russia developed economic ties with Russia developed economic ties with Constantinople, not the West, in early Constantinople, not the West, in early centuriescenturies

Not a part of Western Europe’s Reformation Not a part of Western Europe’s Reformation and Enlightenment traditionsand Enlightenment traditions

Instead, valued Instead, valued statismstatism, a strong state to , a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilitiesprotect them from geographic vulnerabilities

Political CulturePolitical Culture InfluencesInfluences

• Equality of ResultEquality of Result Russians tend to resent the wealthyRussians tend to resent the wealthy

• Skepticism About PowerSkepticism About Power Despite Despite statismstatism, Russians have little faith in , Russians have little faith in

public officials’ competencepublic officials’ competence• Exception: Putin, 70-80% approval rating (2004); Exception: Putin, 70-80% approval rating (2004);

65% (2012)65% (2012)

• Importance of NationalityImportance of Nationality Lots of stereotypes about Russians, Baltic Lots of stereotypes about Russians, Baltic

people, Muslim-Turks, Jewspeople, Muslim-Turks, Jews

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Attempts at liberalization have historically Attempts at liberalization have historically

resulted in disasterresulted in disaster• Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local

assemblies, gets assassinated by assemblies, gets assassinated by revolutionaries (1881)revolutionaries (1881)

• 1919thth century tsars who used capitalist means to century tsars who used capitalist means to industrialize failedindustrialize failed

• Gorbachev’s Gorbachev’s glasnostglasnost and and perestroikaperestroika ended in ended in widespread criticism of government, a military widespread criticism of government, a military coup, and the collapse of the U.S.S.R.coup, and the collapse of the U.S.S.R.

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Three major periodsThree major periods

• Tsarist Rule (13Tsarist Rule (13thth Century – 1917) Century – 1917) Mongol rulers established cooperative tsars over Mongol rulers established cooperative tsars over

Russia, later lost influenceRussia, later lost influence Tsar Peter the Great (late 17Tsar Peter the Great (late 17thth – early 18 – early 18thth century) century)

introduced Western technology and cultureintroduced Western technology and culture Catherine the Great – ruled as an “enlightened Catherine the Great – ruled as an “enlightened

despot”, authoritarian but for public gooddespot”, authoritarian but for public good 1919thth Century – Decembrist Revolt (1825), loss in the Century – Decembrist Revolt (1825), loss in the

Crimean War delegitimized tsars, who resorted to Crimean War delegitimized tsars, who resorted to secret police and executions to stay in powersecret police and executions to stay in power

Assassination of Alexander II led his son to undo all Assassination of Alexander II led his son to undo all democratic reformsdemocratic reforms

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change• Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin

Loss in Russo-Japanese War (1905) further Loss in Russo-Japanese War (1905) further weakened the stateweakened the state

Nicholas II was a weak rulerNicholas II was a weak ruler State collapsed in Feb. 1917 due to World State collapsed in Feb. 1917 due to World

War IWar I• Soldiers often fought with no guns or shoesSoldiers often fought with no guns or shoes• Massive defections ended any sense of legitimacyMassive defections ended any sense of legitimacy

Marxist exile Lenin returned to take powerMarxist exile Lenin returned to take power• Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done”Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done”• Followers became known as BolsheviksFollowers became known as Bolsheviks• Formally seize control Oct. 1917Formally seize control Oct. 1917

Nicholas II

Vladimir Lenin

Joseph Stalin

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change 1918 Civil War1918 Civil War

• Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army (funded by Allied Powers)(funded by Allied Powers)

• Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R.private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R.

