RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION - Nagaland · has been given an opportunity to dwell on the causes and impact...

RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

Government of NagalandDepartment of Planning and Coordination

Nagaland - Kohima 797 001

GOI - UNDP PROJECT

Strengthening of State Plans for Human Development

A ThEmATIC REPORT

2009

Authored by:

Dr. Anungla AierDirector,Women Study CenterNagaland UniversityKohima

Dr. Thungchanbeni KithanLecturer,History & Archaeology CenterNagaland UniversityKohima

Rural - Urban MigrationA Thematic Report

Published byDepartment of Planning and Coordination Government of Nagaland

First Published : 2011

Price : ` 350

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Foreword

Alemtemshi Jamir, IASAdditional Chief Secretary & Development Commissioner Government of Nagaland

Rapid urbanization is the impact of continuous rural-urban migration and its linkages. The dynamics and impact of migration is not country or location specific and its underlying causes are similar across the board. Lack of urban facilities, upward mobility, unemployment and livelihood issues are the main causes for migration. Through the GOI-UNDP project ‘Strengthening of State Plans for human Development’ Nagaland has been given an opportunity to dwell on the causes and impact of rural-migration in the State by enabling documentation of the report ‘Problems of Rural-Urban migration in Nagaland’.

The report draws attention to issues pertaining to facilities, opportunities and livelihood options. The lack of facilities, opportunities and development in the rural areas vis-a-vis the urban areas is significant. And the degree of its impact on low income and vulnerable groups in both rural and urban areas has been highlighted . It also identifies the opportunities and constraints for poverty reduction and development provided by rural-urban linkages. The need for urban rejuvenation and development, customized to local situation and requirements is also outlined.

Dr. Anungla, Director, Women Study Center, Nagaland University and Dr. Thungchanbeni Kithan, Assistant Professor, Department of history and Archeology, Nagaland University under the guidance of Professor manoj Pant, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, have undertaken this exercise to research and finalize the report. This document is a result of their endeavours.

The report recognizes the extent and dimensions of urban poverty in the State and the need for policy change for providing urban amenities in rural areas. Policy makers, developers and service providers could draw insights from the report.

Acknowledgement

iv GOI-UNDP PROJECTStrengthening of State Plans for Human Development - NAGALAND

AcknowledgementThe thematic report ‘Problems of Rural-Urban migration’ is an outcome of the inputs, efforts and support of many people. The project team acknowledges and express gratitude to them. The authors Dr. Anungla Aier, Director, Women Study Center, Nagaland University, Kohima and Dr. Thungchanbeni Kithan, Lecturer, history & Archaeology Center, Nagaland University, Kohima for the research and for documenting the report.

Prof. manoj Pant, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, the lead author for his patience, technical expertise and guidance.

Shri . Alemtemshi Jamir, IAS, Additional Chief Secretary & Development Commissioner and State Coordinator of the project, for conceptual development of the theme and framework, for creating the enabling environment, and for his unflinching support and guidance till the end.

State Empowered Committee headed by Shri. Lalthara, IAS, Chief Secretary, Government of Nagaland and Peer Committee members for providing direction and for their valuable suggestions.

Shri. I. himato Zhimomi, Commissioner & Secretary, Tourism, Art & Culture, ms. Kevilezoü Savino, Freelance Journalist, Shri. Visielie Kezo, Officer on Special Duty, Department of Finance, Government of Nagaland and Shri. Tiatemsu Gyi, Freelance Journalist for editing the report.

The officers of Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Shri. I.Chuba Jamir, Deputy Director, Shri. haisuing haikum, Deputy Director, Shri. Charles N. Kikon, Statistical Officer, Smt. Theyieneinuo Belho, Assistant Director and Ms. Vikeyielienuo Chielie, Statistical Officer for conducting the survey and for generating data.

Ms. Kevimhietuoü Sorhie and Shri. Bendangtoshi, United Nations Volunteers, the officers and staff of the Department of Planning and Coordination, Shri. Anungba Pongen, Assistant Development Commissioner, Smt. Amenla Sashi, Smt. Shikali Wotsa, ms. Khrienguü Thevo, ms. Vikehieno Zhasa for providing the logistic back up and for ceaselessly co-ordinating and working late hours to materialize the report.

Last but not the least we are thankful to the United Nations Development Programme and the Planning Commission, Government of India for the technical and financial support, without which the publication of this report would not have been possible.

Kevileno Angami, IESOfficer on Special Duty & Nodal Officer for SSPHD Planning and Coordination, Government of Nagaland

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PROBLEMS OF RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION - A Thematic Report

Abbreviations

DhDR : District human Development ReporthDR : human Development ReportJNNURm : Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal missionNGO : Non Government OrganizationNSSO : National Sample Survey OfficeNER : North East RegionNABARD : National Bank for Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentNEDFI : North East Development Finance CorporationUFS : Urban Frame Survey

PROBLEMS OF RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION - A Thematic Report vii

Contents Forward iii Acknowledgement iv Abbreviations vii Preface xi Executive Summary xii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Phases of Urbanization 2 1.2. Historical Background 4 1.3. Problem Statement 6 1.4. Highlight on the Paucity of Data 8

Chapter 2 MIGRATION AND GROWTH OF URBAN AREAS 2.1. Population Growth 12 2.2. Migration Trends 13 2.3. Rural – Urban Migration 15 2.4. Migration Factors 17 2.5. Migrants from Outside the State 21 2.6. Migrants from Outside India 25

Chapter 3 INFRASTRUCTURE: PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN THE STATE 3.1. Infrastructural Problems 28 3.2. Road and Transportation 29 3.3. Electricity 31 3.4. Housing 33 3.5. Amenities 36 3.6. Sanitation and Garbage Disposal 38 3.7. Dimensions of Urban Unemployment and Poverty 39 3.7.1. Poor and Unsanitary Living Conditions 40 3.7.2. Unemployment and Low Income 40 3.7.3. Poor Quality of Housing 42 3.7.4. Low Level of Education 42

Chapter 4 SUMMARY AND OBSERVATIONS 4.1. Conclusion 46

Bibliography 54

LIST OF TABLES

Table No.1.1. Demographic Profile of Nagaland. 5Table No.1.2. Population by Total, Rural and Urban Distribution,1991 & 2001 Census of India 6Table No.2.1. The Census Ranking of Towns by Percenrage of Urban Population to the Total Population in 1991 and 2001 13Table No.2.2. Decadal Pattern of Migration Factors 18Table No.2.3. Preference and Opinions of Rural Sample in Three Districts 19Table No.2.4. Ranking of Primary Factors of Migration 20Table No.2.5. Migrants from Outside the State and Reasons for Migration 22Table No.2.6. Population of Foreign Migrants in Nagaland, 1991 Census of India 24Table No.3.1. Outlay/Expenditure on Roads and Bridges 30Table No.3.2. Total and Surfaced Length of Zilla Parishad Roads in Nagaland 30Table No.3.3. State-Wise Energy Consumption in Domestic and Industrial Sector in North Eastern Region 31Table No.3.4. Distribution of Households by Source of Lighting in Nagaland 32Table No.3.5. Number of Villages and Household Electrification in NE States of India 34Table No.3.6. Distribution of Households by Size and Number of Dwelling Rooms 34Table No.3.7. Distribution of Households by Number of Married Couples and Dwelling Rooms 36Table No.3.8. Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water and its Location 37Table No.3.9. Distribution of Households by Availability of Bathroom & Type of Latrine within the House and Type of Drainage Connectivity 38

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Rural-Urban Decadal Migration 16Figure 3.1. Regularity of Power Supply 32Figure 3.2. Ownership of Houses 35Figure 3.3. Primary Sources of Drinking Water 37Figure 3.4. Education Levels Compared to Income Levels 43

Preface

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Preface

Prof. Manoj PantJawaharlal Nehru UniversityLead Author and Coordinator, Thematic Studies

This study on trends in rural-urban migration is particularly beset with the problems of data availability. While some data is gleaned from the Census data, an internal survey of some major towns of Nagaland forms the core source of information.

A look at the trends indicate that the reasons for high rural to urban migration in Nagaland seems to be about the same as any other State of India -lack of job opportunities in rural areas, better educational possibilities, lack of connectivity in rural areas etc. Surprisingly, there is no strong preference for living in the urban areas. hence migration may be forced by circumstances rather than dictated by desire for change in lifestyle. however, for the younger people the lifestyle factor may be critical. Given the high proportion of population aged below 20, increasing urbanization is likely to be the trend in the near future. Finally the best connected towns; Dimapur and Kohima, seem to be the ones where civic facilities like housing, power, water etc. are breaking down under the force of migration. Surprisingly, some amenities like power availability seem to be better in rural areas. The migrants also seem to be mainly in small household enterprises like shops and such establishments. Yet in the urban areas, lack of industrialization implies that only the Government offers scope for jobs in the industrial sector.

The report indicates that it is vital to concentrate on urban regeneration in Nagaland especially as most of the towns are in the hills which naturally have very limited carrying capacity. It may be that the hill towns are unable to avail central funds under schemes like Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal mission (JNNURm) because of the population criteria. maybe this needs to be relaxed for hill areas whose density of population is naturally lower than the plains. Secondly, heavy industrialization is not feasible in hill States and there seems to be a need to create some off farm employment in rural areas.

xi

Executive SummaryThe process of urbanization and rural development, though commonly studied independently, are tacitly recognized to be linked. In Nagaland, the linkage is more than material and commercial, it also involves the cultural and historical linkages making the issue more complex than it appears. It is therefore imperative that the trajectory of development in the State seriously engage the idea of rural-urban continuum.

The trend in rural out-migration indicates that rural stagnation such as lack of economic and social opportunities for self improvement (education and training facilities) and lack of career progression are the main reasons for migration to urban areas. With urbanization and changing employment and economic patterns, migration and mobility such as commuting between rural settlements and urban centers are increasingly becoming more important.

It is imperative that agenda for rural development do away with debilitating conceptualizations such as ‘rural’ being conceived as ‘peasant’; that lack of connection to markets, media or the urban services are detrimental to rural health and incorporate the mobility parameter to seriously engage in bridging the rural-urban gap.

Wholesome funding arrangements should be made for improving the quality of life in the rural areas, such as better connectivity through improved road and transport, telecommunications to facilitate access to media, markets, banking, improved power supply, access to better healthcare and better schools. The optimization of such physical infrastructural requirement will impact on natural growth and improvement of the social infrastructure and economic options for the rural areas. Better understanding of how changing rural-urban interactions, which affect the livelihoods of low income and vulnerable groups in both rural and urban areas is very necessary for effective development planning. It is imperative to develop a frame work to facilitate a dialogue between national and local Government to ensure better integration between national macro economic and sectoral policies and local initiatives; and to support the capacity of local institutions and Government to identify the opportunities and constraints for poverty reduction and development provided by rural-urban linkages.

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Often, and also as indicated by this report, the urban areas bear the brunt of most rural underdevelopment problems. In Nagaland also, urban areas, especially larger towns are the major sufferers. The existing urban infrastructure and services are unable to withstand the growing population pressure. For proper implementation of basic infrastructure development such as roads, water supply, health care facility, education and affordable homes, electricity is a priority area to support the growing urban demands for quality services and products, training of skilled workers and ensure acceptable living standards. With urban centres being the conduit point for any political, economic and market related major transactions, there is need to formulate fresh policy for urban rejuvenation and development. It is important to take cognizance of the extent and dimensions of urban poverty in the State and formulate poverty alleviation strategies customized to local situation and needs.

Necessary dialogue at the national level should address the crucial need of developing the requisite framework to integrate the urban development agenda of smaller hill states like Nagaland within the national urban development policies and avail the necessary funds under special schemes for urban rejuvenation. Such a policy shift will contribute towards generating various opportunities for diverse income generation and employment especially for the younger generation in both the urban as well as the rural periphery.

PROBLEMS OF RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION - A Thematic Report xiii

Introduction

Introduction

1

1.1. PHASES OF URBANIzATION

The first notable attempt at comprehending the urban phenomenon in a systematic manner has been made by Louis Wirth (1938) in his classic essay ‘Urbanism as a Way of Life’. Following his lead, various social scientists have taken up the study of urban phenomenon and the multidimensional processes of change associated with it. According to Wirth, a city or urban area is a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. Urbanization on the other hand is essentially a social process by which urban centres emerge and grow, while urbanism is the condition of life or living that results from this process.

An essential element of urbanism as a condition or way of life consists of heterogeneity and density. It is also not a self sufficient unit, as for some of its primary needs such as food and raw materials for its industries and markets, urban areas are dependent on its surrounding rural areas. The urban society is characterized by dynamism, greater social mobility and openness in relation to the more rigid and closed rural societies. The causative factors of urban growth are multidimensional and the complexity of the nature of urbanism creates conditions that breed poverty, unemployment and various other issues of meeting basic human needs. The very existence of an urban community presupposes the existence of increase in population density resulting in congestion and problems of living space, problems of sanitations and various urban services, diverse economic pursuits, specialization of skills and functions resulting in a system of social and economic hierarchy typical of urban settlements (Srivastava 1989). Another essential element of urbanism is the emergence of formal controls, role of the State in formulation and implementation of regulations pertaining to matters concerning its administration, maintenance of facilities and services.

Though regional and local conditions may vary from State to State, urban living conditions almost everywhere have to deal with certain common problems that arise out of the high concentration of population within limited space. As in other growing towns elsewhere in the country, in Nagaland also, the process of urbanization and the growth of the urban areas have consequential impact on the living conditions of its residents and this is nowhere most palpable than in Kohima and Dimapur, the two urban areas which have also shown a consistent growth of population over the last two decades. In Nagaland, except for Dimapur, all urban areas are located in the hill districts. Whereas, the topography and the geology of the hilly nature of the State

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presents a limitation for the expansion and development of the urban area, the influx of migrants particularly from the rural areas is seen to contribute to the growing urban population adding to the already existing infrastructural congestions and problems of amenities shared.

The main components of urbanization are the shift of an ever increasing labour force from agriculture to the non-agricultural sector, and a change in population distribution from scattered rural areas to more compact towns or cities, often followed by a change of lifestyle (Carter 1975; King and Golledge 1978).

It has also been observed that urbanization process usually takes place in 3 phases: an initial phase, with a low level of urbanization, an acceleration phase, with rapid population concentration in urban areas, and a terminal phase, with slow development or even stagnation of the urbanization process (Northam 1979). In yet another observation, it is stated that urbanization generally takes place on the basis of regional economic development, especially rapid development of industry that is driven by conventional mechanisms. however, some types of urbanization are under Government control, without sound industrial foundation driven by non-conventional mechanisms (Johnston 1984, Castells 1979).

Urbanization essentially involves a transition of labour from traditional industries such as agriculture and other non-mechanized and informal sectors to modern industrial workers, it is a process by which rural population become urban residents. Employment of labourers is therefore a major subject in studies of urbanization (Bromley and Gerry 1979). In the process of urbanization, the transition of labourers from the agricultural to the non-agricultural sector is constrained not only by personal qualities but also by the capacity of non-agricultural industries. It is usually affected to various degrees during different phases of urbanization and by different driving mechanisms, given the differences in development in the non-agricultural sector, especially industrial development.

PROBLEMS OF RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION - A Thematic Report 3

1.2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In Nagaland, the British occupation of the Naga Hills in the late nineteenth century is tentatively accepted as the period of the onset of the process of urbanization. Administrative settlements adjacent to villages gradually expanded as the administrative headquarters and posts of the various Sub-Divisions of the Naga hill District. Records show that Kohima and Wokha were established in 1878, mokokchung in 1888 and Wakching in 1913 as administrative posts. Tuensang was established and occupied only in the post Independence period of 19481. These early urban centres provided a number of pull factors, particularly as market centres. Besides the growth of trade and commerce, the early towns also generated occupations which were urban in character, often determined by the spread of education particularly after the First World War.

It was only in the post independence period, with the introduction of the national policy for tribal development that significant urbanization started in Nagaland. Since the formation of the State in 1963, the small administrative blocks and headquarters have been steadily growing in population, as more and more people migrate from the surrounding villages in search of jobs, education, health care and various other lifestyles that are not available in the villages. Subsequently, the small townships and hamlets have been expanding and growing in complexity to accommodate the growing population. Judging by the number of people living in rural areas constituting 82.3 percent of Nagaland’s population in 2001, as against 90 percent in 1971, the Nagaland human Development Report (hDR 2004, pp.17) noted that such distribution of the rural-urban population is an indication of the migration that is taking place in the State from rural to urban areas. Greater impetus was added after the grant of statehood to Nagaland in 1963. Since then, spread of literacy and the proliferation of new occupations have led to a remarkable increase in the rate of urbanization.



1 Efforts to obtain early Records on the nature and rate of urbanization process in the State was not successful due to the time constraints. Such an attempt will require more time for traveling to the other districts and researching the old official documents if it still exists in readable conditions. Aier, I.L, 2007

Table No.1.1.Demographic Profile of Nagaland

Sl. No. Particulars 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

1 Total Population 369 516 775 1210 1989

2 Decennial Growth of Population (%) -- 39.88 50.05 56.08 64.41

3 Density of Population (per sq. km) 22 31 47 73 120

4 Percentage of Rural Population 94.80 90.00 84.48 82.79 82.26

5 Level of Urbanization (%) 5.20 10.0 15.52 17.21 17.74

6 Growth of Urbanization (%) 16.6 10.4 8.9 5.6 5.4

7 Literacy Rate (%) 20.40 27.40 42.57 61.65 67.11

8 Literacy Rate: male (%) 27.2 35.02 50.1 67.52 71.8

9 Literacy Rate: Female (%) 13.0 18.65 33.9 61.65 61.9

10 Sex Ratio (Females per 1000 males) 933 871 863 886 909

11 Percentage of Workers NA NA 48.23 42.68 42.74

Source: Nagaland Human Development Report, 2004


1.3. PROBLEM STATEMENT

As per the Census of India 2001, Nagaland recorded a total of 3,52,821 urban population as against 16,35,815 rural population. This shows a marginal increase in the percentage of urban population to the total population from 17.21 percent in 1991 to 17.74 percent in 2001. The Census ranking of towns by percentage of urban population to total population also have remained unchanged for Kohima, Dimapur and Wokha which recorded the highest growth rate and also in the case of mon which recorded a decreasing rate. While in the case of the other districts, their rankings have been changed only by a negligible value. Basing on these statistics, the Census report stated that the process of urbanization in Nagaland during the decade 1991-2001 have been almost stagnant2. Notwithstanding this, it is also noted that except for mon, Tuensang and mokokchung all other districts showed an increase in the ratio of urban population to total population.

Nagaland consists of eleven districts - Kohima, Dimapur, mokokchung, Wokha, Tuensang, mon, Kiphire, Longleng, Peren, Phek and Zunheboto. Except Dimapur, which has rail and air connectivity with the rest of the country, all other urban areas are connected only through hill roads. And in the absence of major industries and other corporate houses in the State, it is hardly surprising to find that in all these eleven districts, the administrative headquarters serve as the urban hub and this is where the major urbanization process is taking place. The most notable contributor to the rapid urbanization and increase of urban population density in the State is presumably due to increase of migrant population. A ‘migrant’ here may either be a local person migrated from the rural areas from within the State or an external migrant from without. This is in addition to the ongoing internal growth of the urban population.

Sl.No Total, Rural, Urban 1991 2001

Nagaland

Total 1,209,546 1,988,636

Rural 1,001,325 1,635,815

Urban 208,223 3,52, 821

Table No.1.2. Population by Total, Rural and Urban Distribution,1991 & 2001 Census of India

Source: Statistical Hand Book of Nagaland, 2007 & Census of India 1991,Series 18 Nagaland Primary Census Abstract, Part.II-B



2Census of India 2001; Series 13, Nagaland.

The growing concentration of population in urban centers is generally attributed to a number of socio economic and lifestyle conditions, such as the higher capacity of the urban institutions to absorb more workers, avenues for a non-agricultural means of livelihood and higher income generation opportunities. Other than the employment aspect, people migrate to the urban areas to avail various self enhancing facilities and services such as education, training avenues for vocational skills which are not available in the villages as well as for other family related concerns.

Such rural urban migration and population concentration within a limited urban area exerts strains on the various public services and have apparent negative social ramifications that impair the living conditions of the residents. On the other hand, what happens to the urban landscape when it comes to hold more population than what it is really able to hold? While, growth and development is a positive movement in many respects, in regard to urban living such growth almost always is accompanied by multiple problems and issues associated with the movement of people and materials in larger scale than the landscape can hold. makeshift living arrangements surface overnight. Streets get congested with people and vehicles. Those small strips of open spaces in the urban areas disappear. Pollutions of all types increase and consumption multiplies as population gets doubled. Disposal of wastes becomes an issue drains get clogged, wastes accumulate and probability of epidemic outbreak becomes higher.

Planning for urban infrastructure development encounters problems as it needs to deal with the issues of increasing urban population. however the matter is more complicated in a State like Nagaland where land within even the urban municipal areas are legally owned by the tribal community and within the given community also, the particular village or villages on whose traditional lands the urban centres were established continue to have a hold on infrastructural development of the towns as they own the land.