Death of Lenin in 1924, ensuing power Death of Lenin in 1924, ensuing power strugglestruggle

Stalin placed Communists at the center of Stalin placed Communists at the center of controlcontrol

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Stalinism Stalinism

• Elite recruitment through Elite recruitment through nomenklaturanomenklatura, , recommendation of high level party recommendation of high level party members to promote low level party members to promote low level party membersmembers

• Collectivization – no more private land Collectivization – no more private land ownership, state run “collective farms”ownership, state run “collective farms”

Peasants who resisted (kulaks) were Peasants who resisted (kulaks) were sent to cities or labor camps, or sent to cities or labor camps, or executedexecuted

• Industrialization – Five Year Plans set Industrialization – Five Year Plans set ambitious production goals in oil, steel, ambitious production goals in oil, steel, electricityelectricity

Plans carried out by Gosplan, the Plans carried out by Gosplan, the Central State Planning CommissionCentral State Planning Commission

Communist Party of the Soviet Union(7% of population)

Central Committee(300ish members)

Politburo(12 members

GeneralSecretary

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change• Stalinism Stalinism

• Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up to a million party members who were “disloyal”to a million party members who were “disloyal”

• ReformReform Nikita Khrushchev wins power struggle in Nikita Khrushchev wins power struggle in

1953 after death of Stalin1953 after death of Stalin• Denounces purgesDenounces purges• De-Stalinization – loosened government control of De-Stalinization – loosened government control of

press, decentralized economic decision makingpress, decentralized economic decision making• Relaxed Cold War tension Relaxed Cold War tension • Failure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in Failure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in

replacement by conservative Brezhnevreplacement by conservative Brezhnev

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change• ReformReform

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991)Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991)• Westernizer attempting to save USSR from Westernizer attempting to save USSR from

collapsecollapse Glasnost – “openness,” allowed political Glasnost – “openness,” allowed political

discussion and criticismdiscussion and criticism Democratization – created a directly Democratization – created a directly

elected Congress of People’s Deputies, elected Congress of People’s Deputies, and a President selected by Congress, and a President selected by Congress, later electedlater elected

Perestroika – transfer of state economic Perestroika – transfer of state economic powers to the market, like authorization powers to the market, like authorization of privately owned companies, penalties of privately owned companies, penalties for under-performing state businessesfor under-performing state businesses

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Collapse of the USSRCollapse of the USSR

• Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991 Coup to remove Gorbachev in August led by Coup to remove Gorbachev in August led by

conservatives, vice-president, head of KGB, top conservatives, vice-president, head of KGB, top military brassmilitary brass

Ended by popular protest, defection of soldiersEnded by popular protest, defection of soldiers Protesters led by Boris Yeltsin, recently elected Protesters led by Boris Yeltsin, recently elected

President of RussiaPresident of Russia• Had been removed from Politburo due to extreme Had been removed from Politburo due to extreme

views, but won popular electionviews, but won popular election

• 11 republics declared independence after the 11 republics declared independence after the coup, leading Gorbachev to announce the end coup, leading Gorbachev to announce the end of the U.S.S.R.of the U.S.S.R.

• Yeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid Yeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid conversion to market economyconversion to market economy

Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Modern RussiaModern Russia

• Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999 Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999 Perpetual economic decline in the 1990’sPerpetual economic decline in the 1990’s ““Loans for Shares” scandalLoans for Shares” scandal Inability to work with DumaInability to work with Duma Numerous diseases, including alcoholismNumerous diseases, including alcoholism Rapid hiring and firing of Prime MinistersRapid hiring and firing of Prime Ministers

• Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins reelection in 2000 and 2004reelection in 2000 and 2004

Stability in the political and economic systemStability in the political and economic system Retreat from democratic commitments of YeltsinRetreat from democratic commitments of Yeltsin

Dmitry Medvedev

Vladimir Putin

Boris Yeltsin

Mikhail Gorbachev

Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State CleavagesCleavages

• NationalityNationality 80% Russian, but many Tartars, Ukrainians, 80% Russian, but many Tartars, Ukrainians,

Armenians, etc.Armenians, etc. Most well-integrated, but slightly autonomousMost well-integrated, but slightly autonomous

• Exception: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting Exception: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting for independencefor independence

• ReligionReligion Tsarist Russia was Eastern OrthodoxTsarist Russia was Eastern Orthodox U.S.S.R. responded by banning all religionU.S.S.R. responded by banning all religion Yeltsin encouraged Orthodoxy againYeltsin encouraged Orthodoxy again Most Russians say they are Orthodox, but rarely Most Russians say they are Orthodox, but rarely

attend servicesattend services

Religious/Ethnic Affiliation in Religious/Ethnic Affiliation in RussiaRussia

ReligionReligion• Russian Orthodox – Russian Orthodox –

15-20%15-20%• Muslim – 10-15%Muslim – 10-15%• Other Christian – Other Christian –

2%2%• Non-practicing or Non-practicing or

non-religious is non-religious is largest segmentlargest segment

EthnicityEthnicity• Russian – 79.8%Russian – 79.8%• Tartar – 3.8%Tartar – 3.8%• Ukrainian – 2%Ukrainian – 2%• Chuvash – 1.1%Chuvash – 1.1%• Other – 12.1%Other – 12.1%

Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State CleavagesCleavages

• Social ClassSocial Class Tsarist Russian nobles/peasant class systemTsarist Russian nobles/peasant class system CPSU membership and nomenklatura CPSU membership and nomenklatura

replaced nobility as a status symbol, though replaced nobility as a status symbol, though egalitarian and blind to social backgroundegalitarian and blind to social background

Now appears that market economy and Now appears that market economy and entrepreneurship is becoming the basis of entrepreneurship is becoming the basis of social class divisionssocial class divisions

• Oligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be Oligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be “pulling the strings” of the government, and “pulling the strings” of the government, and benefiting from preferential treatmentbenefiting from preferential treatment

• Urban (73%) vs. Rural Urban (73%) vs. Rural

Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State Beliefs and AttitudesBeliefs and Attitudes

• Mistrust of the government Mistrust of the government • StatismStatism• Economic beliefs – right/left divisions Economic beliefs – right/left divisions

formed since Yeltsin’s reformsformed since Yeltsin’s reforms Conservatives are those who support “the Conservatives are those who support “the

good old days” of Soviet Communismgood old days” of Soviet Communism

• Westernization – slavophile vs. Westernization – slavophile vs. westernizer still characterizes political westernizer still characterizes political divisionsdivisions

Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State Political ParticipationPolitical Participation

• Elections – voter turnout around 65-70% Elections – voter turnout around 65-70% typically for presidenttypically for president

• Civil SocietyCivil Society Undeveloped private organizations (people don’t Undeveloped private organizations (people don’t

attend church, join recreational clubs, labor unions, attend church, join recreational clubs, labor unions, etc.)etc.)

Soviet system was state corporatism, party controlled Soviet system was state corporatism, party controlled all “private” groupsall “private” groups

Government still places tight restrictions on activities Government still places tight restrictions on activities of groups critical of the governmentof groups critical of the government

• Youth Groups – created by Putin to support the Youth Groups – created by Putin to support the governmentgovernment

InstitutionsInstitutions Federal SystemFederal System

• 83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian 83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian majority called “republics”majority called “republics”

• Asymmetric federalism – not all regions are Asymmetric federalism – not all regions are equally sovereign, some are more powerful equally sovereign, some are more powerful than othersthan others

• Putin’s changes (since 2000)Putin’s changes (since 2000) Super-Districts – 7 federal districts with head Super-Districts – 7 federal districts with head

appointed by president to “oversee” local authoritiesappointed by president to “oversee” local authorities Power for president to remove a governorPower for president to remove a governor Ended election of governors, now appointedEnded election of governors, now appointed Federation Council was comprised of the governors, Federation Council was comprised of the governors,

now that isn’t allowednow that isn’t allowed

Colored regions on this map are “republics,” each with relatively smaller Russian ethnic compositions, and with more autonomy

from the federation than other Russian regions

Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions Political Parties – based on personalities, Political Parties – based on personalities,

not ideology, and loyalty is weaknot ideology, and loyalty is weak• United Russia – party of power, built by United Russia – party of power, built by

oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000• CPRF – not really “communist,” but not CPRF – not really “communist,” but not

reformist eitherreformist either• Yabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist, Yabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist,

support democratization and marketizationsupport democratization and marketization• Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic, Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic,

CRAZY!!CRAZY!!