Despite the apparent importance of understanding the rural urban continuum, so far no systematic studies on the problem have been undertaken. however, rural out-migration from within Nagaland is made all the more easier and the migrants do not find too many difficulties in finding a foothold in the urban areas due to the socio-cultural structures of the Naga communities. Consequently, rural urban migration takes place at a faster pace which contributes to unprecedented growth of urban population. The increase in population further creates interlinking urban conditions which require


proper planning and policy framework to ensure a healthy and secure urban lifestyle. The present thematic report on the ‘Problems of Rural Urban migration in the State’ is therefore primarily an attempt to identify and highlight the key factors with regard to rural out-migration especially from within the State and the subsequent pressure on various urban conditions.

1.4. HIGHLIGHT ON THE PAUCITY OF DATA

One of the major hurdles faced in the preparation of the present thematic report on the problems of rural urban migration in Nagaland was the dearth of data. As stated, one of the main tasks of the present exercise is to identify key factors of rural out migration in the State. In order to determine this, the study began with the working hypothesis that poor living conditions and lack of proper facilities such as quality education, healthcare, avenues for gainful employment and income generation in the rural areas are the main reasons that persuade rural population to migrate to urban areas. however, it was soon realized that rural urban disaggregated data on living conditions and performance of various welfare schemes was not available. The State Statistical Hand Book of Nagaland could provide some population data drawn from the Census of India report, but the specific data on migration factors was not available. The disaggregated data showing the rural urban break up was also very limited.

In view of the paucity of official data, the discussion in this report is based mainly on the Census of India report and the unpublished project report on the study of urban living conditions in four towns, i.e., Kohima, Dimapur, mokokchung and mon carried out by Anthropological Society of Nagaland, a Kohima based NGO.



Migration and Growth of Urban Areas

Migration and Growth of Urban Areas

2

2.1. POPULATION GROWTH

The phenomenon of population movement has been a part of human history since time immemorial. In modern times, migration out of rural to urban areas is accelerating, making internal and international migration potentially one of the most important development and policy issues of the 21st century. In India, the estimated number of migrants, considering all the periods of migration, is 245 million people. This is about 27 percent of the Indian population, the survey estimate of the total population in India being about 921 million. Of the total migrants more than half were in the category ‘rural females’3. Even in smaller States such as in Nagaland, the phenomenon of migration from the rural areas has contributed largely to the rapid growth of urban population. Topographically, the State of Nagaland is largely mountainous which gently slopes downwards to meet the lowlands of the border areas touching Assam. In most other low lying regions, urbanization processes are directly or indirectly linked to industrialization and major economic shift from a rural based economy. Whereas in Nagaland urbanization processes are linked more to political and administrative transformation. As stated earlier, Government administrative headquarters always develop as the nucleus of the urbanizing process drawing the rural population for livelihood options. This section of the report, highlights population growth in the urban areas and rural to urban migration. An attempt is made to understand the dynamics of this process of urbanization in the State.

Nagaland recorded one of the highest decadal population growth in the country with 39.9 percent in 1979 to 64.4 in 2001. The population grew by 5.0 percent per annum during 1971-1981, which increased to 5.6 percent per annum during 1981-1991, which again increased to 6.4 percent per annum during 1991-2001. During the decade 1991-2001, Wokha district registered a maximum growth rate of 95 percent, followed by Tuensang with 78 percent. The district of mokokchung registered the lowest growth rate of 43 percent during the period. The high growth rates over the decades have impacted the percentage of young people who form part of Naga society. Close to 40 percent of the population are below the age of 18. As a result, the dependency ratio has also increased (ShDR, 2004). The ratio of urban population to total population in areas such as mokokchung, mon and Tuensang recorded a decline in the 2001 Census, while the other four major towns of the State i.e., Kohima, Dimapur, Zunheboto and Phek show an increasing ratio. Basing on the growth rate of population, the population ranking of towns in Nagaland also shows notable changes.



3National Sample Survey Report No. 470, Migration in India, 1999-2000

The changing of census ranking of towns based on the percentage of urban population to the total population is indicative of several processes that affect the different towns in different ways, such as rural urban migration, migration of urban population from one town to other towns as well as migration from outside the State which occurs at different rates in different towns. Such variables are further dependent on employment avenues, placements and transfers of employees from one town to another availability of better urban amenities and entrepreneurial opportunities which attracts outside migrants either from the rural areas or other towns within the State and also from outside the State.

2.2. MIGRATION TRENDS

migration is an important factor in changing the size and structure of the population. The migration process affects the areas to which migrants have moved in and areas from which they moved out. The unprecedented growth of population in the State recorded the highest growth rate in the country with 6.4 percent per annum during 1991-2001. Though the natural growth of population is not to be ruled out, the growth of urban population is attributed largely to migrant population as well. here a migrant is defined as one who leaves the village for wage earning employment for at least one month and maintains ties with the village by returning at festivals, agricultural peak seasons etc., at least once a year (Scott Rozelle, et.al, 1999).

Population Rank in 2001Urban Population (%)

Population Rank in 1991Year 2001 Year 1991

1.Dimapur 40.17 37.08 1

2.Kohima 25.10 24.53 2

3.Wokha 23.40 17.40 3

4.Zunheboto 14.72 11.92 5

5.mokokchung 13.73 15.66 4

6. Phek 8.68 08.19 7

7.Tuensang 07.15 09.02 6

8.mon 06.21 07.21 8

Source: Census of India 2001; Series 13, Nagaland

Table No. 2.1.

The Census Ranking of Towns by Percentage of Urban Population to the Total Population in 1991 and 2001


This trend of continuous out-migration is related to conditions in the rural areas which make life there difficult. The conditions include rural poverty manifested in low agricultural incomes and productivity, unemployment and chain migration. The low agricultural productivity has contributed much towards rural poverty.

The migrants in Nagaland may be basically classified into the following categories:

a) Indigenous or local migrants who migrate to nearby towns from their native villages in the State in search of better livelihoods or for other family and personal reasons. Almost always, these migrants settle permanently in the towns though they continue to maintain a close link with their village of origin.

b) migrants from outside the State whose reasons for leaving their native village to come to Nagaland may or may not be exactly the same as the local migrants, but they also come for the same avenues as the indigenous migrants. This category of migrants does not settle in the State permanently and eventually return to their native States.

Considering that migration, either from among the local population within the State or of outside population from other State(s), being the most prevailing factor in the growth of urban population, an evaluation of rural urban migration within the State and migration from outside the State is made here.



2.3. RURAL URBAN MIGRATION

Rural urban migration is one of the most widespread demographic trends, particularly in developing countries. The most influential model of rural urban migration was suggested by Todaro (1969), and further extended by Corden and Findlay (1975). The model takes into account the assumption that migration occurs in response to urban rural differences in expected incomes rather than actual earnings. Todaro suggests that the decision to migrate includes a perception by the potential migrant of an ‘expected’ stream of income which depends on both prevailing urban wages and a subjective estimate of the probability of obtaining employment in the urban modern sector, which is assumed to be based on the urban employment rate. In the Todaro approach, migration rate in excess of the growth of urban job opportunities are not only possible but also rational in the face of expected large positive urban-rural income differentials. high rural urban migration can continue even when high urban unemployment rate exists and are known to the potential migrants. The given conceptualization offers a plausible explanation to a common paradox of increased rural out migration despite rising urban poverty and unemployment.

In India, it is seen that among the migrants in the rural areas, about 90 percent migrated from the rural areas while only about 9 percent were from the urban areas. Among males who migrated to rural areas, about 24 percent were from the urban areas, whereas only 7 percent of the females who migrated to rural areas had their earlier place of residence in urban areas. Among the migrants in urban areas, both for males and females, more had migrated from rural areas than from the urban areas about 59 percent of the migrated males and 58 percent of the migrated females. Out of the four types of migration streams, namely rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural and urban to urban for the different periods of migration it is seen that in the recent years, percentage share of internal migrants decreased for the rural to rural movement while that for each of rural to urban, and urban to urban movements increased (National Sample Survey Report No. 470:pp.27).

People migrate for many reasons, for better jobs and education, or to follow family members who have migrated. In Nagaland, since the formation of the State in 1963, the small administrative blocks and headquarters have been steadily growing in population as more and more people migrate from the surrounding villages in search of jobs, education, health care and various other lifestyles that are not available in


the villages. Subsequently, the small townships and hamlets have been expanding and growing in complexity to accommodate the growing population. Judging by the number of people living in rural areas constituting 82.3 percent of Nagaland’s population in 2001, as against 90 percent in 1971, the Nagaland human Development Report (2004, pp.17) noted that such distribution of the rural urban population is an indication of the migration that is taking place in the State from rural to urban areas.

Despite the implications and the significant policy focus required to deal with related problems of the phenomenon of rural urban migration, there is no official data with regard to the trends of rural urban migration in the State. So far the only available material concerning this is a report of a sample survey (unpublished) of four towns i.e., Kohima, Dimapur, mokokchung and mon conducted in 20034. As seen in this report decadal rural to urban migration has been steadily increasing over the decades5. Among the four urban areas from where the sample was drawn, Kohima as the State capital and Dimapur as the commercial hub of the State appear to have the highest and most sustained pull over the rural population to migrate.

Source: Urbanization & Living Standard in Nagaland, 2003

Figure 2.1.Rural Urban Decadal Migration.

2.0 %

13%

23%

1960-701971-801981-901991-2000BornPrior to 1960

29%

21%

11%

DECADAL MIGRATION



4The study titled ‘Urbanization and Living Standard in Nagaland’, 2003, by the Anthropological Society of Nagaland, an unpublished work.5The decadal migration has been determined by computing entries on ‘place of birth’ and ‘year of migrating to the town’ (if place of birth is in the native village).

2.4. MIGRATION FACTORS

Factors of migration are generally for better livelihood and facilities that urban areas offer its residents. A consideration of the migration trends in terms of the factors for which people decide to relocate themselves to urban areas show that among the local population, need for better or higher education facility and employment opportunity are the two most common factors. Such a generalization is derived based on the unpublished works of Aier, Jamir and Nagi (2003). In this study, data taken from the head of household show that the percentage of people coming to town for the primary reasons of self education shows a decline. here it is mentioned that in the given study, 50 percent of the municipal Wards in Kohima, mon, Dimapur and mokokchung were selected from where random samples of roughly 15 percent of the total households were surveyed. Though a decline of migration to the towns for self education is indicated by the data drawn at random, it is also stated here that the data does not include those who are still in schools or colleges. Also many young people continue to migrate to the towns for the single reason of pursuing their education. many such students either live with families as part time domestic helpers or live in hostels if their parents are able to support them. many young families are migrating to the towns in order to avail better education facilities. As younger parents become more sensitive to the need of quality education for their children, they see migration to the urban areas as a viable option to invest in their children’s future. Such a trend, however, raises a number of issues and concerns, particularly, with regard to the quality of education and the standard of the rural schools.