Actual things Zhirinovsky (Liberal Actual things Zhirinovsky (Liberal Democrats) has said:Democrats) has said:

““Jews are often to blame for Anti-Semitism”Jews are often to blame for Anti-Semitism” Visited the U.S., said that whites were “in danger of turning their Visited the U.S., said that whites were “in danger of turning their

country over to blacks and Hispanics.”country over to blacks and Hispanics.” "Condoleezza Rice needs a company of soldiers [and] needs to be "Condoleezza Rice needs a company of soldiers [and] needs to be

taken to barracks where she would be satisfied." taken to barracks where she would be satisfied." Advocated use of tactical nukes on Chechnyan villagesAdvocated use of tactical nukes on Chechnyan villages Threatened to nuke Japan in the event of another Russo-Japanese Threatened to nuke Japan in the event of another Russo-Japanese

WarWar claimed Russia possesses "Elipton," a weapon of mass destruction claimed Russia possesses "Elipton," a weapon of mass destruction

supposedly more powerful than nuclear weapons supposedly more powerful than nuclear weapons To eradicate bird flu, he proposed arming all of Russia's population To eradicate bird flu, he proposed arming all of Russia's population

and ordering them and the troops to shoot down the migrant birds and ordering them and the troops to shoot down the migrant birds returning to Russia from wintering returning to Russia from wintering

accused Great Britain (according to him, "the most barbaric accused Great Britain (according to him, "the most barbaric country on the planet") of fomenting World War I, the October country on the planet") of fomenting World War I, the October Revolution, World War II, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Revolution, World War II, and the collapse of the Soviet Union

Got in a “juice fight” during a debate in 1995.Got in a “juice fight” during a debate in 1995.

Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions ElectionsElections

• ReferendumReferendum used for Constitution of 1993used for Constitution of 1993 regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that

declared it an “inseparable part” of Russiadeclared it an “inseparable part” of Russia

• DumaDuma 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5%

thresholdthreshold Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7%

thresholdthreshold

2003 Results, prior to Putin’s changes

2007, after changes to the system

2003 20072003 2007

2011 Election Results2011 Election Results

Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions ElectionsElections

• ReferendumReferendum used for Constitution of 1993used for Constitution of 1993 regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared

it an “inseparable part” of Russiait an “inseparable part” of Russia

• DumaDuma 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% thresholdChanged by Putin to fully PR with a 7% threshold

• PresidentialPresidential 2-ballot majority2-ballot majority Questionable in fairness and competitiveness (Putin Questionable in fairness and competitiveness (Putin

won 71% in 2004)won 71% in 2004)

Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions Interest GroupsInterest Groups

• Formerly only allowed by CPSU under state Formerly only allowed by CPSU under state corporatismcorporatism

• Putin has returned to a similar systemPutin has returned to a similar system OligarchsOligarchs

• 1991 move to market system allowed many 1991 move to market system allowed many insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state-insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state-owned industries for almost nothingowned industries for almost nothing

• Controlled early political processes, propped up Controlled early political processes, propped up Yeltsin and later PutinYeltsin and later Putin

Ex. Berezovsky used his TV networks to help both, later Ex. Berezovsky used his TV networks to help both, later worked with other oligarchs to create Unity Partyworked with other oligarchs to create Unity Party

• Putin now solidifying control and loyalty from Putin now solidifying control and loyalty from oligarchsoligarchs

Arrest of Khodorkovsky who financed oppositionArrest of Khodorkovsky who financed opposition Arrest and seize of Gusinsky’s TV companyArrest and seize of Gusinsky’s TV company

Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions Russian Mafia – gained power in chaos of Russian Mafia – gained power in chaos of

1991, control local businesses1991, control local businesses Russian Media – privately owned, Russian Media – privately owned,

effectively state controlledeffectively state controlled• Critical journalists often get killed mysteriouslyCritical journalists often get killed mysteriously• Journalists Union was evicted to give the Journalists Union was evicted to give the

building to Russia Today channel, state owned building to Russia Today channel, state owned to promote Russia’s image abroadto promote Russia’s image abroad