Scope for diversification of economic activities other than the agricultural works and expectations to find Government jobs continue to draw people to the towns. Some come aspiring to get employment, some come looking for any kind of urban based economic activity. Earnings and standard of living may be unsatisfactory but due to the large ‘expected positive urban rural differential’ people continue to migrate from the rural areas. This is by the sharp increase in the percentage of people coming to the urban areas. The reason for the first rural immigrants to move to the towns was either to get education or a job in the Government. Over the last few decades since the formation of the State, an increasing number of people have also migrated to the towns for the primary purpose of changing their lifestyles. Other than for education, some of the important facilities for which people come to the towns are market facilities, scope for small businesses, wage labour, domestic helpers and various other unspecified occupations that do not require any specific skill.


Considering that the urban growth , in the State is relative to the growth of administrative Government establishments, urban migration from one town to the other or migration from the village to the towns to take up service postings plays a major role in impacting the migration process. A good number of the older respondents (in the age range of 35 to 50+) were not migrants but were born in the towns, their parents were first generation migrants. This indicates that simultaneous with the migration of rural population as well as from outside the State, the internal urban population is also growing as reflected in table No.2.2 which shows 13 percent of the sample being born in the towns. This shows that the urban population pressure is both internal as well as external.

In the aforementioned study, it was also found that after the initial migration from the villages in search of jobs or better education, the families rarely go back to the villages but maintain close social and cultural ties with the village of origin. Over time, the earlier migrants provide a foothold for other family members from the villages to migrate to the towns, thereby initiating what can best be described as a ‘chain migration’ over the years. Since the majority of the migrant population in Nagaland is drawn from the rural areas, the phenomenon of continued out-migration essentially relates to conditions

Table No. 2.2.Decadal Pattern Of Migration Factors (In Percentage)

Factors Up to 1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 After 1990

Self Education 13 18 23 21 8.0

Children’s Education Nil 0.6 2.2 4.0 9.0

Employment 10.8 21 30 32 25

health Nil Nil 0.1 0.1 0.1

Amenities 2.6 6 13 11 14

marriage 0.8 3 1.6 2.3 3.0

Service Posting Nil 6.4 14 25 35

Born* 71 41 Nil 0.3 Nil

Others** 2.2 3.4 4.2 5.3 4

Source: Urbanization & Living Standard in Nagaland, 2003.Note: *Refers to those who had given their place of birth as in the town

** ‘others’ include self employments, business and any unspecified activities/reasons



in the rural areas which make life there increasingly difficult. More than 80 percent of the rural population is dependant on agriculture but the growing population pressure along with low rate of investment in agriculture, inequalities in the distribution of land and other productive assets, institutional mechanisms which discriminates in favour of the owners of wealth (e.g., in provision of credit and Governmental schemes), coupled with natural calamities lead to increasing unemployment and poverty of the rural population. The unemployment and poverty of the rural population are the main causes of migration to the State from other States as well, which is taking place on a large scale. Unemployment pushes migrants towards areas with greater employment opportunities. Generally, given their poor economic background, majority of these migrants are not well educated and qualified for modern urban services. Therefore, a majority of them engage themselves in petty business activities such as vegetable vendors, grocery stores, petty shops like pan shops, hotels and tea stalls etc.

Sl.No District Preference for Opinion Better Quality of Life

Rural Life Urban Life Rural Urban

1 Kohima 1794 228 372 882

2 mon 1099 945 945 1099

3 Phek 372 882 211 1043

4 Total 3265 2055 1885 3435

Source: DHDR Sample Survey 2009

Table No. 2.3. Preference And Opinions Of Rural Sample In Three Districts.


In the District human Development (DhDR) Survey conducted for the report, 15 percent of the villages in 3 districts spread over different Rural Development Blocks were selected while 15 percent of Urban Blocks were selected as per National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), Urban Frame Survey (UFS). In the selected villages in the rural and UFS Block, 50 percent of the households were surveyed and selected questionnaire were canvassed to get a general perspective of the views and opinions of the people with regard to the factors for rural urban migration and preferences. The data generated by the survey revealed that though a great majority feel that the urban areas offer better quality of life, an equal majority prefer to live in the villages and unwilling to live permanently in the urban areas.

Considering the close knit community base of the Naga society where people’s sense of identity and belongingness is intimately linked with the village life, it is not surprising to find this result especially among the more mature population. This data appears to be contrary to the general assumption that given an opportunity, the rural population would migrate to the urban areas in search of better livelihood and quality of life. One of the reasons generally cited, particularly by the older respondent, was that in the villages they live in their own houses but if they move to the urban areas, they will have to live in rented dwellings and worry about taking up new livelihoods as well. This prompts the assumption that the bulk of the rural migrants among the indigenous population of the State belong to the younger population. Such a postulation presupposes that among the local population in rural Nagaland, the urban life styles and the opportunities it creates have more impact on the younger generations. Further, in the ranking of primary factors of rural out-migration it is observed that the two most important primary reasons of migration from the villages to the towns are for availing better education and employment opportunities.

Factors District Rank-1 Rank-2 Rank-3 Rank-4 Rank-5

Better Employment & Income Generation

Kohima 530 29 568 72 13

mon 194 630 43 78 -

Phek 628 475 83 42 26

Better Education facilities

Kohima 1058 5 92 32 11

mon 603 194 122 20 6

Phek 511 608 91 28 16

Better Health Facilities

Kohima 412 320 1154 110 26

mon 145 81 547 163 9

Phek 145 81 547 163 9

Better Entertainment/ Amenities

Kohima 9 5 37 252 1719

mon 2 35 908

Phek 15 24 95 274 846

Better Transportation & Communication Facilities

Kohima 13 29 171 1556 253

mon 3 40 231 649 22

Phek 40 51 272 623 268

Source: DHDR Sample Survey 2009

Table No. 2.4. Ranking of Primary Factors of Migration (District Wise Data)



This is consistent with the earlier assumption that the bulk of rural migrants within the State belong to the younger age groups. Both the variables; employment avenues and education are inter-dependent. Though agriculture still remains the main occupational activity in rural Nagaland, agricultural production is mostly for domestic consumption. Due to the lack of infrastructural facilities such as connectivity, market linkages, facilities for storing and value addition for the agro products, the creation of opportunity for sustained employment and income generation is insufficient. Consequently, for sustained income generation and employment, getting good and higher education becomes a necessity and which the schools in rural areas are unable to provide. The solution comes in the form of out migration to the urban areas better educational and employment opportunities exist. In 3 districts i.e., mon, Phek and Kohima, the ranking in importance of the various factors causing migration were found to the different. The differences in the way people rank factors such as employment, education, health care, amenities, communications, etc. reflect the facilities available in the rural areas of the different districts.

2.5. MIGRANTS FROM OUTSIDE THE STATE migration is an important factor in changing the size and structure of the population. The process also affects the areas to where migrants have moved in and areas from where they have moved out. In Nagaland, on the basis of the data on migration in the 1991 Census, it can be inferred that the reasons of migration including (a) employment (b) education (c) business (d) family moved (e) marriage (g) natural calamities like drought, floods and (h) others have contributed much towards out migration from rural to urban as well as from other States. The influx of population is not only limited to migration from rural to urban areas of the State but also from outside the State. In fact the intensity of migration from outside the State is fairly high. It is interesting to note that the migrant population in Nagaland consist of people from almost all States of the country.


State of Origin Total Male Female

Reasons for Migration

Employment Business Edu. Family Moved Marriage Natural

Calamities Others

Assam 19,176 12,062 7,114 4,572 3,843 327 5,182 2,298 205 2,749

Arunachal Pradesh 157 94 63 47 4 9 60 18 - 19

Andhra Pradesh 145 86 59 44 18 3 46 14 - 20

Bihar 7,249 5,689 1,560 2,288 1,976 89 1,364 398 31 1,103

Goa 7 5 2 1 - - 1 1 - 4

Gujarat 61 30 31 7 9 - 24 5 - 16

Haryana 261 173 88 98 39 1 56 44 - 23

HimachalPradesh 170 95 75 53 6 8 80 12 - 11

Jammu & Kashmir 57 29 28 17 9 2 16 6 3 4

Karnataka 113 64 49 52 9 4 20 4 - 24

Kerala 1,497 1,003 494 902 74 41 272 92 11 105

Madhya Pradesh 118 78 40 34 20 6 33 13 1 11

Maharashtra 131 76 55 40 13 11 42 7 1 17

Manipur 4,569 2,536 2,033 833 287 208 2,148 414 7 672

Meghalaya 475 252 223 147 32 20 137 60 2 77

Mizoram 203 122 81 92 9 13 57 14 - 18

Orissa 687 465 222 264 61 18 168 70 11 95

Punjab 216 122 94 50 53 9 61 30 - 13

Rajasthan 1,566 1,198 368 305 725 35 246 185 2 68

Sikkim 60 45 15 23 9 3 14 4 - 7

Tamil Nadu 368 224 144 196 28 9 89 19 1 26

Tripura 1,003 646 357 228 305 30 965 285 6 235

West Bengal 2,539 1.612 927 751 520 69 590 349 20 240

Andaman Nicobar 7 3 4 2 - - 4 1 - -

Chandigarh 25 11 14 5 4 - 11 2 - 3

Dadar & Nagar Haveli 5 5 - 2 1 2 - - - -

Daman & Diu 1 - 1 - - - - - - 1

Delhi 121 53 68 21 18 1 52 22 - 7

Lakshadweep - - - - - - - - - -

Pondicherry 1 1 - 1 - - - - - -

Table No. 2.5. Migrants from Outside the State and Reasons for Migration

Source: Census of India 1991 Series 18- Nagaland



Besides this inter state population movement, there is also a good number of foreign migrants from other countries outside India, totaling around 4,503. It may be noted here that, as it is in the case of other parts of North East, in recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in the influx of Bangladeshi migrants into Nagaland, particularly in commercial hubs like Dimapur and Kohima. Exact official data is currently not available to determine the bulk of these migrants, commonly known as ‘miyas’ from Bangladesh. Taking into consideration the magnitude of population registered as people from Assam, it is probable that some of the migrants from outside the country, especially from Bangladesh might have officially registered themselves as migrants from neighbouring Assam. Such step may be necessitated in order to avail the Inner Line Permit (ILP), mandatory for all migrants and visitors to the State. Another group of migrants in the State who are not featured in official records, but whose population has visibly expanded in and around commercial centres like Dimapur and Kohima are the Tibetans and Bhutanese. These group of migrants ventured into the State for business in ‘foreign goods’ and have achieved remarkable monopoly in this trade in the State’s commercial hubs. Of the factors responsible for attracting migrant population from outside the State, the census enumeration indicate that the most important reason is for ‘employment’, which remains a common factor for all the migrants, both for those from states within India as well as the foreign migrants.


migrant communities, especially, the marwari community have established themselves into very successful and wealthy business houses and hold monopoly of the trade and commerce in the State. The Tibetan and Bhutanese migrants who are engaged in the highly lucrative ‘foreign goods’ trade are concentrated mostly in Dimapur and hold monopoly over the popular ‘Hongkong Market’. Most of the migrants from Bihar, Assam, Tripura and Bangladesh engage themselves in business ranging from vending vegetable, grocery stores, pan shops), hotels and tea stalls. The migrants also find

Table No. 2.6. Population of Foreign Migrants in Nagaland 1991 Census of India

Source: Census of India 1991 Series 18- Nagaland Note: ** countries from where no migrants were registered are not shown in the table.

Continent Country Total Rural UrbanTotal Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

Countries in Asia beyond

India Including USSR

Afghanistan 32 13 19 31 13 18 1 0 1

Bangladesh 303 180 123 52 29 23 251 151 100

Bhutan 29 20 9 12 9 3 17 11 6

China 4 2 2 0 0 0 4 2 2

Indonesia 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

Japan 7 4 3 7 4 3 0 0 0

Malaysia 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

Maldives 31 31 0 30 30 0 1 1 0

Myanmar 40 24 16 9 6 3 31 18 13

Nepal 4,245 2,823 1,422 2,175 1,405 770 2,070 1,418 652

Countries in Asia beyond

India Including USSR

Pakistan 56 32 24 18 9 9 28 23 15

Saudi Arabia 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0

Singapore 4 3 1 2 2 0 2 1 1

Sri Lanka 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

Turkey 4 3 1 4 1 3 0 0 0

U.A.E 4 1 3 4 1 3 0 0 0

Elsewhere 385 333 52 347 309 38 38 24 24

Countries in Europe Excluding

USSR

France 3 3 0 1 1 0 2 2 0

F.R.G 2 0 2 1` 0 1 1 0 1

Elsewhere 14 10 4 4 3 1 10 7 3

Countries in Africa

Kenya 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

Elsewhere 10 4 6 9 4 5 1 0 1

Elsewhere 15 8 7 8 2 6 7 6 1

Countries in Oceania

Australia 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 0 1

Elsewhere 7 6 1 4 3 1 3 3 0

Unclassified 459 277 182 171 82 89 288 195 93



employment as barbers, cobblers, porters, laborers, cart pullers, rickshaw pullers, drivers and construction workers. majority of the participants in business activities are the migrants from outside the State. Educationally more qualified migrants are drawn into the teaching profession and they are employed as school teachers, especially in the private schools in almost all parts of the State. Most of the qualified migrants are from South India, particularly Kerala which has a total of 1,497 migrants working in the State.

2.6. MIGRANTS FROM OUTSIDE INDIA

The total number of foreign migrants from Asian countries as indicated is 4503. however, the number is expected to be much higher given the fact that many of these migrants do not get registered. Despite these shortcomings, the highest number of large scale migration from other countries outside is from Nepal which stands at 4,245 followed by Bangladesh. Like the other migrants, the Nepalese migrants have also migrated mainly for employment and also on account of following families and relatives. The early Nepalese migrants in Nagaland as well as in other North Eastern States were mostly ex-soldiers. These Nepalese soldiers served under the British army. With the end of the Second World War and their retirement or release from the armed forces they started the process of settling down in compact pockets of various North Eastern States. In Nagaland, they mostly settled in Kohima and mokokchung concentrating in compact areas like Chandmari colony and Faltulane respectively. A sizeable population also settled down in Dimapur. While many of these migrants have been residing in the State for several generations, there have also been more recent Nepalese migrants usually employed as farmhands in dairy farms, vegetable and paddy fields, fishery farms, fruit orchards, poultry and piggery farms owned by locals.

Interestingly, while the migrants from other States within or from outside the country are profitably engaged in various income generating economic activities, the kind of jobs in which they are engaged generally do not hold much attraction for the indigenous population. Consequently, while the number of migrants from outside the State who are gainfully employed is on the rise, there is a corresponding increase in the number of unemployed among the local populace. Thus, uncontrolled rural urban migration and increased migration from outside the State contribute towards creation of various socio-economic and infrastructural problems in the urban areas in the State.


Infrastructure: Problems and Issues in the State

Infrastructure: Problems and Issues in the State

3

3.1. INFRASTRUCTURAL PROBLEMS

Rural urban interactions can be defined as linkages across space and between services. It involves various dimensions of social as well as physical, infrastructural sharing and impact each other in more ways than one. In the following deliberation, an attempt is made to highlight some of the emerging problems in the urban areas of the State.

In many cities and towns, urban services are commonly inadequate to meet even the basic needs of the inhabitants. Population growth and a steady stream of rural migrants only add to the already existing problems. In studies of living standards, household income as the measurable indicator is commonly adopted. however, with this factor alone, it is difficult to measure and draw conclusive statements with regard to the standard of living because the income revealed to the researcher may be exaggerated or suppressed. Further, data on this aspect is not available hence, it is not possible even to make a probable projection of family income of the urban residents in the State. Given such limitations, an attempt is made to evaluate some aspects of urban physical infrastructures and basic amenities in the State.

The carrying capacity of hill towns for urban expansion and growth is arguably lower than the low lands. The urban settlements in Nagaland bear almost similar topographical features in the entire State except for Dimapur, which is in the low lands. All the towns being situated either on a hill top or hill slope face problems of space. Associated with it are issues of infrastructural developments to meet the needs of the growing urban population. Consequent upon the rapid growth of population density in the hill towns, various problems and issues that affect the quality of life in the towns have emerged, some of which are discussed.

Infrastructure is about delivering the essential services that people need to maintain basic standard of living: water supply, sanitation, electricity, roads, transport and telecommunications, health care, education, market and financial institutions. These in turn lead to improvements in health, access to education, economic opportunities and more. Data on the growth rates of infrastructure of North Eastern Region States for the period 1980-1981 to 2002-2003 indicates that Nagaland has a growth rate of 0.137 percent which is higher than the regional growth rate of 0.068 percent and the national growth rate of 0.11 percent6.



6 CSO EPW Research Foundation,2003 ‘Domestic Product of States of India,1960-61 till 2000-2001” Hand Book of Statistics on the Indian Economy, RBI, 2005-2006 and National Income Statistics, CMIE, Oct, 2004

3.2. ROAD AND TRANSPORTATION

A greater part of the total area of Nagaland is hilly and undulating. In such a terrain railways cannot connect all areas cost effectively. Consequently, roads are the major infrastructure for transportation. Considering the importance of this sector, the State has taken up development of roads in a major way and it is indicated that the State expenditure on roads and bridges is exceeding the projected outlay. The types of roads in the State according to the Annual Administrative Report 2009-2010 of Public Works Department (R&B), Government of Nagaland and the National Highway Authority are as follows:

TYPE OF ROADS LENGTh IN KmSNational highways - 690State highways - 974 major District Roads - 856Village Roads - 5419

As the road network expands, the most important issue is maintenance. The gravity of the problem is evident from the worsening conditions of roads in the towns as well as in the villages. most village roads are kuccha dirt roads that can not be traversed during the monsoon. In the urban areas the roads are slightly better, but here too the roads are not properly maintained. The road and roadside drains are used as public dumping grounds for commercial as well as domestic wastes. Problems of road maintenance in urban areas is chiefly due to the failure of the nodal departments and agencies entrusted with the responsibility. This is compounded by the problems of population density. In the rural areas, pertinent issues are that of proper constructions as per the specifications and timely maintenance. Half of the rural and Zilla Parishad or village roads are not surfaced. Unless and until all the roads are made all weather with proper surfacing and maintenance, the full capacity of the road connectivity can not be utilized. These roads are rendered un-motorable during the long rainy season.The increase in urban population increase the number of daily commuters. The width of the existing network of roads within the towns are too narrow and inadequately maintained to accommodate the increased commuters. Data shows that the length of the total surfaced urban roads has increased in the last decade. however, it is still found to be inadequate. This has negatively impacted the conditions of urban commuters with daily experiences of congestions.


Except in the nearby villages surrounding the State capital and some bigger towns, traveling to the villages especially in the interior districts, it is observed that the roads have not been metalled even once and the metalled ones have not been maintained. The villages worst affected are those in whose forest logging for timber takes place. There is possibility of such villages being cut off from the rest of the State during monsoon due to the constant land slides and collapse of the mud roads on account of the frequent plying of the heavy log carrying vehicles.

Table No.3.1. Planned Outlay/Expenditure on Roads and Bridges (2008-2009 & 2009-2010)

States/UTs2008 - 2009 ( ` in Lakh ) 2009 - 2010 ( ` in Lakh )

Outlay Expenditure Outlay Expenditure

Nagaland 5898 5861.23 12002 18305.74

India 755555 627756 806408 658242

Source: Annual Plan 2008-2009, 2009-2010, Government of Nagaland.

(In Kms.)

States/UTs

Total/ Surfaced 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

NagalandT - - 6333 6891 7481 8023

S - - 2522 2599 3115 3340

IndiaT 431047 435716 444572 451574 456666 483137

S 236719 238382 243977 247959 250995 272899

Table No.3.2. Total and Surfaced Length of Zilla Parishad/Village Roads in Nagaland (1995 - 2000)



Source: Basic Road Transport Statistics Of India. 1999-2000, 2000-2001 & 2001-2002, Ministry Of Road Transport And Highways, Government Of India.

3.3. ELECTRICITY

In the power sector, it is interesting to note that though domestic consumption of energy has increased by a large margin from 2000-2001 to 2004-2005, the industrial consumption reduced from 25.72 percent to 3.65 percent during the same period. The census projection of households by source of lighting in rural and urban areas in the State shows that the number of households having electricity as the source of lighting is much less in the urban areas. This is contrary to the general assumption of urban areas as the main consumers of electricity. Yet, it is also important to note that the consumption of power depends not only on being connected to the power grid but more importantly on the regularity of power supply to the consumers. Figure 3.1, shows the rating of regularity of power supply to the consumers in four urban areas of the State. It indicates the gravity of problems of power shortage in the urban areas of the State.

(Figures in Mus)

States/UTsDomestic Industrial

2000-2001 2004-2005 2000-2001 2004-2005

Sikkim 51.62 98.5 17.5 27

Assam 536.58 722.05 700.47 591.01

Manipur 98.22 113.42 11.49 8.04

Meghalaya 152.23 171.58 120.58 490.82

Nagaland 94.8 120.02 25.72 3.65

Tripura 110.86 148.47 44.1 50.17

Arunachal Pradesh 68.5 65 7.36 4.5

Mizoram 97.2 84.72 1.44 1.93

Sub-Total (NER) 1210.01 1523.76 928.66 1177.12

India 75628.95 95659.47 107621.59 137589.25

Source: Ministry Of Power, Government Of India.