State InstitutionsState Institutions President and Prime MinisterPresident and Prime Minister

• Semi-Presidential systemSemi-Presidential system• President – head of statePresident – head of state

Directly elected by votersDirectly elected by voters Appoints prime minister and cabinetAppoints prime minister and cabinet

• appointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is appointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is dissolved if they reject the choice 3 timesdissolved if they reject the choice 3 times

Can issue decrees that have the force of lawCan issue decrees that have the force of law Can dissolve the Duma and call for new electionsCan dissolve the Duma and call for new elections

• Prime Minister – head of governmentPrime Minister – head of government not majority party leader, usually a career bureaucrat not majority party leader, usually a career bureaucrat

loyal to the Presidentloyal to the President Becomes president if president dies or resignsBecomes president if president dies or resigns Putin attempted to transfer control of military and Putin attempted to transfer control of military and

FSB to Prime Minister before becoming PMFSB to Prime Minister before becoming PM

Popular images of President/P.M./President Popular images of President/P.M./President PutinPutin

2121stst Century Succession Century Succession

Prime Minister 1999-Prime Minister 1999-20002000

Russian President Russian President 2000-20082000-2008

Appointed Prime Appointed Prime Minister 2008-2012Minister 2008-2012

Russian President Russian President 2012 – 2024?2012 – 2024?

Putin’s Presidential Putin’s Presidential campaign manager campaign manager 20002000

Appointed First Appointed First Deputy Prime Minister Deputy Prime Minister 20052005

Russian President Russian President 2008-20122008-2012

Appointed Prime Appointed Prime Minister 2012Minister 2012

Vladimir Putin Dmitry Medvedev

Russian Constitution restricts holding Russian Constitution restricts holding the office of President to two the office of President to two successive terms.successive terms.

Starting in 2012, each term will be 6 Starting in 2012, each term will be 6 years long (extended from 4 years).years long (extended from 4 years).

There is no limitation on how many There is no limitation on how many times one can be elected President.times one can be elected President.

State InstitutionsState Institutions Bicameral Legislature, Federal AssemblyBicameral Legislature, Federal Assembly

• Lower House, the State DumaLower House, the State Duma 450 Deputies, elected by PR450 Deputies, elected by PR Passes bills, approves budget, confirms presidential Passes bills, approves budget, confirms presidential

appointmentsappointments Powers are limited due to president’s ability to pass Powers are limited due to president’s ability to pass

law through decreelaw through decree Process of impeachment and rejecting appointments Process of impeachment and rejecting appointments

are effectively uselessare effectively useless

• Upper House, Federation CouncilUpper House, Federation Council 2 members from each of 84 regions, 168 members2 members from each of 84 regions, 168 members

• One elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by One elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by regional governorregional governor

Can only really delay legislation – can be overridden Can only really delay legislation – can be overridden by State Dumaby State Duma

State InstitutionsState Institutions The JudiciaryThe Judiciary

• Constitutional CourtConstitutional Court Attempt by Constitution of 1993 to create Attempt by Constitution of 1993 to create

independent judicial systemindependent judicial system 19 members appointed by president, confirmed by 19 members appointed by president, confirmed by

Federation CouncilFederation Council Supposed to have “judicial review”Supposed to have “judicial review”

• Supreme CourtSupreme Court Final place to appeal civil and criminal casesFinal place to appeal civil and criminal cases

• Problem – most attorneys were trained in the Problem – most attorneys were trained in the old Soviet systemold Soviet system

• Courts don’t tend to challenge governmentCourts don’t tend to challenge government

State InstitutionsState Institutions

The MilitaryThe Military• 4 million members, most in world 4 million members, most in world

(compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 (compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 million)million)

• Source of power of CPSU from 1945 to Source of power of CPSU from 1945 to 1991, but never challenged authority of 1991, but never challenged authority of PolitburoPolitburo

• Showing no signs of becoming a political Showing no signs of becoming a political institutioninstitution