Table No. 3.3. State-Wise Energy Consumption in Domestic and Industrial Sector in North Eastern Region


With regard to the electrification of rural areas in the State, the official figures as given in Table No. 3.4, gives a clear indication that half of the rural population is yet to be connected with electricity. Although the State claims to have achieved 95.74 percent electrification of inhabited villages, the percentage of electrified households by year ending 2004 is only 56.88 percent. This means that half of the population continues to live without the benefits of electricity. In many villages though electrification has been done, maintenance of the power lines is a serious problem. Also, the transportation of equipments and movement of heavy vehicles is a constant logistic problem due to bad road conditions7.

In many villages problems occurring with the transformers is found to be widespread. This has been observed during field tours in some villages of Kohima, Phek and mokokchung districts during may-October 2007, as well as in Wokha and Tuensang districts during February-march 2009.

Figure 3.1. Regularity of Power Supply

Source: Urbanization & Living Conditions in Nagaland, 2003

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0

DMP

ALL

NO

OF

RES

PON

DEN

TS

not applicableregularmost irregularirregular regularity

towns

KMA

MKG

MON



Area Total No. of HH Electricity Kerosene Solar

Energy Other Oil Any Other No Lighting

Total 332050 211194 10566 648 511 5485 9146

Rural 265334 150929 99536 495 474 5363 8537

Urban 66716 60225 5530 153 37 122 609

Table No.3.4. Distribution Of Households By Source Of Lighting In Nagaland

Source: Census of India 2001, Nagaland, Series -14, Tables on Houses7http/www.indiastst.com

3.4. HOUSING

Another recurring infrastructural problem associated with urbanization is with regard to housing and related social issues. housing is not just about shelter but involves sufficiency of space as well as scope for socializing and sanitary facilities. Problems of housing and space are on the increase particularly in the more urbanized and populated towns such as Kohima and Dimapur. In the other smaller towns too, the problem of finding decent accommodation has increased. The unsystematic and haphazard extension of house structures without following any regulations, rampant encroachment of Government land has also contributing to the growing congestion. Similar problems of this nature exists in all the towns. In some localities in Kohima, there is hardly any space between two houses with residents using the footpath as a kitchen sink for washing their utensils and as a public laundering place. houses are also built straddling the open drainage systems, which is not only unhygienic but also dangerous for the occupants of the house. It blocks and clogs up the drainage system causing sanitary and health problems for the entire community. Every household requires to have a minimum number of rooms for ensuring a decent level of comfort. The towns being more congested, the problems associated with the aspects of living are more acute than in the villages. Observable parameters such as housing and living space are prerequisites for healthy living. Such parameters at the micro level are directly dependent on the income and family size. however, macro level urban planning and policy essentially determines the development of infrastructure in the urban areas.

The data on the distribution of household size by number of dwelling rooms show that the maximum number of households have a family size ranging from 4 to 8 members who reside in a 2 to 3 room facility. The congestion of housing facilities is also indicated by the total number of married couples living in a single household where they do not have separate sleeping quarters. In the absence of disaggregated data on rural urban differences in terms of housing facilities, it is not possible to determine the extent of housing problems in the urban areas.


States

Total No. of Inhabited Villages

As Per 2001 Census

Total No. of Villages

Electrified As on 31.3.2005

Percentage of Electrified

Villages as on 31.03.2005

Balance Un-Electrified

Villages

Total No. of Rural

Households

Households having

Electricity as on

31.3.2004

Percentage of Electrified Households

as on 31.03.2004

Balance Un electrified

House-holds

Arunachal Pradesh 3863 2335 60.45% 1528 164501 73250 44.53% 91251

Assam 25124 19081 75.95% 6043 4220173 697842 16.54% 3522331

manipur 2315 2043 88.25% 272 296354 155679 52.53% 140675

meghalaya 5782 3016 52.16% 2766 329678 99762 30.26% 229916

mizoram 707 691 97.74% 16 79362 35028 44.14% 44334

Nagaland 1278 1216 95.15% - 265334 150929 56.88% 114405

Sikkim 450 405 90.00% $ 91723 68808 75.02% 22915

Tripura 858 818 95.34% 40 539680 171357 31.75% 368323

India 40377 29605 73.32% 10665 5986805 1452655 24.26% 4534150

Source: Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question No.1089, dated 2.3.2006

Table No. 3.5.Number of Villages and Households Electrification in North-Eastern States of India (As on 31.03.2004 and 31.03.2005)

HH Size Total No. of HH

No Exclusive Rooms

One Room

Two Rooms

Three Rooms

Four Rooms

Five Rooms

Six Rooms

Media No. of Rooms

All hh 332050 10387 74192 112353 79281 35217 11899 8521 2

1 11984 742 6346 3624 937 235 42 56 1

2 21799 736 8818 8669 2549 696 176 155 2

3 28844 823 9137 12280 4796 1251 282 275 2

4 38515 1125 10048 16274 7826 2264 582 396 2

5 44909 1203 9696 17653 11250 3531 709 667 2

6-8 117809 3280 19620 37636 34720 15194 4583 2776 2

9 + 68190 2478 10527 16217 17401 12046 5325 4196 3

Source: Source: Census of India 2001, Nagaland, Series -14, Tables on Houses, Household Amenities and Assets

Table No. 3.6.Distribution of Households by Size and Number of Dwelling Rooms (Nagaland)



Figure 3.2. Ownership of Houses

The question of ‘who owns the house?’ is one of the critical determinants of living conditions. In the absence of any planned housing schemes in the State, urban residents are entirely dependent on individual landlords who charge exorbitant rates. Not owning the dwelling unit in which one resides implies that a good proportion of the income is spent on payment of rentals which affects the purchasing capacity of the households to meet basic needs for food, health care, education and other facilities. In the urban settlements it is usually people of low and irregular income who face the greatest housing problems. Among Government employees, the crunch of insufficient living quarters is felt more acutely by the lower ranks employees as they are less likely to be able to afford reasonably suitable accommodation on rent. In the DhDR sample survey on urban economic livelihood, the status of dwelling units show that out of the total of 2156 households surveyed in three districts, only 959 units were owned, 1148 units were rented, while 49 units were Government accomodation. Another study, (Aier et al, 2003), also indicates that out of the four major towns of Kohima, Dimapur, mokokchung, and mon, the sample from Kohima had the maximum number of rented units as compared to the other towns.

Source: Urbanization & Living Conditions in Nagaland, 2003

LPAGN

yes

NO

ALDMKMMKMO

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0

DMP

ALL

NO

OF

RES

PON

DEN

TS

DISTRICTS

OWNERSHIP OF HOUSEKMA

MKG

MON


3.5. AMENITIES

Basic amenities here refer to the various facilities available to a particular household or community that reflects the quality of life. In an urban setting, amenities such as water supply, electricity, sanitation, etc. are determined largely by the macro level planning and policy of the State to meet the infrastructural requirements of the urban areas. Considering the rapid population growth and urbanization the State has been undergone in the recent decades, emerging infrastructural issues with regard to provision of basic amenities such as supply of drinking water, electricity, garbage disposal are discussed.

Table No. 3.7. Distribution of Households by Number of Married Couples and Dwelling Rooms

No of Married Couples in a HH

Total No. of HH

No Exclusive Rooms

One Room

Two Rooms

Three Rooms

Four Rooms

Five Rooms + Above

Total No. of Married Couples

Total no of Married Couples having

Independent Sleeping Rooms

Total 332050 10387 74192 112353 79481 35217 20420 306610 231216

None 54799 4780 18880 17942 8344 3109 1744 0 0

1 253507 5217 53043 86747 64858 28390 15252 253507 189731

2 19417 320 1962 7082 4901 2795 2357 38834 30470

3 3391 33 232 482 1263 691 690 10173 8222

4 698 24 51 73 99 207 244 2792 2030

5+ 238 13 24 27 16 25 133 1304 763

Source: Census of India 2001, Nagaland, Series -14, Tables on Houses, Household Amenities and Assets

The present water supply system in Nagaland is insufficient to meet the needs of the people in both rural as well as the urban sectors. Availability of safe drinking water is a perpetual problem for the urban dwellers in the State, particularly in the hilly townships. Except for a very negligible percentage who receive water from the Government supply, majority of the urban dwellers depend mostly on dug out wells. The wells are either privately constructed or owned. While community wells are partially or completely funded by the Government. Another feature of the water scene in the urban areas of the State is that due to the acute shortage of water, local entrepreneurs have taken up private supplies. The problem with this, however, is that it is unregulated



and the water is piped to the town area from the nearby streams using rubber pipes. What is disturbing is that the pipes are laid using the open nullas and drainage as channels without any protective covering posing serious health related concerns. On the other hand, the bundles of pipes laid on the roadside nullas clog up the drains, further aggravating the problems of road maintenance.

Source: Urbanization & Living Conditions in Nagaland, 2003.

13 %

6.8% Government SupplyLocal SuppliesWellGovernment Supply + Well74%

6.2%

Figure 3.3. Primary Sources of Drinking Water

Items Total no of HH Tap Hand

PumpTube Well Well

Tank/ Pond/Lake

River/Canal Spring Any

Other

Total 332050 139360 8238 6727 115976 31982 7225 18151 4391

Within premises 76167 43855 3641 2742 23169 2583 0 0 177

Near premises 153045 79645 4065 2259 42647 14267 2881 6345 936

Away from promises 102838 15860 532 1726 50160 15132 4344 11806 3278

Table No. 3.8. Distribution of Households by Source of Drinking Water and its Location

Source: Census of India 2001, Nagaland, Series -14, Tables on Houses, Household Amenities


3.6. SANITATION AND GARBAGE DISPOSAL

Sanitation is another area of concern in the urban areas. Sanitation of an area is dependent upon a number of factors such as an effective sanitary disposal system of wastes, both solid and non-solid wastes proportionate to the population, proper management and timely maintenance. In view of the rapid urbanization and growing urban population in the State, the existing infrastructure is under strain to meet the growing needs of disposal systems for management of wastes.

In the absence of the sewerage system, the most general mode of disposal of human waste in the urban areas is the septic tank. In some of the households, even this facility is not available. In such cases, the occupants or tenants resort to use of community latrines or in extreme cases, open defecation even in the public areas and nullas. Non availability of latrines, use of open or pit latrines and improper or lack of drainage is detrimental for the environment. It poses health hazards besides causing discomfort for the residents, whether in the rural or urban localities. In urban localities where the population density is much higher, these problems multiply.

Another emerging problem in the urban areas of the State is disposal of garbage. In all the towns, most of the streams that run through the town are completely clogged with plastic bags and all sorts of garbage. The town roads gets flooded during the monsoon rains as the roadside drains are either non-existent or are already overflowing with garbage. It is observed that the existing infrastructural arrangement of the Town municipal Councils is grossly inadequate to manage the ever increasing quantity of garbage and waste. As seen in the census enumeration of household amenities and the availability of waste disposal facilities, development of a proper sewage system is one of the important requirements for infrastructural development in the urban areas.

Areas Total No of HH

No of HH with Bathroom within the

House

With Pit Latrine

With Water Closet

No Latrine Closed Drainage

Open Drainage

No Drainage

Total 332050 124271 152410 52949 97731 17625 132924 181501

Rural 265334 85,385 125410 30410 93809 9551 92804 162979

Urban 66716 38,886 27000 22539 3922 8074 40120 18522

Source: Census of India 2001, Nagaland, Series -14, Tables on Houses, Household Amenities and Assets

Table No. 3.9. Distribution of Households by Availability of Bathroom & Type of Latrine within theHouse and Type of Drainage Connectivity.



3.7. DIMENSIONS OF URBAN UNEMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY

Another important problem of urban living conditions in the State is the ever growing problems of unemployment and poverty. Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon and in its most visible expression, it refers to the inability to meet basic needs, lack of control over resources, lack of education and skills for earning a living, lack of proper shelter, poor access to water and sanitation, malnutrition and poor health. Poverty also means higher vulnerability to violence, crime and exploitation. Thus, poverty has many faces changing from place to place and across time and has been described in many ways.

As stated in the foregoing discussions, in Nagaland the growth of urban centres is not driven by industrialization. Till date there are no major industries or corporate establishments worth mentioning and the Government remains the largest employer in the State. In such a given situation, a large proportion of the rural to urban migrants who come in search of better livelihood and employment remain unemployed. They constitute a large section of the ‘urban poor’. Though no systematic study of urban poverty in the State has been done, it is estimated that urban poverty is one of the emerging major problems of the urban areas. The term ‘urban poor’ refers to people in urban and urbanized areas who are without houses and whose income falls within the poverty line set by the Government. The most commonly used way to measure poverty is based on income and consumption levels. A person is considered poor if his or her consumption or income levels fall below some minimum level necessary to meet basic needs. This minimum level is usually called the ‘poverty line’, which varies across countries and time. Such measurement of income-poverty has always been an important component in studies of poverty, as income often is the deciding factor in determining their condition. The areas for expenditure being wider for urban households, they are also more vulnerable to poverty. In the urban area, a typical household budget would go towards:


• Transportation; getting to and from workplace, childrens’ school and essential services.

• housing and maintenance; rent included, if living in rented house.

• Access to clean water.

• Sanitation and garbage disposal as payment to cleaners.

• health care.

• Childrens’ education.

3.7.1. POOR AND UNSANITARY LIVING CONDITIONS

Issues of urban poverty are linked to poor, unsanitary, slum living conditions along with relative deprivation or insufficiency of basic minimum requirements for various urban services and facilities. This draws our attention to the prevailing living conditions under which majority of the urban residents of Nagaland find themselves. In Kohima for instance, the problem of drainage, management of waste, water scarcity and sanitation are issues of major concern. The town roads are in a deplorable condition and accessibility to some of the colonies can be only by foot. The expansion of the different colonies is unplanned without proper provision for sanitation, garbage disposal and by lanes.

Globally, the pattern of urban development leading to slum formation has attracted attention from various quarters. Slums are overcrowded neighbourhoods characterized by unhygienic living conditions, inadequate housing facilities lacking in many of the basic needs. Such slum conditions are not confined to large cities located in the plains alone. Even in hilly towns, slum like living conditions exist and are growing. In meghalaya based on poor housing, poor accessibility, poor drainage and sanitation and inadequate lighting facilities as the defining criterion, 21 localities within the Municipal wards of Shillong have been recognized as slums. In 1972 there were only 15 slums, which increased to 21 in 1981 (Khan.J.& mishra,1990). Following the criterion adopted by Meghalaya for defining a slum area, and considering the poor and unsanitary living conditions and infrastructural problems that exist in various localities in the urban areas of Nagaland, it may be stated that a larger section of the urban population are living in slum like conditions. State Government too has notified several pockets in Kohima and Dimapur as slum areas. These areas have very poor drainage and road conditions, with no proper provision for sanitation and garbage disposal, acute water scarcity, and inadequate lighting and housing facilities.

3.7.2. UNEMPLOYMENT AND LOW INCOME

Unlike the rural poor whose poverty condition is largely due to depletion of natural resources and assets on which their livelihood depends, the urban poor are more immersed in cash economy. With low wages, they are affected by



a combination of factors. For instance they are more vulnerable to inflation of food items, urban land rates, worsening sanitation and decline in real wages. On the whole, the expenditure of urban households are much higher than rural households. Therefore, vulnerability to poverty in urban areas is much higher but is often underestimated, since trade offs are not taken into account.

A large number of unemployed persons who may or may not be educated or who have varying degrees of educational qualifications and skills, mostly live in the urban areas. These unemployed persons may or may not be rural migrants. The rise of unemployment in urban areas is due to the internal growth of population as well as rural migration. As observed earlier, the State faces various infrastructural as well as socio political constraints that have stunted the growth of industrial activities. The only viable employment sector therefore remains the Government, small scale industries and entrepreneurial activities. Any new comer to the job market therefore will have to compete in this narrow space.

The majority of the urban work force in these areas exhibits one or the other characteristics of ‘culture of poverty’ as envisaged by Oscar Lewis (1999). These are; borrowing from local moneylenders at high interest rates, relying on informal credit devices organized by neighbours, using second hand clothing and furniture and buying small quantities of food, low wages, little or no savings, few food reserves and a chronic shortage of cash. In the study on urbanization and living conditions in Nagaland (2003), it was observed that the poor tend to overstate their income and expenditure which did not match their known occupation. Among the majority of the low paying occupational categories such as daily wage earners and the Grade-IV employees in the Government sector, most families had no savings, they had high incidence of reliance on informal credit devices with high interest rates, had little or no education and lived in houses with the barest sanitary facilities.

Study of the average income and expenditure indicated a general tendency among the lower income groups to spend more than their income. This situation indicates that the poor are equally subjected to the same social and economic


pressures as much as the well to do families. This leads to overspending which they can ill afford. The fact that poverty is multidimensional with different facets in different places makes the task of measuring poverty difficult, especially urban poverty. Based on the above observations and drawing upon the theoretical and conceptual derivation, it is postulated that the magnitude of urban poverty in the State may be larger than what is projected. It is also an area of grave concern because in urban areas, the poor are subjected and exposed to larger dimensions of criminal activities and exploitations than in the rural areas where life is still much less complex. In such situations, poor living conditions, exploitations and exposures to wider influences makes up a lethal combination for breeding violence, criminal activities and various other anti-social activities.

3.7.3. POOR QUALITY OF HOUSING

housing poses a major concern in the urban areas owing to the density of population. As indicated by the infrastructural problems pertaining to housing, there are no special schemes for economy houses for the poor and the low income section of the population who are most affected by the cost of housing. The analysis of house types and ownership reveal that 51 percent of the sampled families with income less than ` 5000/- per month live in rented kutcha houses, (tin roof, mud or cement floor with temporary wall) of two or three rooms8. The monthly house rent is a major expenditure for poor families in the urban areas and with other basic needs such as food and children’s education to take care of, many families compromise on the quality of housing.

3.7.4. LOW LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Another important dimension of poverty is exhibited by the level of educational qualification. Modernization and technological advances increases the demand for educated and skilled personnel. Education not only refines a person’s perception, but in today’s social and economic scenario, a person’s success depends largely on getting a good education. The level of education also limits or expands the capability to improve one’s social and economic conditions. however, education, especially higher education is getting costlier by the day.



8Urbanization and Living Conditions in Nagaland, 2003

In the urban conglomerate, most of the lower income groups are engaged in low paid unskilled occupation. Such people normally have a lower level of formal education and their participation in the larger society is also limited. Their voices also seldom heard at the higher echelons of power. Awareness about developments around them and self expression skills are almost nil, thus depriving them of opportunities. The survey data on educational level of the head of the family/earning member of the family shows that among the lower income groups the level is much less. Low income combined with low education level puts the poor at a disadvantage, both socially and economically. Children in poor households have less chances of getting higher education and more chances of dropping out from schools.

Source: Urbanization and Living Conditions in Nagaland, 2003

The above discussions on the various dimensions and the indicators of urban poverty in Nagaland is far from being exhaustive. They however, reveal that there is much more work to be done in this particular area of urban development in order to ascertain the exact nature and extent of poverty in the State. This is important in view of the fact that the modern social and economic structure generates inequality and class distinctions in the society. In addition, the persistence of poverty promotes social and criminal problems, impeding the progress of the society towards achieving higher level of development.

Less

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Rs.3

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Rs.3,

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Rs.5

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Rs.5,

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Rs.8

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100

200

300

400

500

600

No. o

f Res

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Nil Under matric matric 10+2 Level Graduate Postgraduate Technical

Figure 3.4. Levels of Education Compared to Income Levels


Summary And Observations

Summary And Observations

4

4.1. CONCLUSION

The main components of urbanization are the shift of an ever increasing labour force from agriculture to the non-agricultural sector and a change in population distribution from scattered rural areas to more compact towns or cities, often followed by a change of lifestyle. The consideration of the history of urbanization process in Nagaland indicates that the British occupation of the Naga Hills in the late nineteenth century made the first dent in initiating some of their employees such as the Dobashis (interpreters), office workers, porters to migrate from the villages and settle near their workplaces which eventually became the administrative headquarters. These locations subsequently developed into urban centres. The present structures of the urban areas in the State have been built upon this historical background and have not changed much, except in terms of density and horizontal expansion.

In Nagaland, since the formation of the State in 1963, the small administrative blocks and headquarters have steadily grown in population as people migrated to these places for education, health care and livelihood prospects. Subsequently, the small townships and hamlets have been expanding and growing in complexity to accommodate the growing population. In the first decade after the formation of the State, the rate of rural urban migration was at a slow pace, however the migration pace accelerated from the second decade since 1980 as indicated by the results of census enumeration of rural and urban population.

Except Dimapur, which has rail and air connectivity with the rest of the country, all other districts are connected only through hill roads. The district headquarters identified as urban areas, are all located in the hills. And in the absence of major industries and other corporate houses in the State, it is hardly surprising to find that in all these eleven district, the administrative headquarters serve as the urban hub, where the urbanization process is taking place. In all such towns, the density of population has increased with Kohima and Dimapur being the densest. Besides, the internal growth of urban population the major contributor to the rapid urban population growth is the migrant population. A ‘migrant’ here may either be a local person migrated from the rural areas from within the State or an external migrant from outside the State.



Whereas growth and development are positive movement, in regard to urban living such growth almost always is accompanied by multiple problems and issues associated with the movement of people and materials in a larger scale than the land can hold. The need to address the growing infrastructural and social needs of the increasing urban population on one hand and on the other, problems of land acquisition, issues of public safety and environmental protection are crucial areas requiring judicious urban planning and development. In Nagaland, the matter is presumed to be more complicated than elsewhere in the country because here, land even within the municipal areas are legally owned by the tribal community. Despite the apparent importance of understanding the rural urban continuum, so far no systematic studies on the problem have been undertaken. Consequently, one of the major problems faced in the preparation of this report was the deficiency of reliable data with regard to the rural urban migration pattern in the State and also on the living conditions in the urban areas.

migration, either among the local population from within the State or of outside population from other State(s), is one of the most predominant factors in the growth of urban population. In the context of rural out migration within the local population, it is observed that the main factors relate particularly to the conditions of underdevelopment and lack of employment opportunities in the rural areas. These issues are broadly discussed below:

(I) EDUCATION RELATED FACTORS

A large portion of the rural out-migrant among the local population comprise school and college going young people who migrate to the towns in search of better and higher education after they have completed their schooling in the villages. Such people may be supported by their parents from the villages, but in many instances they support themselves by working as domestic helpers in the homes of their relatives or any other family who would be willing to host them. They help out in the domestic chores after school hours. There is no data to indicate the percentage of such persons returning to their native villages. It is estimated that a large chunk of this group of young people do not go back to the village.


Another category of rural migrants are the families with young school going children. The survey on the reasons of migration show that parents desiring for quality education for their children would prefer to live in the towns than in the village. Despite expected discomfort of leaving own homes and lands in the village and relocation of the whole families, the data shows that a good percentage of the migrants come to live in the towns specifically for the purpose of education of their children in good schools in the town. however, it was also observed that older members of the rural population were averse to the idea of migrating to towns. This confirms the earlier statement that the bulk of the rural migrants belong to the younger age groups.

SUGGESTIONS

The development of social capital and physical infrastructure is critical for economic growth because the two variables complement each other and one can not progress without the other. For this, quality education in the primary school level and higher education are crucial. It is also a prerequisite in this age of information technology and for pursuing a career. Considering the centrality of education, it is not surprising that rural families and young people prefer to migrate to the towns to access better educational facilities. It is estimated that the trend of rural to urban migration for the purpose of education will continue till such time the standard of the rural education and infrastructural development of existing schools are upgraded.

Improving and upgrading the condition of rural schools and the opening of institutions such as higher secondary and degree colleges, wherever feasible, will boost the rural economy by creating the market for various institution related enterprises. Consequently, the pressures of rural migration would be reduced.

(II) FACTORS RELATING TO LIFESTYLE AND LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS

Lifestyle and livelihood are interdependent and affect one another. Both aspects are determined largely by the available infrastructural developments and constraints. Some aspects of lifestyle and livelihood issues are discussed here.

Among the younger generation, traditional agriculture as a livelihood option does not hold much attraction. It is much too labour intensive and the products are insufficient for domestic consumption. Avenues for generating cash income from surplus production



is limited due to traditional agricultural practices. In many villages there are reports of the whole year’s produce going waste for not finding a buyer for their cash crops. having to face the prospect of surviving till the next harvest on borrowed money and rice is daunting. Various needs such as education, health care, lifestyle accessories, clothing, household goods and other gadgets such as mobile phones, T.V, computers, etc., which have become more of a necessity than luxury, all have contributed towards attitudinal change. The changing attitudes and values, particularly among the younger generation, has contributed towards change in livelihood and lifestyles. As a result, more and more people opt to migrate to the towns where there is scope for diverse economic activities.

Though the process of rural electrification bears impressive figures such as 56.88 percent rural houses electrified and 95.74 percent villages electrified, yet the actual status of power availability in the villages and homes is different. Traveling in some of the villages for a continuous period of more than 2-3 days was found problematic on account of the eratic power supply. Causing difficulty even to recharge the battery of electronic appliances such as phones and cameras. It is quite commonplace to find that technical problems and breakdown are not attended to on time. Small scale household industries in the rural areas will not work unless it is combined with provision of the requisite infrastructure and maintenance of power lines and consistent supply of electricity.

With regard to the status of road and transport infrastructure, out of the total road length in Nagaland, village roads accounts for 54 percent, of which two third is yet to be surfaced. District roads account for 34 percent, of which only 16 percent is surfaced. Considering that Nagaland along with the rest of the North Eastern region falls in the zone that is most affected by the great Indian monsoons, the poor status of the roads of the district as well as the villages adversely affects and limits the mobility of people and essential commodities during the monsoon. Any economic activity to have a tangible impact requires networking with market forces. hence, road and transport connectivity is a major step towards meeting targets.


SUGGESTIONS

Road and transport infrastructure is indispensable for socio economic development. The need for up-scaling the quality and efficiency of roads in the State, with particular focus on the rural roads is pertinent. All the villages require to be connected with the district headquarters with all weather road conditions. In line with the recommendations of the Shukla Commission Report on development of the North East Region (NER), a special drive should be undertaken to unblock credit and revive the cooperative structure in the State and financial institutions such as the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), the lead bank and the North East Development Finance Corporation (NEDFI) could be requested to concert action to work out a specific package for creating necessary agro based infrastructure for market linkages with special focus on the rural farm produces.

Agricultural goods and other farm produces being bulky and highly perishable, transporting the goods from the points of production to the markets in time is of much importance. With Nagaland being located in a high rainfall area with hilly terrain prone to landslides, unless the rural roads are well surfaced and made all weather, the agri sector will continue to suffer, resulting in more and more farming population migrating to the towns in search of alternative livelihood. Travel facilities from the village to the towns need to be strengthened with more regular transport services so that the public can commute with ease. Private sector investments in the transport service should be encouraged.

Considering that better education facilities in the towns is one of the factors that attracts rural families to migrate, importance should be given to check the performance to improve the rural schools. It is also logical to assume that only those families who are economically stable will be able to send their children to schools in the urban areas or afford the family to move. The functioning of communitised primary schools and the functioning of the Village Education Committees should be evaluated to ascertain the loopholes and to suggest remedial measures. An Expert Committee may be constituted to undertake assessment and evaluation. Possibility of upgrading the middle Schools to high Schools and higher Secondary Schools should be explored and stringent measures put in place to regulate the quality of education.



In order to create employment opportunities in the villages, small scale industries should be encouraged in rural areas. Special packages could be formulated for training the rural youth and to enable them to set up their own enterprise in the village. One of the viable sectors of small household industries is food processing for which local products can serve as raw material. however, priority should be provision of uninterrupted power supply, roads and connectivity without which no initiative will be cost effective.

(III) FACTORS RELATING TO SOCIAL LINKAGES AND ExPECTATIONS

Rural out-migration is associated with to the various social and economic dimensions. Among the rural population, there exists a large ‘expected positive rural urban differential’ in terms of economic turnover and standard of living conditions which draw people to the town. Though the migrants remain unsatisfied with their earning and standard of living due to high positive expectations, the tempo of rural urban migration has accelerated and is likely to remain so in the near future.

The process of chain migration impacts the rural-urban demographic patterns. In any given situation, the social mechanisms such as change of residence after marriage, or familial obligations to explore opportunities for one’s kith and kin is not something out of the ordinary but rather expected. Chain migration is a process that is built on such social mechanisms and therefore rural chain migration will continue to impact the urban area.

many initiatives promoting sustainable development in mountain regions tend to view rural urban migration negatively. The validity of such an approach lies primarily from the point of urban over crowding and population density. Conversely, reductions in density of rural population also affect reduction of environmental pressure in the rural areas. On the whole, demographic changes greatly affect mountain regions, in the rural areas as well as the urban areas, given that mountain eco-system and topography is fragile and rugged with various geographical limitations for large urban expansions. Therefore, to promote sustainable development in mountain ecosystems, such as in hill states like Nagaland, be it in the rural or urban areas, it is essential that the causes and consequences of migration and concentration of large population in limited spaces and effects of major industrial development are well understood.


(IV) URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

The problems of urban infrastructural development in Nagaland are particularly related to land control and tenure. Traditional ownership of land extends to the urban areas. The State has no absolute control over land even within the urban municipal areas. It is therefore, pertinent to have a re-look at the present arrangement and take necessary policy decision regarding land development in the urban areas. Such a step is necessary to review the existing perspective on development of roads and housing.

An integrated policy is required to be adopted to mitigate and as a measure against urban transport problems. A general pattern in urbanization is that as the city grows, the city centre becomes morte concentrated and the peripheral areas get annexed. Subsequently, the flow of traffic to the central areas from the periphery increases causing traffic congestions. Road conditions and maintenance of roads are put under great strain in bigger towns like Kohima and Dimapur. In the absence of an efficient public transport system, use of personal vehicles, has increased compounding the problem. The existence of educational institutions in the town centres also add to the growing congestion. Finding alternative sites for relocating educational institutions and transport terminals away from the town centre should be explored.

housing is another pressing issue for the urban areas due to the increasing population. As of now, there are no major housing schemes in any of the urban areas. It is necessary to formulate schemes for developing affordable homes for the urban poor, especially in Kohima and Dimapur where housing problems are more acute.

Water supply and availability of safe drinking water is a major concern in all the towns. many urban residents depend on rain water during the monsoon and during the dry season, a portion of the family budget goes for purchase of water on a monthly basis. For such water there is no guarantee of safety. The gravity of water scarcity is indicated by the sight of women and children collecting water from roadside water ponds, nullahs and potholes. The water collected is used for washing purposes and sometimes even for cooking. The private cable water suppliers flourishing in Kohima need to be better organized and should take measures to supply safe drinking water. Over and above, expert assessment of dimensions and extent of urban poverty should be undertaken. Special poverty alleviation programs targeting the younger generation should also be



formulated since Nagaland has a long history of conflict and political unrest, the youth of today are the children of a harsh past. They require special attention and space for development. This will ensure lasting peace.

In conclusion, rural urban interdependence can be understood in terms flow of people, goods, money, information and linkages between sectors for example, between agriculture, services and manufacturing. In other terms, it would mean provision of urban amenities in the rural areas. In such an eventuality, rural based activities would take place in the urban areas and the urban oriented activities would also take place in the rural settlements. The recognition of such rural urban interface should be taken into perspective for the all round development of the State.


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RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION - Nagaland · has been given an opportunity to dwell on the causes and impact...

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